Qualitative Research

In the name of Allah Kareem,Most Beneficent, Most Gracious, the Most Merciful !

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Qualitative research is “an informal, subjective, semi systematic research

approaches that usually emphasizes words rather than numbers in the

collection and analysis of data” and that is inductive in nature. In other

words it generates theory.

Qualitative Research

General Aims Of Qualitative Research:

1- Views of participants2- It does not claim to generalize3- Theory generation

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THE MAIN PREOCCUPATIONS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCHER

These preoccupations reflect epistemologically grounded believes about what constitutes acceptable knowledge. The qualitative researchers are more influenced by interpretivism. In this section five different pre-occupations among qualitative researchers will be outlined and examined

1. See through the eye of the people been studied2. Emphasis on process of social life3. Description and the emphasis on contexts4. Flexibility and limited structure5. Concept and theory grounded in data

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QUALITATIVE RESEARCH PROCESS

1 .General Research Question

2 .Selecting Relevant Site(s) and Subjects

3 .Collection or Relevant Data

4 .Analyze and Interpretation of Data

5 .Conceptual and Theoretical Work

6 .Writing up Findings/Conclusions

5a. Collection of Further Data

5b. Tighter Specification of the Research Question (s)

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Reliability and Validity

Validity refers to the issues of whether or not an indicator really measures the concept that it is devised to measure whereas Reliability is the stability or the consistency of measurement.

1. Member Checking2. Triangulation3. Self-Reflection and Rich thick description4. External audit 5. Authenticity

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Qualitative Sampling

In qualitative research researcher preferably uses non probability sampling that includes:

1. Convenience sampling2. Snow ball sampling3. Quota sampling

Qualitative Methods

In qualitative research four methods are used for data collection that is as follows:

1. Interview2. Focus group3. Document analysis 4. Unstructured observation

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“A person to person interaction or debate between two or

more individual with a specific purpose in mind.”

What is Interview?

Types of interviews: There are several types of interviews that are as follows 

1. Telephone Interview2. Email Interview3. Ethnographic Interview4. One-on-one interview5. Group Interview

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Modes OF INTERVIEWS

2- Unstructured Interview:

The interviewer is free to move the conversation in any direction of interest that may come up. Constantly, unstructured interviewing is particularly useful for exploring a topic broadly.

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3- Semi structured Interview:

In this interview we have a list of questions on fairly specific topics to be covered, often referred to as an interview guide, but the interviewee has a great deal of flexibility in how to reply

1- Structured Interview:

This is a fixed format interview in which all questions are prepared beforehand and put in the same order to each interviewee.

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Comparison Chart (Nature of Interviews)

Structure Interviews Un Structure Interviews

Semi Structure Interviews

b It provides the precision and reliability required in certain situations

1- This interview is useful for exploring a topic broadly

1- The same questions are asked of all those involved

2- This type of interview is easy to code and enter in the software to get the findings.

2- Each interviewee is asked a different series of questions

2- The kind and form of questions go through a process of development to ensure the their topic focus

3- This type of interview took less time so in less span of time more interviews can be conducted.

3- This style lacks the reliability and precision of structure interview

3- To ensure equivalent coverage

4- This interview lacks the free flow of a friendly conversation

4- Some times interviewer and interviewee are diverted from their discussion objective.

4- Equivalent interview time is allowed in each case

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Interview procedure

Interview procedure is the set of sequential interdependent activities that results in collection of comprehensive information regarding the research topic. It consists of following steps

1. Interview objectives2. Methodology3. Interview composition and screening

Geographical coverage:

Lahore, Karachi, Islamabad, ,

Gender: -Males & FemalesAge: - 25 plus

Job Tenure: - Minimum 3 yearsPositions in

organizations- faculty members (minimum

lecturer)

Usage Pre-requisites:

- 20% Inter level- 30% Bachelors level

- 50% Masters level

Organization type -Private or Public -(Private must be affiliated

educational institute, college, University(HEC recognized)

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Interview procedure

4. Interview schedule

S.No. Activity Dates1 Objective setting and Screener development 14th Nov’ 082 Approval of objectives and screener 15th Nov’ 083 Selection of sites and respondents 16th – 20th Nov’ 084 Development of guidelines and arrangements 16th – 20th Nov’ 085 05- interviews (A) 22nd – 28th Nov' 086 05- interviews (B) 24th – 28th Nov' 087 05- interviews (C) 24th – 28th Nov' 088 Transcripts 24th – 8th Dec’ 089 Analysis and Report writing 15th Dec’ 0810 Report submission 17th Dec’ 08

5. Deciding about the ethical issues I. Identifying yourself as researcherII. Developing respondent consent form defining

i. the research purposesii. types of information requirediii. confidentiality and anonymity statementiv. surety of security, summary publicity, fair uses of

information and wastage of data after due time period

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Interview procedure

6. Discussion guide7. Questions preparation

i. Pruning and revising possible questionsii. Trailing iii. Piloting and pre-pilotingiv. Prompts and probing

8. Conducting the interview

i. Preparation phase

1. Research area office to be in upright condition (illumination, seating arrangement, noise free, etc)

2. Walkman with new batteries (verified twice). 3. Required documents (screener summary sheets) designed and ready4. Cassettes (new) to be ready with tags and coding 5. Board markers, plain papers, pencils and other stationary items6. Moderator guidelines printed and set on the table7. Refreshment for the interviewee8. Pick n drop facility for the interviewees9. Gifts for the interviews as thanks for sparing time10.

Interviewee dress code suitability, matching, colour choice etc

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Interview procedure

ii. Initial contact phaseiii. Orientation phaseiv. Substantive phasev. Closure phase

09- Transcribing the interviews10. Analyzing the data

i. First Stage Analysisii. Thematic analysisiii. Stage-structure analysis

11. Coding the data12. Analysis grid13. Writing up interview data

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'Soft‘, Nonnumeric, textual intangible or subjective data that describes but not measure the attributes, characteristics, properties, etc., of a thing or phenomenon.

ExampleConversation, text, audio, video colors,

smells, tastes, textures, or sounds,

Qualitative Data

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Qualitative Data analysis is a process of gathering, modeling, and transforming qualitative data with the goal of highlighting useful informationsuggesting conclusions, and supporting decision making.

Qualitative Data Analysis: what & why

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How to conduct QDA: a step by step process

1.Get to know your data

2.Analyze your data

3.interpret your findings

4.prepare your report

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• read and re-read the text.

• listen to the tape recordings several times.

• Write down any impressions you have. These

impressions may be useful later.

• Before beginning any analysis, consider the

quality of the data and proceed accordingly

10.i. Get to know your Data

Good analysis depends on understanding the data.

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Before proceeding to analysis, review the purpose

of the evaluation and what you want to find out.

Identify a few key questions that you want your

analysis to answer. Write down these questions.

These will help you decide how to begin. The full

process of analyzing a transcription can be split into

different stages that were discussed one by one:

1. The first step is just to read each transcription, go through them and

highlighting the important statements from each portion as called

substantive statements

2. Analyze your data

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EXAMPLE

Excerpt

First of all I would like to say few things before I give an answer to it. This is an organization which gives you a plenty of (0.2) you see! Opportunities in which you can participate in decision making. I always:::: been allowed by top management to participate in decision making. Like (0.2) if there are anything regarding hiring faculty or there is any matter regarding curriculum improvement. They have always asked me to participate in decision making and I have always give then decisions and they have always cater those decisions implemented in their systems.

Substantive Statement

This is an organization which gives you a plenty opportunities in which you can participate in decision making. I always:::: been allowed by top management to participate in decision making. [For example] if there are anything regarding hiring faculty or there is any matter regarding curriculum improvement. [The management] always asked me to participate in decision making and then decisions and they have always catered those decisions implemented in their systems.

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2. After identifying the substantive statements you should conduct thematic analysis; that is the process of deriving themes out of the substantive statements. Themes can be of two categories.

I. Preset ThemesII. Emergent Themes

i. Basic Themeii. Organizing Themeiii. Global Theme

10.ii.Thematic analysis

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EXAMPLE(Basic themes) (organizing themes) (global themes)

1. Plenty of opportunities regarding decision

2. decision acceptable by top management

3. decision regarding hiring faculty and curriculum improvement

4. ideas , suggestions are taken when hire any person and implementing any system

5. decision to have powers and authority regarding the ideas are so much considered by the organization

Participation in decision making

Supportive

HR

practices

1. reward is one thing which has made this organization a singular success

2. when the rewards compare with any competitive institution, I feel myself lucky to be a part of this organization

3. the rewarded ratio is quite high as compare to been unrewarded

4. The effort has been appreciated and they ((management)) have pat on the back, that well done and keep up the good work.

Fairness of rewards

1. growth in my career, the maximum skills and knowledge are gained ((by me)) IN THIS ORGANIZATION

2. knowledgeable, up-to-date information

Growth Opportunities

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It is the process of identifying the stages or levels of

the themes while working on the successive interview

transcripts, in order to develop the general flow of

different stages in the narrative to show the

progression.

10.iii.Stage-Structure analysis

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HR PRACTICES

· Recruitment and selection

· Participation in decision making

· Training and development

· Compensation and reward

HR PRACTICES

· Recruitment and selection

· Participation in decision making

· Training and development

· Compensation and reward

Job commitmentJob commitment Job SatisfactionJob Satisfaction

PerformancePerformance

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It is the process of developing a code book for being able to refer to certain respondents’ words in transcription. In this process the researcher will define codes for each interviewee, category, subcategory, question, and substantive statement.

11.Coding the Data

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Code: aA1.2 i

Global theme Code: Numbers (1,2,3 …...)

Organizing theme Code: Decimals (.1,.2,.3,….)

Basic theme Code: Roman Numbers (I,ii,iii…..)

Question Code: Small letters (a,b,c…..)

Interviewee Code: Capital letters (A,B,C…..)

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After having done all the analysis and the code book

the researcher will develop an analysis grid

(spreadsheet) manually or using Microsoft excel

integrating all major categories taking interviewees at

one side and the categories at top. Then reviewing all

the transcripts the researcher will fill in all the

statements with coded reference against each

statement

12.Analysis Grid

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Interpret your findings

On getting completed the analysis grid as outcome of the analysis process the researcher needs to explain his finding using the themes, categories and the connections between them. Interpreting the data involves attaching meaning and significance to the analysis.

How to interpret

• Read through the grid

• Develop a list of key points or findings

• Think about what have you learned; the major lessons

• Develop an outline for presenting your findings

• Write down the meanings you derive as per your understanding from the set of categories and the quotes from the edited version of transcripts. Stress on the more significant findings with the help of excerpts with proper coding.

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Finally the researcher will write down a report on the outcomes of the

data debating on the key themes, and categories derived from the

interview process using analysis grid.

13.Writing up the report

How to write report

• Explain the background and objectives of your work with the justification of topic, and the interview method you selected supported of literature.

• Brief about the step by step process of interview and the rationale for the selection of interviewee

• Elaborate the qualitative analysis done on the basis of transcripts and the interpretation.

• Give references both in-text and end-list to authenticate your report.

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Focus Group

“A focus group discussion is a tool in which a small group of people (8-10 individuals) engages in a roundtable discussion of selected topics of interest

in an informal setting” it can be

1. Group focused2. Content focused

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Document Analysis

It is a systematic process of gathering analyzing, evaluating and using a very heterogeneous set of documents including

i. Personal documents (Diaries, letters, and autobiographies etc),

ii. Public documents (Public inquiry transcripts, magazines, newspaper, TV programs etc)

iii. Organizational documents (Memos, minutes of meeting, daily reports etc)

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Unstructured Observation

Unstructured observation is the unplanned, informal, watching and recording of behaviors as they occur in a natural environment.

How to conduct Take a notebook and pen: 

1. Note down when you see something interesting.2. Write down theories as you form them.3. Don’t jump to conclusions straight away.4. Look for more evidence.5. Ask people to confirm things

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