PXRF and Place Names: Painting a Narrative on Squamish Ochre Sources and Rock Art by Elizabeth C. Velliky B.A. (Anthropology), Michigan State University, 2009 Thesis Submitted In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in the Department of Archaeology Faculty of Environment Elizabeth Catherine Velliky 2013 SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY Fall 2013
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PXRF and Place Names: Painting a Narrative on
Squamish Ochre Sources and Rock Art
by
Elizabeth C. Velliky
B.A. (Anthropology), Michigan State University, 2009
Thesis Submitted In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of
Master of Arts
in the
Department of Archaeology
Faculty of Environment
Elizabeth Catherine Velliky 2013
SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY
Fall 2013
ii
Approval
Name: Elizabeth Catherine Velliky
Degree: Master of Arts in Archaeology
Title of Thesis: PXRF and Place Names: Painting a Narrative on Squamish Ochre Sources and Rock Art.
Examining Committee: Chair: Dr. Ross Jaimeson Associate Professor
Rudy Reimer Senior Supervisor Assistant Professor
Dana Lepofsky Supervisor Professor
Stan Copp Examiner Professor, Anthropology Langara College
Date Defended/Approved:
September 13, 2013
iii
Partial Copyright Licence
iv
Abstract
There are two major known sources of red ochre in the Squamish Valley, BC,
and utilized in the creation of several rock art sites. These sources vary in that one is an
easily accessible along Pilchuck Creek; the other, located 1660m above sea level on
Paul Ridge. This source is considerably more difficult to access and likely imbued with
greater ritual significance. Both ochre sources are associated with Squamish Nation
place-names. In addition to the ochre sources, five pictograph sites contain depictions
intimately related to Squamish oral history.
The aim of this thesis is to first geochemically analyze ochre sources in the
Squamish region and other locations from within and outside of British Columbia, and
second to analyze the pigments in the Squamish Nation pictographs using portable X-
ray fluorescence spectrometry (pXRF). These elemental analyses are compared to
determine if pXRF can satisfy the provenance postulate for ochres, which states that
inter-source variation must outweigh intra-source variation (Wiegand et al. 1977). The
analyses on the pictographs provided qualitative and semi-quantitaive information on the
elemental make-up of the pigments, and contributed towards establishing a methodology
for analyzing pictographs with pXRF. Comparing this data determined if the ochre
pigments used to create the pictographs came from geologically distinct sources based
on signature elements, and if the rock art sites were re-visited and re-painted. Formal
methods coupled with informed perspectives on the ochre and rock art uses information
from oral history, place names, ethnographies and archaeology. The total summation of
the data provides insight into the cultural background on the acquisition of ochres for
pigments, and what geochemical complexities in minerals can reveal about the nature of
ochre selection and the creation of pictographs in Squamish Nation territory.
Keywords: Rock art, Geoarchaeology, Northwest Coast Archaeology, Ochre studies, pXRF, Raw Materials, Provenance Postulate.
v
Dedication
This thesis is dedicated to my parents, John Velliky and Michele Velliky, who were
amazing enough to always foster my interest in archaeology and continue to do so.
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Acknowledgements
The completion of my MA research and thesis would not have been possible
without the help and support of numerous people. First and foremost, I would like to that
Dr. Rudy Reimer, who provided me with a great research project and thesis, a lot of
patience and guidance, and who was generous enough to share part of Squamish
culture and archaeology with me. Thanks to Dr. Dana Lepofsky for help and comments
on the later part of my thesis, as well as all of her advice in formulating how to approach
my project and research. Thank to my external examiner, Dr. Stan Copp, for his
suggestions and sharing his knowledge on rock art, and thanks to dr. annie ross for
being there in the beginning and our conversations on rock art. Thanks to Peter Locher
for providing me with a lot of the ochre samples, and to Chris Arnett for sharing
knowledge on rock art in British Columbia. Special thanks to my partner, Owen
Batchelor, for being with me during the frustration, exhaustion, and excitement of this
project.
For all of the help during the fieldwork of my thesis, which mostly involved
carrying the large and cumbersome pXRF case up to rock shelters, I would like to thank
Chris Arnett, Travis Freeland, Craig Rust, Tyrone Hamilton, and Michelle Lynch and
Misha Puckett whom made a valiant effort with me to access one of the sites. A big
thanks to Melissa Roth for her help in fieldwork, editing, and taking such wonderful
photos of the rock art sites in this study. Thanks to Bob Muir for all of his extremely last-
minute help on the statistics portion of my thesis. Special thanks to Michelle Lynch, Shea
Henry and Emily Benson for helping me during the editing portion of my thesis and
helping me with numerous powerpoints. I would also like to thank all of my fellow
graduate students in the department of Archaeology at SFU, for all of their advice,
discussions, and friendships.
I must extend a very large thank you to the American Rock Art Research
Association (ARARA) and International Federation of Rock Art Organizations (IFRAO)
organizing committees for being so extremely supportive of young researchers in the
field of rock art. A big thanks to Carolynne Merrell, who was so welcoming, friendly, and
contributed a great deal of advice. Also thank you to all of the other young students in
vii
the International Rock Art Student Association (IRASA) for sharing their wonderful
research.
My thesis project would not have been possible without the help and support of
the Archaeology Department at SFU, specifically for their financial support in the
Graduate Fellowship and several Travel and Minor Research Awards. Special thanks
the donors of the Roy L. Carlson Graduate Scholarship in Prehistoric British Columbian
Archaeology.
Lastly, I would like to thank the Squamish Nation for allowing me to experience a
part of their history and culture. This thesis research was definitely an unforgettable
experience.
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Table of Contents
Approval .......................................................................................................................... ii Partial Copyright Licence ............................................................................................... iii Abstract .......................................................................................................................... iv Dedication ....................................................................................................................... v Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................ vi Table of Contents .......................................................................................................... viii List of Tables ................................................................................................................... x List of Figures................................................................................................................. xi List of Acronyms ............................................................................................................ xiii
1.1.1. Ochre: an overview ..................................................................................... 7 1.1.2. Rock art: a brief summary ........................................................................... 9 1.1.3. Ochre use in British Columbia ................................................................... 10 1.1.4. Rock art in British Columbia ...................................................................... 11
1.2. Squamish ethnography: place-names, stories, and the active landscape ............ 13 1.2.1. Cultural background of ochre sources in Squamish .................................. 15 1.2.2. Cultural background of rock art sites in Squamish ..................................... 17 1.2.3. Sources of ochre in Squamish, B.C. .......................................................... 18 1.2.4. Pictographs and rock art sites in Squamish Nation territory ....................... 20
2. Research methods: informed and formal perspectives .................................. 30 2.1. Informed perspectives .......................................................................................... 30 2.2. Formal approaches............................................................................................... 31
2.2.1. D-stretch™: seeing beyond the aesthetic .................................................. 34 2.3. Data collection and analysis ................................................................................. 35
2.3.1. Field methods: ochre sample collection ..................................................... 35 2.3.2. Lab methods: pXRF analysis of ochres ..................................................... 36 2.3.3. PXRF analysis of pictographs ................................................................... 39
3. Results ................................................................................................................ 43 3.1. Qualitative analysis of ochre samples and source locations ................................. 43 3.2. Qualitative analysis of pictographs and rock art sites ............................................ 44 3.3. PXRF results of ochre analysis ............................................................................. 45 3.4. PXRF results of pictograph analysis ..................................................................... 50
3.4.1. D-Stretch™ and pXRF .............................................................................. 60
4. Discussion and Interpretation ........................................................................... 61 4.1. Discussion of formal results for ochres ................................................................. 61 4.2. Discussion of formal results for pictographs ......................................................... 62 4.3. Informed interpretation of Squamish ochre sources .............................................. 63 4.4. Informed interpretation of pictographs and rock art sites ...................................... 66
ix
4.5. Landscape and location: discussion of pictograph sites and ochre sources in Squamish, B.C. ................................................................................................. 67
5. Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 71 5.1. A researcher’s to-do list: a guide on analyzing rock art pigments with pXRF ........ 74 5.2. Future research .................................................................................................... 81 5.3. Significance .......................................................................................................... 82
Appendices .................................................................................................................. 97 Appendix A. Qualitative Tables for Ochre and Rock Art ........................................ 98 Appendix B. Raw pXRF spectra for ochre and rock art sites. .............................. 101 Appendix C. Eigenvalues and Correlations of Principal Component Analyses. ........... 107 Appendix D. Means and Standard Deviations for Elemental Concentrations of
Ochre Samples and Pictograph Sites. ................................................................ 123 Appendix E. ANOVA test results ................................................................................ 126 Appendix F Tukey’s HSD test results ......................................................................... 136
x
List of Tables
Table 1. Details of pXRF analysis on ochre samples. ................................................ 38
Table 2. Methods table for pXRF analysis on pictographs. ........................................ 39
Table 3. Rock Art site attribute table for sites in Squamish. ....................................... 45
Table 4. Comparison of elements in pictograph images at all sites. Boldface values are not significant (α=0.05, N=210). Sample sizes: DjRt 2 (n=6), DjRt 10 (n=4), EaRu 9a (n=5), EaRu 9b (n=6). .................................. 58
xi
List of Figures
Figure 1: Satellite image showing locations of all rock art sites in Squamish traditional territory. ......................................................................................... 3
Figure 2: View of the south bank of Pilchuck Creek. ...................................................... 19
Figure 4: Locations of pictograph sites and ochre sources in Squamish core research area. ............................................................................................. 22
Figure 5: Panel at Furry Creek site (DjRt 2). .................................................................. 23
Figure 6: Second panel at Furry Creek (DjRt 2). ............................................................ 24
Figure 7: Pictograph at Murrin Provincial Park (DjRt 10). .............................................. 25
Figure 8: Murrin pictograph location on a Granidiorite rock wall. ................................... 25
Figure 9: Panel at EaRu 9 with three probable Thunderbird images. Thunderbirds analyzed indicated with arrows (EaRu 9a and EaRu 9b. .............................. 27
Figure 10: Second panel at EaRu 9. .............................................................................. 28
Figure 12: EaRu 9b, Thunderbird in a similar style to EaRu 9a. .................................... 29
Figure 13: Pilchuck Creek Ochre Collection. ................................................................. 36
Figure 14: Paul Ridge Ochre Collection ......................................................................... 36
Figure 15: Pigment data points for DjRt 2. ..................................................................... 40
Figure 16: Control data points DjRt 2. ........................................................................... 41
Figure 17: Pigment data points DjRt 10. ........................................................................ 41
Figure 18: Control data points DjRt 10........................................................................... 41
Figure 19: Pigment data points EaRu 9a. ...................................................................... 42
Figure 20: Control data points EaRu 9a. ........................................................................ 42
Figure 21: Pigment data points EaRu 9b. ...................................................................... 42
Figure 22: Control data points EaRu 9b. ........................................................................ 42
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Figure 23: PCA score plot and biplot with rays showing all ochre samples. ................... 47
Figure 24: Biplot of all ochre samples with first 1-4 principal component. ...................... 48
Figure 25: Canonical DFA plot of ochres converted to log10 Fe ratios. ......................... 49
Figure 26: PCA biplot of PR and PC ochres. ................................................................. 50
Figure 27: PCA biplot of pigment and control data points. ............................................. 51
Figure 28: PCA biplot of pigment data points. ............................................................... 51
Figure 29: PCA biplot of control data points. ............................................................ 52
Figure 30: Net amounts of Rubidium (Rb) in site DjRt 2 pigment and control (n=6 for control, n=6 for pigment, p=0.0251). ....................................................... 53
Figure 31: Net amounts of Iron (Fe) in site DjRt 10 pigment and control (n=4 for pigment, n=4 for control, p=0.0438). ............................................................ 53
Figure 32: Net amounts of Vanadium (V) in site EaRu 9a pigment and control (n=5 for pigment, n=5 for control, p=0.0043). ............................................... 54
Figure 33: Net amounts of Cobalt (Co) in site EaRu 9a pigment and control (n=5 for pigment, n=5 for control, p=0.0001). ....................................................... 54
Figure 34: Net amounts of Manganese (Mn) in site EaRu 9a pigment and control (n=5 for pigment, n=5 for control, p=0.0354). ............................................... 55
Figure 35: Net amounts of Iron (Fe) in site EaRu 9a pigment and control (n=5 for pigment, n=5 for control, p=0.0073). ............................................................ 55
Figure 36: Biplot of pigment readings for EaRu 9a and EaRu 9b. .................................. 59
Figure 37: Biplot of pigment data points for DjRt 2 and EaRu 9b. .................................. 60
Figure 38: Difficult access to some rock art sites may limit the length and type of research (photo is access EaRu 9). ............................................................. 78
Figure 39: At EaRu 9, a larger floor space allows for easy manoeuvring of equipment and analysis. .............................................................................. 79
Figure 40: PXRF on pictograph EaRu 9a with use of a tripod. ....................................... 80
xiii
List of Acronyms
B.C. British Columbia
DFA Discriminant Function Analysis
INAA Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis
PCA Principal Component Analysis
PIXE Particle Induced X-ray Emission
pXRF Portable X-ray fluorescence spectrometry
XRD X-ray Diffraction
XRF X-ray fluorescence
1
1. Introduction
Ochre is present in material culture collections throughout the globe.
Archaeologists consider it one of the oldest forms of color manipulation and symbolic
expressions, and it has been a major compound in paint mixtures since the Upper
Palaeolithic period in Europe (Bahn and Vertut 1988; Schmandt-Besserat 1980; Velo
and Kehoe 1990; Wreschner 1982, 1985). This thesis explores the scientific and cultural
perspectives of ochre and rock art on the southern Northwest Coast of British Columbia.
Academic research on ochre and rock art is under investigated on the Northwest Coast,
even though both are significant to First Nations and archaeologists. Furthermore, ochre
research and its use in the creation of rock art even more limited. Thus, this research is
important in that it is one of the few projects currently to investigate the relationship
between ochre sources and pictographs.
The ethnographic record of coastal and interior regions of British Columbia
indicates that ochre was a common cultural material used in potlatches, ceremonies,
and functional contexts. As such, it was traded extensively (cf. Corner 1968; MacDonald
2008; MacDonald et al. 2011, 2012). Archaeological research however, suggests that
local sources of ochre were often preferred (MacDonald 2008:53). Expanding on
previous local research (MacDonald 2008; MacDonald et al. 2011, 2012; Reimer 2008,
2013), my goal is to analyze ochre sources and their use at rock art sites in Squamish
Nation territory using both scientific methods and ethnographic data (cf. Chippindale and
Taçon 1998:6).
The study area of this thesis project is located within Squamish Nation territory
(Skwxwú7mesh Úxwumixw) in the “Lower mainland region” of southwestern British
Columbia. Other First Nations bordering or sharing lands with the Squamish include the
Sechelt and Mt. Currie to the north, the Musqueam to the south, and the Tsleil-Waututh
and Katzie to the east. Squamish territory reaches as far south as English Bay in
2
Vancouver and east along Burrard Inlet (Bouchard and Kennedy 1986; Hill-Tout
1978:28; Reimer and MacDonald 2008). At the time of European contact in 1792, there
were reportedly thousands of Squamish people (Hill-Tout 1978:28). According to the
Squamish Nation website (www.squamish.net), as of 2008, there were ca. 3,500 official
Squamish band members, 2,000 of whom live on Squamish Nation reserves. Members
belong to 16 different bands that amalgamated in 1923 in order to establish a just
government with equal rights for the Squamish people (www.squamish.net).
Among the Squamish, there are at least three known sources of ochre; I focus on
two of these in this study. The first is a tributary of the Squamish River, currently called
Pilchuck Creek. The second is 1660m above sea level, approximately 13km south of
Mount Garibaldi along a high elevation landform currently called Paul Ridge. These
locations physically differ from each other, as do their descriptions in Squamish
ethnographic sources (Bouchard and Kennedy 1986, Matthews 1955).
Rock art, as used in this thesis refers to pictographs (painted images) and
petroglyphs (rock engravings). Areas containing such are “rock art sites”. In addition to
the ochre sources in Squamish, there are seven recorded rock art sites in the research
areas, three of which are the focus of this research project. All of these sites are
pictographs; there are no known petroglyphs (rock engraving) sites. The spatial focus of
the rock art and ochre sources is in a “core” area on Howe Sound and the Squamish
River Valley, surrounding the traditional large village site of St’ames. Of the rock art
sites, two are located south of Squamish, on or near Howe Sound. The others are
located in the Squamish River Valley. One in particular is located in the Upper Squamish
and used in this study. Figure 1 shows all of the rock art sites located in Squamish
X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray fluorescence (XRF), and portable X-ray fluorescence
6
(pXRF). All of these methods, excluding pXRF, are desktop-based instruments and in
most cases require a destructive sample from the site. Removing pigment particles from
the rock-wall surface compromises the context of the pictographs, is aesthetically
detrimental, speeds up weathering of the images, and is often not allowed by
descendent communities. One of the greatest advantages of pXRF is in the field of rock
art research is it does not destroy the images and can provide information of the
chemical composition of rock art pigments (Huntley et al. 2011; Huntley 2012; Newman
and Loendorf 2005; Nuevo et al. 2011; Rowe et al. 2011). Additionally, pXRF requires
minimal sample preparation and allows for rapid acquisition of elemental data (Forster et
al. 2011; Huntley et al, 2011; Huntley 2012; Shackley 2010a).
Recent research with pXRF on rock art has provided qualitative and semi-
quantitative information on pigment analysis (Huntley et al. 2011; Huntley 2012;
Newman and Loendorf 2005; Nuevo et al. 2011; Rowe et al. 2011), through the
identification of the presence or absence of certain elemental compounds in mineral
pigments. Understanding pigment chemistry provides information on how paint was
prepared and applied, the types of minerals used for the paint, the number of “artists” or
revisitations, access and acquisition of pigment sources, and cultural conventions
regarding minerals and rock art (Huntley et al. 2011; Huntley 2012). However, there
remain several issues, the largest being sample thickness. Emitted X-rays penetrate at
depths of 2-4mm, whereas rock art pigment layers are tens of microns thick (ca 7-
50 m) (Cesareo et al. 2008:209). Pigments and paint from frescoes, pottery, and rock
art are what analysts refer to as “infinitely thin”; when the incoming X-rays completely
penetrate the material (Cesareo et al. 2008:209). Therefore, the background rockwall will
affect any subsequent analysis with pXRF. This “background effect” is unavoidable when
analyzing pictographs with pXRF, which makes it exceptionally difficult to compare
pictographs from different geographical locations and even pictographs on the same
rock wall. Furthermore, pictographs may contain multiple pigment layers due to
repainting, which results in further complications when working to distinguish separate
paint mixtures.
In rock art studies, styles, classification schemes, and their subsequent
typologies are often the subjects of research, as well as the hidden and ever elusive
“meaning” behind the images. In North America, little research includes information from
7
ethnographic sources, or of modern-day cultural descendants of indigenous groups who
painted the rock art images. The lack of informed perspectives is largely due to the
discontinuity of traditional cultures with modern day descendants as the result of
relocation and colonialization. Even informed perspectives are far removed from the
original creation of the rock art, as few rock art traditions have persisted from the past
into the present (Chippindale and Taçon 1998:7); this is less the case in British
Columbia, as occurrences of rock art extend into the late 19th century (Teit 1896). The
aim of this project is to expose the benefits of using informed and formal together to form
a scientific research project supplemented by First Nation oral traditions and culture.
Overall, the importance of studying the interaction of humans with rock art and minerals
is crucial. Rock art is one of the most direct forms of material culture as the images
cannot be transported. Rock art is a statement of place, as described in a quote from
“The Archaeology of Rock Art”:
“...Human beings have increasingly marked landscapes in symbolic ways. A characteristically human trait, this is one of the ways we socialize landscapes. The result is a great and a scattered array of visually striking imagery as time and chance have let it survive to us at sites or within regions over vast periods of time.”(Chippindale and Taçon 1998:1)
1.1.1. Ochre: an overview
Ochre is any clay, sediment, or rock containing varying amounts of iron oxide
minerals (Cornell and Schwertmann 2003). Ochre is not unique to a specific geological
context as it appears across the globe in sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous
environments (Chandra et al. 1991). Ochre is composed of two primary forms of iron
oxide--2Fe2O3 and FeO (Popelka-Filcoff et al. 2007), and the colors expressed in them
vary from yellow to red to brown to purple. The lighter shades can heated and changed
into deeper hues, increasing the range of colors available by the process of calcination,
a thermal treatment process that decomposes the mineral (Schmandt-Besserat
1980:129). This is why in hearth features and natural fires, a layer of red sediment is
often found beneath burnt layers. Ochre is associated with both functional and non-
8
functional attributes extending back from 380,000 BP1 to present, whether in western
society or customary indigenous forms (Wreschner 1980).
Studying the uses of ochre provides avenues into a number of archaeological,
ethnographic, historical, and geological research areas. More recently, chemical
characterization studies use ochre with the aim of explaining aspects of cultural
interaction, trade/exchange, and perceptions of landscape (Henshilwood et al. 2009;
Hovers et al. 2003). These interpretations are circumstantial and dependant on related
artifacts, data, environment, and perseveration, and much debate has arisen over the
original intended uses of ochre in function and non-functional contexts (Marshack 1981).
Regardless, it is undeniable that ochre is abundant in archaeological contexts spatially
and temporally.
Globally, ochre had a variety of technical uses, including hide tanning (Bahn and
Vertut 1988; Wadley 2005), as an adhesive for tools or weapons (Wadley 2005; Watts
2012; Wreschner 1983), for grinding and polishing objects (Marshack 1981; White
1997), as a preservative or drying agent (Marshack 1981; Bahn and Vertut 1988), and
for various medicinal and other practices (Velo 1984; Veloe and Kehoe 1990). Red
ochre is an excellent hide-tanning agent as it preserves organic tissues, protects them
from putrefaction and decomposition, reduces collagenase, and produces superior
leather as opposed to treatment with yellow ochre (Bahn and Vertut 1988; Wadley
2005). It is also a polish and adhesive for weapon maintenance and can suit a variety of
purposes for different types of weaponry and hunting (Wadley 2005).
Non-technical uses of ochre are more difficult to observe in the archaeological
record, as much of its uses tied into ceremonial, social, and ritual practices (Bahn and
Perhaps the most recognizable use of ochre in the archaeological record is as
paint for parietal and portable art objects dating from the Palaeolithic to Mesolithic. Red
ochre is the most widely used art pigment throughout these periods, second to only
black, and is in art contexts throughout Europe and Africa (Bahn and Vertut 1988, Velo
and Kehoe 1990). Aside from its popularity in European Palaeolithic cave art, it has been
used in a variety of symbolic contexts across the globe. Research on the symbolic and
artistic aspects of ochre has taken place in Australia (Taçon 1991, 2004; Sagona 1994),
the American Southwest (Ellis et al. 1997; Eiselt et al. 2011; Popelka-Filcoff et al. 2007,
2008; Stafford et al. 2003), Africa (Henshilwood et al. 2004; Wadley 2005), South
America (Knight 1991), and the Pacific Northwest (Ames 1999, 2005; MacDonald 2008;
MacDonald et al. 2011, 2012; York et al. 1993).
1.1.2. Rock art: a brief summary
The term “rock art” describes petroglyphs, pictographs, geoglyphs, and
petroforms, and is one of the oldest forms of symbolic expression (Chippindale & Taçon
1998:6). It occurs on all inhabited continents of the world (1998:6). No other
archaeological artistic or symbolic tradition is as widespread. It is the most direct form of
material culture preserved in the archaeological record, as it is located in the exact
location of its original creation and is not subject to movement by human or geological
processes (Chippindale & Taçon 1998:2-3).
In rock art research, technical methods are popular as they give precise
qualitative and semi-quantitaive information about the geochemical makeup of pigments,
10
while avoiding the problems of stylistic classification (Bednarik 1995) and scientific
dating (Bednarik 2002; Zilhao 1995). Even though there is debate regarding the
application of certain research methods (Bednarik 1995, 2002, 2009; Zilhao 1995;
Whitley 2001), it is worthwhile to explore these new avenues of research as technology
is constantly being improved and updated. Additionally, the emic social meaning of most
rock art has been lost, due to cultural discontinuity and displacement (Chippindale &
Taçon 1998:7), so research regarding etic interpretation and meaning is often avoided.
However, in places like British Columbia and Australia, many descendant communities
recognize the social and historical importance of rock art to their ancestry and often
explore emic interpretations pertinent to their culture and oral history (Sagona 1994;
Taçon 2004; York et al. 1993).
1.1.3. Ochre use in British Columbia
Though First Nation groups are known to have traded ochre in the British
Columbian interior, information about such trade is rare in ethnographic sources (Corner
1968:22; MacDonald 2008:55; McIlwraith 1948; Mitchell and Donald 1988:327). Existing
information indicates that ochre deposits occur throughout British Columbia (Keyser
1992; Grant 1967; York et al. 1993), and that ancient people are thought to have utilized
local ochre sources over extended periods, with limited or no trade from outside sources
(MacDonald 2008:55). Furthermore, previous research has shown that people traded
ochre along ancient exchange routes, and that “…particular sources of ochre were
sought after for specific characteristics,” (MacDonald 2008:17). Specific ethnographic
data on ochre trade and procurement is scant, though Mitchell and Donald (1998:327)
refer to ochre trade between the Tsimshian and Carrier groups, where the Tsimshian
traded ochre and eulachon oil for furs.
In addition to being a trade item, ochre was used in ceremonial practices, kinship
networks, events such as the potlatch and weddings, as paint on ceremonial objects,
and for male and female burials (Ames 1999, 2005; McIlwraith 1948; Matthews 1955,
Olson 1955). It was almost always used to create red paint, as opposed to tree sap or
other organics (Leechman 1937). For some coastal and interior Salish groups, red
pigments were usually used for artistic objects because it generally signified “good”, and
11
it “…also expressed life, existence, blood, heat, fire, light, day. Some say it also meant
the earth. It appears also to have had the meaning self, friendship, success,” (Teit
1930:418). Annie York (1993:4) described the colour red as being symbolic of life, and
“...the protection of your life, to protect yourself from other peoples casting sins
[witchcraft], too.”
1.1.4. Rock art in British Columbia
In British Columbia, coastal and interior Salish rock paintings (pictographs) were
painted in red, black, yellow, and white pigments, with rare accounts of green and blue
have recorded (Corner 1968). The vast majority of images are monochrome and painted
in various red colors, and more than 99% of pictographs in the British Columbian interior
are this way (Keyser 1992). Scientific dating has not been conducted on most of the rock
art in British Columbia, though accelerated mass spectrometry radiocarbon dating was
conducted on faunal remains associated with pictographs in the south Okanagan Valley
(Copp 1979). These were found to be from 2,050 ± 100 years BP (1979:170).
Ethnographic accounts from British Columbia indicate that rock art depicts
spiritual experiences, ceremonies, children experiencing puberty rites, legends and
traditions, hunting magic, activity/migration markers, and maps (Corner 1968; Grant
1967; Keyser 1992; Lundy 1974; Matthews 1955; Teit 1896, 1906, 1918, 1930; York et
al. 1993). Much of the early ethnographic research on rock art derives from James Teit,
who lived with the Nlaka'pamux of the interior for a number of years and worked with
Franz Boas recording ethnographic information (Teit 1896, 1906, 1918, 1930). Teit
(1896:228-30) claimed that young men and women created paintings during puberty
rituals and that some images are from older men who painted dreams on rock cliffs. He
stated that many of the rock art sites were training places for young shamans, who
would paint significant experiences or dreams they had during training (1930:194). He
recorded the rock art as being:
“Besides being records of dreams, objects seem in dreams, guardian spirits, battles, and exploits; they were supposed to transmit power from the object depicted to the person making the pictures.” (1930:194)
12
One of the most extensive accounts of emic interpretations on British
Columbian rock art comes from Annie York, a distinguished elder of the Nlaka’pamux
(Spuzzum Band). She provided interpretations of many sites in the coauthored volume
“They Write their Dreams on the Rock Forever”, an extensive collection of oral history
regarding rock art in the Stein Valley (York et al. 1993). She learned about the rock art
from male elders who she claimed created the images, but she herself had never
created them though she was an elder and participated in her own vision quests. She
stated that pictographs were produced from spiritual ceremonies and are embedded with
immense spiritual power (York et al. 1993:165). She also said that rock art was a
tradition passed on from older to younger generations, as a way of teaching lessons of
spiritual protection and how to live (1993:4-6). She stated that older teachers would give
younger people paint and take then to the mountains, to paint images using a buckskin
brush or finger as a paintbrush and saliva as a binder. The darker the image painted, the
stronger the spiritual power (1993:165). She tied the interpretations of the rock art to
Christianity (1993:68), and it is apparent that her stories are based solely on her own
interpretations. Regardless, the volume is an example of interpreting rock art using a
combination of Salish worldviews, oral history, direct interviews from elders, and
ethnographic information.
Aside from ceremonial or ritualistic pictographs are functions thought to be
associated with seasonal migration routes, fishing spots, and trail markers, as explained
by John Corner (1968:4-5) during his ethnographic work in the northern interior of British
Columbia. He deduced that many of the rock art sites are located near rock and boulder
shelters that provided protection from the elements (1968:4-5). These were often located
next to well-travelled routes and trails, and prominent geological features (1968:4). He
stated that the correlation of rock art sites and travel routes, seasonal hunting areas,
fishing areas, and campsites is obvious (1968:6). It is clear that rock art served a
number of purposes and was used in a variety of ways in British Columbia, especially in
the interior where the majority of ethnographic work has taken place.
Rock art research in British Columbia has often been limited to cataloguing
1930; York et al. 1993), and general description of the images, their site/location, and
their attributes (Arnett 2012; Copp 2006; Corner 1968; Grant 1967; Keyser 1992). Little
13
is known about the exact nature of when, who, and how many individuals created rock
art at one given space in time. Jim Keyser (1992), using a combination of his own
personal interpretation and indigenous informants, stated that of Columbian Plateau rock
art, panels were probably repeatedly visited by numerous artists (1992:50). This
contradicts York et al. (1993) who claim that many rock art sites are products of private
spiritual journeys and were meant to be left alone.
Though Keyser (1992) and York et al. (1993) described different scenarios for
the creation of rock art, both could have occurred simultaneously in one region.
Determining if a rock art site is a product of a public or private event would depend on
the types of images present, the location of the site, and the symbolism of known and
existing images common throughout Salish rock art. Some rock paintings may be
intended for private use or purposes, such as a record of a personal spiritual journey, or
recording of important dreams. Others intended for public use, like the images that may
signal tides or watermarks, trailheads, and fishing, hunting, or camping areas. Public
images would not be located in hidden or hard to access areas, would be moderately
visible, and well known amongst people in the surrounding area. Conversely, hidden,
difficult to access, or “secret” areas would probably contain private pictographs. Only the
creator of the images would know of these pictographs, and their location shared only for
teaching purposes or as a way to share oral histories.
1.2. Squamish ethnography: place-names, stories, and the active landscape
There is an extensive body of ethnographic data about the Squamish in the form
of interviews about stories, place-names, and day-to-day interactions (Matthews1955;
Bouchard and Kennedy 1976a, 1976b, 1986; Hill-Tout 1897, 1900, 1978). Accounts date
from the late 19th century (Boas 1888; Hill-Tout 1897; Teit 1896) to the late 20th century
(Bouchard and Kennedy 1976a, 1976b, 1986). Hill-Tout (1897, 1900) admitted that his
recorded accounts might be somewhat blurred by translation, yet regardless of any
inaccuracies; there are numerous place-names recorded in Squamish Territory. Many of
these place-names coincide with recently discovered archaeological sites (cf. ARCAS
1999; Reimer 2000, 2005, 2012; Reimer and MacDonald 2008).
14
Two Squamish place names are relevant to sites researched in this study.
Mount Garibaldi (Nch’kaỳ, meaning “dirty place”), is well known as the place where the
Squamish people brought their canoes to during a mythical “Great Flood” (Bouchard and
Kennedy 1986:370-371). The story recounts a powerful medicine man, or shaman, who
could predict the future and used ochre paint to heal people. The shaman tried to stop
rising floodwaters by painting a cedar stick with ochre, then painting ochre streaks on the
side of Nch’kaỳ. Neither of these worked and the waters rose and eventually decimated
the Squamish people.
Ochre also features in the Squamish origin story associated with the Stawamus
Chief. The Stawamus Chief is a granite batholith (Reimer and MacDonald 2008) and is
prominent landmark in many Squamish stories and legends. In this story, ochre was as a
marker of how high the waters rose during the Great Flood (Bouchard and Kennedy
1986:312).
One of the most prominent stories in Squamish oral history takes place at
St’áḿes. St’áḿes is a place-name for the large Squamish village at the mouth of the
Squamish River. It was the main winter village in Squamish territory and was an
excellent place for fishing, especially for eulachon (Bouchard and Kennedy 1986).
St’áḿes is associated with a legend involving the great warrior Xwech’tál (Bouchard and
Kennedy 1986). The legend states that Xwech’tál was sent by his father to slay Sinotlkai,
the two-headed serpent. Forced to leave his newlywed wife, he was gone for many
years while he purified himself. He dreamt of how to kill the serpent, and he created a
raft and four spears with which he stabbed each of the heads when they surfaced from
the waters of Howe Sound (Bouchard and Kennedy 1986).
The events in the story involve the Stawamus Chief, where Sinotlkai was first
seen slithering down and up the mountain. The serpent’s track is a long black streak
down the front of the mountain. Squamish landmarks associated with this story are the
Stawamus Chief, Browning Lake, and Howe Sound. The events and places in the stories
all tie into the cultural landscape of Squamish, where the prominent landmarks of Mount
Garibaldi and The Stawamus Chief are seen today.
15
1.2.1. Cultural background of ochre sources in Squamish
Much of the existing ethnographic information concerning red ochre comes from
interviews with Chief August Jack Khahtsahlano of the Squamish Nation, who worked
extensively with early European settlers for recording Squamish legends, oral history,
and place names. Most notably is his work with Major Matthews (Matthews 1955), who
published a volume containing numerous recorded interviews with Chief Khahtsahlano.
In this volume, Chief Khahtsahlano mentioned “tumbth”, or “red paint for faces”
(1955:423). He described a potlatch ceremony amongst the Howe Sound Indians where
the host of the Potlatch uses red ochre as face paint. In this sense, the red ochre face
paint is used as a ceremonial dress to ascribe importance, which was used specifically
by Chiefs. At one potlatch, Chief George, adorned with red paint, was seen as looking
“...might important and pompous” (1955:266). Chief Khahtsahlano also described how
people acquired ochre directly from mineral sources. He stated:
“This bit rock is tumbth; it’s been lying in creek where the red paint comes from, and got a coating of tumbth. Indian find tumbth in soft ground… Tumbth means the red paint which warriors and maidens adorned their faces for war, ceremonies, dances...” (Matthews 1955:62)
Matthews’ (1955) interviews with Chief Khahtsahlano discussed important places
in and around traditional Squamish territory. Chief Khahtsahlano referred to three distinct
ochre sources in Squamish where people acquired Tumbth. One source was two and
half miles north of Horseshoe Bay. Another is at the mouth of a creek near Howe
Sound, which are possibly part of the same source. However, he specifically mentions
another source near Mount Garibaldi, where the ochre is in soft ground up to six inches
thick (Matthews 1955:62). This source was geographically near the Paul Ridge ochre
source, which may be what Chief Khahtsahlano was referencing.
The Paul Ridge ochre source does not have a specific place-name recorded in
any of the ethnographic sources consulted (Bouchard and Kennedy 1976a, 1976b,
1986; Hill-Tout 1897, 1900, 1978; Matthews 1955). Even so, the contemporary
Squamish know of Paul Ridge and it was examined in other analytical studies involving
ochre provenance research in B.C. (MacDonald et al. 2011, 2012). It is likely associated
with Mount Garibaldi (Nch’kaỳ) as it is located less than 13km south of it. Both places
16
are located at a high elevation, with Nch’kaỳ at 2,678m and Paul Ridge at 1,660m above
sea level. Upper elevation areas are powerful places amongst coastal and Interior Salish
groups, as they are part of the “upper-world” of a tri-level world scheme and associated
with powerful “mythical beings” (Reimer 2000, 2012; Teit 1930; Schaepe 2007). Paul
Ridge’s elevation is important when considering the reasons why ancient peoples may
have chosen to acquire ochre from such a difficult place to access. In some instances,
the acquisition of certain minerals in of themselves is a symbolic process (Boivin 2004).
Traveling to certain far away or difficult to access places required intense physical and
spiritual training, and was reserved for individuals who were able to interact with
powerful entities that reside in such places (Bradley 2000; Boivin 2004; Reimer 2012;
Taçon 2004). Mineral sources were powerful places; this “spiritual potency” resides in
the minerals themselves, and subsequently the uses made of them (Boivin 2004:11).
Pilchuck Creek is recorded by Bouchard and Kennedy (1986:393) as a place
name (Nch’aḿáy) transcribed as “to bite” (1986:393-395). The English name “Pilchuck”
derives from Chinook jargon words meaning “blood water”, referring to the red of the
creek’s water. This is most likely due to the large ochre veins along the muddy creek
embankment. According to Bouchard and Kennedy (1986:394) Nch’aḿáỳ was a village
site with about 20 residents. Louis Miranda stated in an interview that his mother used to
go to Nch’aḿáỳ to look for red ochre paint, though he does not provide details. The
exact location of the village is unknown; however, village sites are often near waterways
and confluences of smaller tributaries (Bouchard and Kennedy 1986:394). A story
associated with Nch’aḿáỳ involves a woman who was bathing somewhere in Pilchuck
Creek, when she was changed into a stump by the Transformers. The Transformers
were powerful beings who came to the world to set things rights (Reimer 2012:47). In a
similar story, a woman was gathering cedar bark near the river for herself and was
reluctant to share her bark with anyone else. The Transformers came and changed her
into a large boulder near Pilchuck Creek. The cedar bark strips became the ochre veins
found along the creek walls (Reimer, personal communication, 2011).
17
1.2.2. Cultural background of rock art sites in Squamish
Squamish ethnographic sources described rock paintings as markers
representing natural events, such as marking water levels of the Great Flood, and/or as
spiritual aids, such as the shaman trying to prevent the rising floodwaters (Bouchard and
Kennedy 1986; Hill-Tout 1900; Matthews 1955). There are four accounts of place-names
so described, two being paintings of streaks at Nch’kaỳ and also at the Stawamus Chief.
The other sites are Khul-Kalos and an unidentified mountain in the Upper Squamish river
valley called Sxeltakwu7, or “marked rock” (Bouchard and Kennedy 1986:412). During
the Great Flood, people fled to Sxeltakwu7, where they tied their canoes to the
mountain. The people believed a shaman could stop the floodwaters by using red ochre
paint to draw a mark across the face of this mountain, but the doctor’s power did not
work and the water rose until the people fled to Nch’kaỳ, a higher mountain (1986:412).
Chief Khahtsahlano (Matthews 1955:426) described another rock art site, Khul-
Kalos, meaning, “Painted with streaks”. Khul-Kalos was located near Sy-its, or the mouth
of Furry Creek, on a perpendicular rock bluff on Howe Sound (1955:426). He stated that
this place had four streaks of tumbth, painted to indicate the level of the rising tide. Major
S. Matthews (1955:426) speculated that they might relate to the Great Flood story,
stating “The Squamish have a legend of a flood,” and “...it is conceivable that the waters
of a tidal wave might have reached this rock.” This description is similar to the existing
four parallel lines at DjRt 2 (Figure 3), although many other images surround it.
The only other rock art site referenced in the ethnographic sources is the
Cloudburst Mountain pictograph site Xwmitl’m (Bouchard and Kennedy 1986:395), or
DlRt 1. The image depicts a human figure transforming into a crane, relating to the oral
history of the Transformer Brothers, sent by the Creator “to set the world right” (Reimer
2005). The last rock art site in the Squamish river valley is DlRt-9, or Nepti’tl. This site
contains powerful images related to the Great Flood story. One such image, an upside
down bear paw, is associated with shamans were used to cease the rising floodwaters
(Reimer and MacDonald 2008:10).
The ethnographic accounts of pictographs in Squamish territory relate directly to
events and oral histories in the landscape. The most common description of pictographs
18
in the ethnographic sources are as ochre streaks and lines. These are thought to be
powerful images relating to a mythical Great Flood. However, not all of the known
pictograph sites in Squamish territory fit this description. In the Great Flood story,
pictographs were tools to prevent natural events and invoke strength and power. They
are not necessarily depictions of specific images or aspects of these stories. The
pictographs in this study do not fit the descriptions of ochre paintings in the Squamish
ethnographic record in that they contain more detail and representations of figures and
beings. However, they are still reminiscent of events and aspects of Squamish oral
history, as outlined in the discussion chapter of this thesis.
1.2.3. Sources of ochre in Squamish, B.C.
This study focuses on two sources of red ochre in the Squamish Valley, BC. The
Squamish people know of these sources and they are in both the archaeological and
ethnographic literature. There is another known ochre source in Squamish located in
Inuksuk Meadows; it was not included in this study due to access and time constraints. I
visited Pilchuck Creek and Paul Ridge and my observations made in the field are the
basis of their descriptions in this section. It is likely that ancient people used ochre from
either of these sources to create rock paintings in the area.
Pilchuck Creek ochre source
Pilchuck Creek is a small, slow-flowing creek with dense vegetation and steep
embankments located in the alluvial floodplain of the Squamish River. It is located
approximately 12km north along the Squamish River Road, on the east side of the road
before the bridge. Here, the sediment is gray alluvial silt, rich in iron grey in colour, with
discrete veins of iron oxides along a 20-25 meter section of the creek (MacDonald et al.
2012:3). These veins occur from water level to three feet above water level in the wet
muddy embankment of the creek. The ochre here is not openly visible, and requires
knowledge of where to find it.
19
Figure 2: View of the south bank of Pilchuck Creek.
(Photo by Rudy Reimer, used with permission)
Paul Ridge ochre source
Paul Ridge is located 1660m above sea level, and is part of the Pacific Mountain Range.
The Pacific Mountain Range topography in Squamish is largely a result of the
Quaternary-age Mt Garibaldi volcanic complex, characterized by andesite, rhyodacite,
and basalt deposits (Hickson 1994; Matthews 1958). Here, the ochre is more abundant
and visible; it is found amongst the patches of red soil showing through the alpine
meadows (Figure 3). The ochre deposit here is “...a discontinuous outcrop of oxidized
basalt that runs along a mid-elevation ridge approximately 12km south of the peak of Mt.
Garibaldi,” (MacDonald et al. 2012:3). The ochre occurs throughout the length of the
ridge, which is at least 50m. The total length of the exposure is difficult to measure, as
much of the source may not be exposed.
20
Figure 3: Paul Ridge ochre source showing exposed ochre outcrops.
1.2.4. Pictographs and rock art sites in Squamish Nation territory
Three of the five rock art sites within the cultural core of Squamish Nation territory (DjRt-
2, DjRt-10, and EaRu-9) are the focus of this analysis. Ease of access determined
inclusion of sites for study, specifically regarding the logistics of pXRF analysis.
Preservation variables and exposure of the pictographs were also considered. With site
DlRt-1, there was an issue of access as the pictograph is located on private property.
There is one pictograph here, which is significantly weathered and faded. DlRt-9, was
not included due to weathering and fading. All of the other rock art sites in Squamish are
less faded and the specific imagery is visible. I personally was able to access all of the
rock art sites for this research. All of five of the rock art sites in Squamish contain
pictographs; there are no known petroglyph sites.
21
Each of the rock art sites exhibits different qualities of location, accessibility, and type of
imagery. Aside from basic descriptions, the pictographs were not interpreted regarding
“meaning”. The modern etic interpretation of the meaning in rock art images is highly
speculative and criticized (Chippindale 1999, 2001; Chippindale and Taçon 1998;
Conkey 1987; Conkey et al. 1997). However, the majority of this criticism rests on etic
perspectives on ancient cultures. This thesis uses information from informed sources to
shed light on possible connections between imagery in the pictographs and oral history,
and does not incorporate modern etic perspectives on meaning.
DjRt-2: Furry Creek pictographs (Khul-Kalos)
DjRt 2 is located north of Furry Creek, B.C., on the eastern shore of Howe
Sound, where two panels are visible from Howe Sound. Access is via the Sea to Sky
highway or by water on Howe Sound, the latter being the easiest and most easy to sight
the panels. This site was recorded by the BC Archaeology Branch in 1968, but was first
mentioned in Conversations with Khahtsahlano by August Jack Khahtsahlano in 1955
(Matthews 1955). The panels are located on granite rock walls, the southeast portion
openly facing Howe Sound with dense vegetation on a steep slope located behind the
panels. The first and smaller panel contains one large image (Figure 5),
22
Figure 4: Locations of pictograph sites and ochre sources in Squamish core research area.
(Image Courtesy Google Earth 2013, site data from RAAD, used with permission)
23
thought to depict the face of Sinotlkai, the two-headed sea serpent of Squamish
mythology (Arnett, personal communication, 2012). The other pictograph panel (Figure
6) is larger and contains 10 monochrome images containing depictions of a large
anthropomorphs, celestial images (two geometric sun figures with rays), a large central
canid, and abstract/representational designs (lines, human figures, curves). Two images
are separate and located above this main panel. One is an anthropomorph with three
figures surrounding it and one cross-marked figured below. These might be
representative of fish, branches, or trail markers (cf. Lundy 1974). The highest image is
a thick dark line, possibly representing a canoe or other water vessel. Collectively, the
pictographs could be representations of a vision quest, dream, or related oral history.
Figure 5: Panel at Furry Creek site (DjRt 2).
24
Figure 6: Second panel at Furry Creek (DjRt 2).
DjRt-10: Murrin Provincial Park (Sts’i’ts’a7kin)
DjRt 10 is located on a steep granidiorite rock wall popular amongst rock-
climbers. There is no other rock art located near this image or at the site. The pictograph
contains two circular images, a central “body” portion with a line coming through the
bottom (Figure 7). The image in monochrome and appears to be painted by one person
at one event. Some of the rock surface on the bottom left of the image has broken off. It
is possible that this surface contained more pictographs related to the central image, or
that this pictograph was larger at one time.
The pictograph at DjRt-10 is unique among images examined in this study in that
its imagery is not directly representational. One must rely on informed perspectives to
gain insight as to what it might represent. Nevertheless, the shape and orientation of the
25
image seem to depict an upright standing figure, possibly holding two large circular
objects. The imagery may represent a Squamish legend involving Xwech’tál, a warrior
who battled with the two-headed serpent Sinotlkai (Reimer 2005). The location of DjRt
10 is open and exposed (Figure 8) part of the rockwall has fallen and removed the
bottom right portion of the pictograph. The pigment is weathered and faint, though the
paint is still present on the rockwall.
Figure 7: Pictograph at Murrin Provincial Park (DjRt 10).
Figure 8: Murrin pictograph location on a Granidiorite rock wall.
(Photo courtesy Melissa Roth, used with permission)
EaRu-9: Upper Squamish rock shelter (P’uỳáḿ)
EaRu 9 is a rock shelter site located 65km northwest of Squamish along
the Squamish Valley road. The site is 1km east of the confluence of the Elaho and
26
Squamish rivers, 20-30m up a trail along the rock face. Near the site is a rope for
recreational rock climbing, these activities have not to date had a negative impact on the
pictographs. ARCAS archaeological consulting initially recorded the site in 1998, when a
forestry contractor found it (ARCAS 1998). This shelter contains the largest number of
individual pictographs of sites examined in this study. There are three different
pictograph panels of images, as well as several separate images located on surrounding
rock faces near the central panels. The concentration of images in specific spots could
be indicative of an overall composition, with surrounding “outlier” images on other
panels. Overall, there are at least 30 separate monochrome images located at this site,
including depictions of humans, anthropomorphs, celestial images, animals, and
“geometric” motifs (groups of dots and lines), and four apparent depictions of
Thunderbird (Figures 9 and 10).
Two pictographs there were analyzed with pXRF (Figure 9). Both of the
pictographs are probable depictions of Thunderbird (In'inyáxa7n) painted with simple
lines, but in different styles. The smaller and fainter image is more simplistic, with one
straight line representing the wings, perpendicular lines coming downwards for feathers,
a thick central line for the bottom with a large circle at the bottom, and on the lower left
side of the image are a group of dots (Figure 12). The darker and larger Thunderbird
image contains more detail: the wings are curved, emphasis is more on the body, and
there are tail feathers and lines that appear to be feet or claws (Figure 11). It displays
evidence of repainting, as the paint is very dark compared to the surrounding images. A
human figure stands to the left of the image, while another Thunderbird image is drawn
directly above. Thunderbird is a powerful “mythical being” prominent in Squamish oral
history (Reimer 2012). It could flap its wings to create great storms, shoot lightning from
its eyes, and created many of the rock shelters in Squamish by moving large boulders
across the landscape (2012:80). Access to this site is difficult as it is located in a high
rock shelter and requires scrambling and climbing up loose rock to reach the site. The
site itself is somewhat hidden and requires intimate knowledge of its location to reach.
27
Figure 9: Panel at EaRu 9 with three probable Thunderbird images. Thunderbirds analyzed indicated with arrows (EaRu 9a and EaRu 9b.
28
Figure 10: Second panel at EaRu 9.
29
Figure 11: EaRu 9a showing a stylized Thunderbird image.
Figure 12: EaRu 9b, Thunderbird in a similar style to EaRu 9a.
30
2. Research methods: informed and formal perspectives
The methodological framework in this study follows an informed and formal
research approach (Chippendale and Taçon 1998:6). Informed methods incorporate an
emic perspective, and use insights passed on directly or indirectly within cultural groups
who consider rock art sites as links to their ancestry and place. For anthropologists, this
knowledge typically comes in the form of ethnography, ethnohistory, historical records,
oral history and traditions, or direct interviews containing modern interpretations
(Chippendale and Taçon 1998:6). In most cases, indigenous peoples are no longer
creating rock art, but perceive it as an integral part of their history (Chippendale and
Taçon 1998:6). Formal methods incorporate an etic perspective and are scientific in
nature, relying on physical observations on the rock art (typologies) and its location
(Chippendale and Taçon 1998:7). They also include the use of scientific techniques,
such as pXRF. Formal methods are ideal in rock art research as they provide
quantifiable information about the geochemical makeup of pigments while avoiding the
issues of stylistic classification and interpretation (Bednarik 2002; Zilhao 1995).
Furthermore, many rock art sites are regarded as spiritually important places, which can
lead to issues arising from outside researchers, such as archaeologists conducting
research on these sites.
2.1. Informed perspectives
Squamish Nation culture and territory possesses a wealth of ethnographic,
enthnohistorical and archaeological information (ARCAS 1998; Bouchard and Kennedy
Table 4. Comparison of elements in pictograph images at all sites. Boldface values are not significant (α=0.05, N=210). Sample sizes: DjRt 2 (n=6), DjRt 10 (n=4), EaRu 9a (n=5), EaRu 9b (n=6).
Element DjRt 2
/EaRu 9a DjRt 2
/EaRu 9b EaRu 9a /EaRu 9b
DjRt 10 /EaRu 9a
DjRt 10 /EaRu 9b
DjRt 10 /DjRt 2
V p> 0.0305 p> 0.2770 p> 0.0722 p<0.0001 p<0.0001 p<0.0001
2006; Lundy 1978) and Indigenous peoples (Reimer 2003, 2006, 2012; York et al. 1993)
have since recorded oral traditions or modern interpretations of the processes and
meanings of rock art. This thesis project is the first of its kind to incorporate formal
scientific analysis and informed ethnographic perspectives on ochre and rock art
research. It provides semi-quantitaive information on the geochemistry of ochre sources
and pigment compositions, and brings into light the cultural landscape that incorporates
the rock art sites, ochre sources, and the oral traditions surrounding them.
It is clear from the previous discussion that pXRF provides sufficient
qualitative and semi-quantitaive data for heterogeneous compounds such as ochre and
rock art pigments. Recognizing the usefulness of pXRF for such materials is important
for future research on ochre and rock art, and the broader scope of archaeology. The
landscape interpretation, ethnographic information, and use of oral traditions allowed this
project to contribute to the broader scale of Indigenous archaeology and First Nations
cultural research. This research project shows that archaeological and scientific
perspectives can play a great part in enhancing modern knowledge and perspectives on
cultural landscapes, and the relationship of this with ancient and modern people.
84
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Appendices
98
Appendix A. Qualitative Tables for Ochre and Rock Art
A.1 Qualitative table of ochre source locations
* cannot measure the full extent of Paul Ridge source as much of it may be underground and not exposed.
Location Terrain Ease of Access Elevation Seasonal Restriction Exposure Size
Paul Ridge
6.5km NE from trailhead via
via Elfin Lakes hiking trail.
13km south of Mt. Garibaldi.
Alpine, rock outcrops with
660m elevation gain from
trailhead. Alpine meadows
throughout, some
conifers.
Trail is well maintained.
Difficult 1660m
November - July
(depending on snow
cover and when
snow melts)
Open Soil 50m*
Pilchuck Creek
12km up Squamish River
road, Northeast side
of main River, small bridge
crosses the creek.
Second Growth forest,
Alluvial floodplain of
Squamish River. Dense
vegetation, steep muddy
bank walls.
Easy Sea Level
December-February
(depending on snow
cover,
temperature and water
level when frozen)
Bank wall 20-25m
99
A.2 Qualitative table of individual ochre samples from Paul Ridge and Pilchuck Creek.
Paul Ridge Color Munsell Color Description Homogenity Heterogeneity Grain Size Coarse Fragments Texture
1 2.5YR 4/6 red color texture, grain size very fine to very coarse 50% loam
2 2.5YR 3/4 dark reddish brown color texture, grain size very coarse to very fine >50% sandy loam
3 2.5YR 4/6 red color texture, grain size very coarse to very fine 25% sandy loam
4 5YR 4/6 yellowish red absent color, texture, grain size very coarse to very fine 30% sandy loam
5 5YR 4/6 yellowish red absent color, texture, grain size very coarse to very fine >50% loamy sand
6 2.5YR 3/6 dark red color texture, grain size very coarse to very fine 40% sandy loam
7 2.5YR 3/6 dark red texture color very coarse to very fine 25% sandy loam
8 2.5YR 3/6 dark red color texture, grain size very coarse to very fine >50% sandy loam
Pilchuck Creek
1 7.5YR 5/8 strong brown absent color fine >5% silty clay
2 7.5YR 4/6 strong brown texture color fine >5% silty clay
3 5YR 4/6 yellowish red absent color fine >5% silty clay
4 5YR 3/2 dark reddish brown absent color, texture fine >5% silty clay
5 2.5YR 3/6 dark red absent grain sizes, color medium grained sand 25% sandy loam
6 5YR 5/8 yellowish red absent grain sizes, color coarse to medium sand 25% sandy loam
7 7.5YR 5/8 strong brown texture, grain sizes color fine >5% sandy loam
8 7.5YR 4/6 strong brown texture, grain sizes color fine >5% silty clay loam
9 5YR 4/6 yellowish red texture, grain sizes color fine >5% silty clay
10 5YR 4/6 yellowish red texture color fine >5% sandy loam
11 2.5YR 4/8 red texture color fine sand 15% sandy loam
12 5YR 5/8 yellowish red absent color, texture fine >5% silty clay
100
A.3 Qualitative table of pictographs and rock art sites.
Site #Associated
Place NameAbbreviation Location Visibility Accessibility Panels Images/Panel Types of Images Visitation
DjRt 2 Khul-Kalos FCRock bluff on edge of water,
side of small hillprivate moderate 2 1, 11 (12 total)
anthropomorphic, animal,
celestial, zoomorphic, stylistic.multiple
DjRt 10 Sts’i’ts’a7kin MURock bluff in forest,
50m NE from Browning Lakepublic easy 1 1 directional/geometric/anthropomorphic. single
EaRu 9 P’uỳáḿ US
Rock Shelter on Upper
Squamish River, steep
climb, high up
private difficult 4 15 ,31,7,12
human, anthropomorphic,
celestial, geometric, zoomorphic,
animal, amorphous.
multiple
101
Appendix B. Raw pXRF spectra for ochre and rock art sites.
B.1 Raw Spectra for Paul Ridge
Blue Filter Elements:
Sample # / Element
V Mn Co
PR 1 1670 3378 4616
PR 2 1572 3110 3964
PR 3 1611 3187 4288
PR 4 2347 3620 5851
PR 5 2691 6350 8387
PR 6 2403 5770 7083
PR 7 2601 5076 6779
PR 8 2558 4542 7183
Green Filter Elements:
Sample # / Element
Fe As Rb Sr Sb Th U
PR 1 34332 98 26 6700 2160 228 217
PR 2 29020 66 5 12151 2300 137 248
PR 3 29689 93 0 11566 2310 86 216
PR 4 26951 39 0 12085 2474 109 275
PR 5 35764 82 0 8094 2239 119 158
PR 6 27586 99 8 15652 2546 170 198
PR 7 28263 43 0 13411 1933 156 187
PR 8 30858 38 15 14795 1860 88 259
102
B.2 Raw Spectra for Pilchuck Creek
Blue Filter Elements:
Sample # / Element
V Mn Co
PC 1 1941 16958 3854
PC 2 2387 9903 4450
PC 3 2437 8295 5585
PC 4 2256 6596 3801
PC 5 2150 9955 4592
PC 6 2399 8916 5248
PC 7 2829 12030 4828
PC 8 2146 10566 3290
PC 9 2277 8006 5394
PC 10 2367 10037 5805
PC 11 2029 8992 4132
PC 12 2415 18320 8245
Green Filter Elements:
Sample # / Element
Fe As Rb Sr Sb U Th
PC 1 43969 491 25 12416 2366 77 310
PC 2 37258 390 20 12729 2484 90 292
PC 3 52684 235 112 9199 1304 90 228
PC 4 24663 250 129 10096 2132 118 349
PC 5 36955 67 29 8955 1473 24 256
PC 6 37292 263 126 11335 1637 120 301
PC 7 32767 934 118 12396 1711 90 328
PC 8 28120 151 85 9711 1753 83 267
PC 9 38257 182 62 7928 1257 66 275
PC 10 48786 267 129 10212 1413 126 264
PC 11 38590 114 81 8703 1654 67 236
PC 12 87266 286 67 7305 1311 99 212
103
B.3 Raw Spectra for DjRt 2
DjRt 2 Pigment (Independent) Readings
Blue Filter Elements Green Filter Elements
Sample # V Mn Co Fe As Rb Sr Sb Th U
1 609 257 380 3873 46 86 3251 613 104 138
2 744 223 359 3269 15 0 1979 585 110 55
3 694 245 310 3910 65 102 2672 420 117 141
4 717 402 443 4283 32 3 2331 459 112 76
5 634 139 338 2263 52 85 3608 611 88 165
6 650 197 263 3877 52 77 1940 585 120 125
DjRt 2 Rock Wall (Control) Readings
Blue Filter Elements Green Filter Elements
Sample # V Mn Co Fe As Rb Sr Sb Th U
1 637 310 147 2932 60 89 3071 452 94 136
2 581 603 400 2673 39 15 2569 648 56 91
3 693 318 0 2993 71 263 2781 517 103 202
4 639 530 443 6462 49 240 3054 190 133 192
5 634 155 151 3590 65 216 4153 513 169 229
6 673 271 392 4742 38 250 2494 746 104 154
104
B.4 Raw Spectra for DjRt 10
DjRt 10 Rock Wall (Control) Readings
Sample # Blue Filter Elements Green Filter Elements
V Mn Co Fe As Rb Sr Sb U Th
1 3012 638 1092 3381 67 441 3614 2199 201 398
2 3608 280 842 3562 47 515 2115 2451 160 334
3 2206 826 1924 1073 53 497 1210 2371 284 409
4 2763 348 1614 4053 82 657 3047 2647 211 463
DjRt 10 Pigment (Independent) Readings
Sample # Blue Filter Elements Green Filter Elements
V Mn Co Fe As Rb Sr Sb U Th
1 2817 797 1544 3808 69 473 2312 2834 256 434
2 2729 701 1864 5810 41 811 2652 2440 284 461
3 3597 795 1542 6702 63 798 1674 2242 212 544
4 2194 260 1151 9452 67 481 2076 2985 287 391
105
B.5 Raw Spectra for EaRu 9a
EaRu 9a Pigment (Independent) Readings
Blue Filter Elements Green Filter Elements
Sample # V Mn Co Fe As Rb Sr Sb Th U
1 948 2189 1710 17511 28 58 10948 1948 224 184
2 871 912 1310 9516 49 33 13618 1475 88 234
3 910 965 1429 17259 44 50 14527 2462 257 336
4 1084 1480 1619 23316 96 1 22587 3938 228 325
5 972 1292 2008 27006 34 53 12765 3016 175 4
EaRu 9a Rock Wall (Control) Readings
Blue Filter Elements Green Filter Elements
Sample # V Mn Co Fe As Rb Sr Sb Th U
1 721 744 838 9793 92 75 18097 2420 309 269
2 712 467 504 4771 3 1 7647 1207 62 161
3 778 779 737 1259 36 0 4527 702 103 95
4 638 630 630 6120 51 41 10850 1465 88 156
5 878 1057 567 10927 68 10 15368 2689 190 323
106
B.6 Raw Spectra for EaRu 9b
EaRu 9b Rock Wall (Control) Readings
Blue Filter Elements Green Filter Elements
Sample # V Mn Co Fe As Rb Sr Sb Th U
1 567 932 664 8434 49 29 9998 1889 58 157
2 686 639 349 4839 55 3 9054 1581 110 152
3 146 110 0 4077 36 7 8055 1841 140 133
4 632 474 455 4139 20 2 10502 1486 47 152
5 603 1062 799 6505 32 47 8031 1614 59 149
6 648 578 148 5260 48 85 7920 1323 105 128
EaRu 9b Pigment (Independent) Readings
Blue Filter Elements Green Filter Elements
Sample # V Mn Co Fe As Rb Sr Sb Th U
1 626 569 541 7338 35 8 8901 1974 40 176
2 709 921 753 6485 24 1 9264 1175 30 134
3 632 525 521 6221 44 2 10427 1927 81 141
4 633 770 787 9196 22 12 8741 1964 85 127
5 657 1223 921 7820 30 53 8316 1866 121 175
6 706 896 662 6544 85 1 11444 2185 44 137
107
Appendix C. Eigenvalues and Correlations of Principal Component Analyses.