Psychology 305B: Theories of Personality Lecture 19

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Psychology 305B: Theories of Personality

Lecture 19

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Sex Differences in Personality

1. What stereotypes exist regarding sex differences in personality?

2. What methods are used to assess sex differences in personality?

Lecture 19

Questions That Will Be Answered In Today’s Lecture

Intelligence, continued

3. What are the primary criticisms of the dominant view of intelligence?

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Sex Differences in Personality, continued

3. What sex differences in personality have consistently emerged from research?

4. Are “masculinity” and “femininity” independent constructs?

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What are the primary criticisms of the dominant

view of intelligence?

• In recent years, a number of theorists have argued against the view that intelligence is best represented by a single score—the IQ score.

• At a statistical level, these theorists have noted that IQ scores do not account for a substantial amount of the variance in life outcomes. For example:

r between IQ scores and grades = .50

r between IQ scores and SES = .40

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• At a theoretical level, these theorists have argued that intelligence should be viewed as a multifaceted

construct rather than a single broad entity.

• Two theories have been proposed that maintain that intelligence is a multifaceted construct:

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1. Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

This theory maintains that there are 3 facets of intelligence:

(a) Analytical facet

(b) Creative facet

(c) Practical facet

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Consistent with Sternberg’s theory, research suggests that these 3 facets are only weakly correlated with one another.

Moreover, research suggests that the analytical facet is the only facet that is assessed to any degree by standard intelligence tests. For instance, research has shown that scores on practical intelligence tests are relatively independent of scores on IQ tests.

E.g., Ceci & Liker (1986): Examined the relation between practical intelligence scores and IQ scores among men who placed bets in horse races.

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2. Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences

Gardener argues that the conceptualization of intelligence as a single broad entity does not account

for individuals who have extraordinary talent in one area but lack “general intelligence” (e.g., savants). Gardner’s theory attempts to account for the

extraordinary talents of these individuals.

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Gardner (1993) stated:

“In the heyday of the psychometric and behaviorist eras, it was generally believed that intelligence was a single entity that was inherited; and that human beings—initially a blank slate—could be trained to learn anything, provided that it was presented in an appropriate way. Nowadays an increasing number of researchers believe precisely the opposite; that there exists a multitude of intelligences, quite independent of each other; that each intelligence has its own strengths and constraints; that the mind is far from unencumbered at birth; and that it is unexpectedly difficult to teach things that go against early 'naive' theories that challenge the natural lines of force within an intelligence.”

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1. Linguistic intelligence

2. Logical mathematical intelligence

Gardener’s theory maintains that there are 8 types of intelligence:

3. Spatial intelligence

4. Musical intelligence

5. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence

6. Intrapersonal intelligence

7. Interpersonal intelligence

8. Naturalist intelligence

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Gardener maintained that all 8 intelligences are neurologically represented. Consistent with his argument, research suggests that damage to specific areas of the brain impairs some types of intelligence while leaving other types of intelligence

intact.

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Examples:

(a) Damage to the right parietal lobe results in the loss of intrapersonal intelligence.

(b) Damage to the left parietal lobe results in the loss of bodily-kinesthetic intelligence.

(c) Damage to the frontal and temporal lobes of the right hemisphere results in the loss of interpersonal intelligence

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Gardner argued that the 8 intelligences are amoral in that they can be put to constructive or destructive use:

“I want my children to understand the world, but not just because the world is fascinating and the human mind is curious. I want them to understand it so that they will be positioned to make it a better place. Knowledge is not the same as morality, but we need to understand if we are to avoid past mistakes and move in productive directions. An important part of that understanding is knowing who we are and what we can do …. The performance of understanding …we carry out as human beings in an imperfect world which we can affect for good or for ill.” (Gardner, 1999)

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Gardner believed that each person has a unique blend of intelligences. He argued that the greatest challenge facing each of us is to determine “how to best take advantage of the uniqueness conferred on us as a species exhibiting … [multiple]

intelligences.”

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What stereotypes exist regarding sex differences

in personality?

• Stereotypes: Cognitive schemas or frameworks that contain beliefs about specific social groups. The

beliefs are generalizations about the typical or “modal” characteristics of group members. The beliefs may or may not be consistent with group members’ actual characteristics.

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• Research suggests that the content of male and female stereotypes is remarkably consistent across

cultures.

• E.g., Williams and Best (1990)

Recruited male and female participants from 30 countries (e.g., Austria, Bolivia, Ireland, Italy, Japan,

Peru, New Zealand, Nigeria, the Unites States).

Presented participants with 300 trait adjectives and asked them to indicate which traits are more

characteristic of men and which traits are more characteristic of women.

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Employed two criteria to identify the traits that comprise male and female stereotypes across cultures:

1. If more than two-thirds of the people within a country agreed that a trait is more characteristic of men or women, it was assumed that there was consensus within that country for the trait.

2. If more than three-quarters of the countries surveyed agreed that a trait is more characteristic of men or women, it was assumed that there was cross-cultural consensus for the trait.

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Traits Consensually Associated with Men

Dominant Self-confident Boastful

Adventurous Assertive Unkind

Strong Energetic Opportunistic

Aggressive Coarse Logical

Forceful Clear-thinking Inventive

Independent Active Robust

Unemotional Stern Progressive

Wise Courageous Daring

Ambitious Rational Hardhearted

Determined Disorderly Realistic

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Traits Consensually Associated with Women

Charming Fearful Weak

Sensitive Gentle Curious

Emotional Mild Sexy

Shy Pleasant Talkative

Anxious Submissive Affectionate

Attractive Dependent Affected

Meek Kind Softhearted

Sentimental Superstitious Dreamy

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These trait lists were examined in an effort to identify their underlying dimensions. Three dimensions were identified:

1. Positivity: In general, men were viewed more positively than women.

2. Activity: In general, men were viewed as beingmore active than women.

3. Strength: In general, men were viewed as beingstronger than women.

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• Sex difference: The average observed difference between males and females on a given characteristic.

• Sex differences in personality are typically assessed using a procedure referred to as meta-analysis.

What methods are used to assess sex differences

differences in personality?

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• Meta-analysis allows researchers to statistically combine the results of multiple studies.

• Meta-analysis involves 2 steps:

(a) An effect size or d statistic is computed for each study included in the meta-analysis.

(b) The effect sizes that are obtained across the studies included in the meta-analysis are averaged to

produce a mean effect size for the characteristic of interest.

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• The effect size obtained for a given study is computed as follows:

d = [X(males) – X(females)] / s

where

d = effect size.

X = mean of males/females on the characteristic of interest.

s = standard deviation of the entire sample (males and females combined) on the characteristic of interest.

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• Thus, a positive effect size indicates that males score higher than females on the characteristic of interest.

• In contrast, a negative effect size indicates that females score higher than males on the characteristic

of interest.

• An effect size can exceed 1.00 in magnitude.

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• Example of the computation of effect size:

A group of researchers examined sex differences in nose length. They found that the mean nose length of males was 2.5 inches, whereas the mean nose length of females was 2.0 inches. The standard deviation for the combined sample of males and females was .6 inches. What was the effect size for nose length

obtained in this study?

d = [X(males) – X(females)] / s = [2.5 – 2.0] / .6 = .83

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• In general, effect sizes are interpreted as follows:

An effect size of .20 or -.20 reflects a small sex difference.

An effect size of .50 or - .50 reflects a moderate sex difference.

An effect size of .80 or -.80 reflects a large sex difference.

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What sex differences in personality have consistently

emerged from research?

1. Sex Differences in the Big 5

• In conducting research on sex differences in the Big 5, researchers have largely focused on the

facets that comprise each dimension of the Big 5.

• Examples of facets:

Agreeableness: Trust, compliance, altruism, straight forwardness, modesty, tender-mindedness.

Extraversion: Warmth, gregariousness, assertiveness, activity, excitement seeking, positive emotions.

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(a) Extraversion: Three facets have been examined.

Gregariousness (sociable, outgoing)

Assertiveness (outspoken, forceful)

Activity (energetic, lively)

Facet Effect size

-.15

.50

.09

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(b) Agreeableness: Two facets have been examined.

Trust (cooperative, forgiving)

Tender-mindedness (nurturing, sympathetic)

Facet Effect size

-.25

-.97

Note: Effect size for smiling is -.60

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(c) Conscientiousness: One facet has been examined.

Order (organized, methodical)

Ideas (curious, inquisitive)

Facet

-.13

.03

(d) Openness to Experience: One facet has been examined.

Facet

Effect size

Effect size

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(e) Neuroticism: Two facets have been examined.

Impulsiveness (spontaneous, moody)

Anxiety (anxious, tense)

Facet Effect size

.06

-.28

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2. Sex Differences in Aggressiveness

• Numerous studies have demonstrated that males score higher in aggressiveness than females.

These studies have used a variety of measures:

Type of Test Effect size

Peer-report measures

.40Self-report measures

Fantasy measures

Projective measures (e.g., TAT)

.63

.84

.86

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• This sex difference appears to have profound consequences:

For example,

Males commit more non-homicidal violent crimes (e.g., assault, armed robbery) than females.

Males commit more homicides than females (~90% of all homicides).

340

1000

500

Ho

mic

ide

Rat

e (A

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ts/1

,000

,000

Per

son

s)

Age of Offender

30 40 50 60 10 20

Males

Females

Homicide Rate by Age and Sex

350

1000

500

Vio

len

t C

rim

e R

ate

(Arr

ests

/100

,000

Per

son

s)

Age of Offender

30 40 50 60 10 20

Males

Females

Violent Crime Rate by Age and Sex

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3. Sex Differences in Emotionality

• Several studies have examined sex differences in the frequency and intensity with which different

emotions are experienced.

• Example: Brebner, 2003

Recruited 9067 participants from 42 countries.

Assessed the frequency and intensity with which participants experienced 4 positive and 4 negative emotions.

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EmotionEffect size for

Frequency

-.30Affection

Contentment

Pride

-.16

-.13

ns

Effect size for Intensity

Joy

Positive Emotions

-.25

-.26

-.18

ns

-.23 -.20

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EmotionEffect size for

Frequency

-.17Fear

Anger

Guilt

-.16

-.05

ns

Effect size for Intensity

Sadness

Negative Emotions

-.26

-.28

-.14

-.07

-.25 -.14

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These results suggest that females experience both positive and negative emotions more frequently and more intensely than males.

4. Sex Differences in Self-Esteem

• Substantial research has examined sex differences in global self-esteem.

• Global self-esteem: The level of regard that one has for oneself as a person (i.e., at the broadest level).

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• Global self-esteem is correlated with many indices of psychological health (e.g., ability to cope with

stress, resiliency to negative feedback, life satisfaction, depression, anxiety, somatic symptoms).

• The overall effect size for self-esteem that has emerged from research is .21 (Feingold, 1994; Kling et al., 1999).

• When this sex difference is analyzed by age, an interesting pattern of results emerges:

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Age Effect size

.167 – 10 years

15 – 18 years

19 – 22 years

.23

.33

.18

11 – 14 years

23 – 59 years .10

> 60 years -.03

• These results indicate that females experience adecrease in self-esteem during adolescence. The decrease, however, is not permanent.

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Are “masculinity” and “femininity” independent

• Over the last several decades, there has been substantial controversy among researchers as to the

nature of masculinity and femininity.

• In the 1930s, researchers came to believe that masculinity and femininity are best viewed as a single

dimension:

High Masculinity High Femininity

constructs?

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• However, in the 1970s, with the rise of the feminist movement, researchers began to question the

assumption of a single masculinity-femininity dimension.

• These researchers came to believe that masculinity and femininity form independent dimensions:

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High Masculinity

High Femininity

Low Masculinity

Low Femininity

Stereotypically Feminine

Stereotypically Masculine

Undifferentiated

Androgynous

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• These researchers argued that the androgynous individual is more “highly developed” than the stereotypically masculine, stereotypically feminine, or

undifferentiated individual.

• Although the 2-D model gained substantial popularity, it was criticized by some researchers:

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(a) Some researchers argued that masculinity and femininity are multifaceted constructs and, therefore, cannot be represented dimensionally.

(b) Other researchers noted that people rarely score high on both masculinity and femininity or low on both masculinity and femininity. Rather, the vast majority of people are high on one and low on the other (i.e., are stereotypically masculine or

feminine).

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• In light of such criticisms, a number of researchers who adopted the 2-D model later revised their

thinking.

• For example, in 1974, Sandra Bem developed the Bem Sex Role Inventory to assess masculinity and femininity in accordance with the 2-D model.

However, in light of the criticisms of this model, she revised her thinking, ultimately arguing that her

inventory assesses how “gender schematic” an individual is.

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• An individual who is highly gender schematic regulates his or her own attitudes and behaviour in accordance with common stereotypes regarding males and

females.

• According to Bem’s new conceptualization, the ideal is not to be androgynous but to be gender aschematic.

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Sex Differences in Personality

1. What stereotypes exist regarding sex differences in personality?

2. What methods are used to assess sex differences in personality?

Questions That Were Answered In Today’s Lecture

Intelligence, continued

3. What are the primary criticisms of the dominant view of intelligence?

Psychology 305 50

Sex Differences in Personality, continued

3. What sex differences in personality have consistently emerged from research?

4. Are “masculinity” and “femininity” independent constructs?