Psychological and physiological responses to stress: The right hemisphere and the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis, an inquiry into problems of human bonding

Anthony Limperos

University of Kentucky

T. Franklin Waddell

Pennsylvania State University

Adrienne Holz Ivory

James D. Ivory*

Virginia Tech

Psychological and PhysiologicalResponses to Stereoscopic 3DPresentation in Handheld DigitalGaming: Comparing theExperiences of Frequent andInfrequent Game Players

Abstract

Recent advances in commercial gaming technology include stereoscopic 3D presenta-

tion. This experiment employed a mixed factorial design to explore the effects of game

display format (2D; 3D), frequency of game play (weekly; non-weekly), and participant

gender (male; female) on feelings of presence and arousal among participants playing a

handheld racing video game. Responses to display format were moderated by fre-

quency of game play, with stereoscopic 3D presentation eliciting reduced presence

and increased arousal among weekly game players, but the reverse pattern among

non-weekly game players. Theoretical and practical implications of the moderating role

of game play frequency in effects of 3D presentation are discussed.

1 Introduction

The meteoric rise of commercial video games as a primary form of entertain-

ment and as a topic of scholarly research has been a trend for decades. Gener-

ally, most video game research has focused on understanding the outcome of

playing games, but there has been a recent shift toward understanding how spe-

cific game features impact the gaming experience (Lee, Peng, & Park, 2009).

A look at the brief history of commercial video games reveals that while conven-

tions and genres of games haven’t changed much since the days of Atari and

Magnavox Odyssey, the graphics and methods used to control games have

changed considerably (Kent, 2001). While the introduction of motion controls

has been labeled as a defining characteristic of 7th-generation consoles (Lim-

peros, Downs, Ivory, & Bowman, 2013), this new era of consoles has also

brought about the use and reintroduction of the stereoscopic three-dimensional

(3D) image format in gaming.

Stereoscopic 3D presents different image content to each of a viewer’s eyes to

create the illusion of visual depth (Bowman & McMahan, 2007). This technol-

ogy has existed for more than a century and has been widely used in screen

media for decades. Even though stereoscopic 3D has been around for many

years, it has been promoted quite heavily for home use recently. Despite the factPresence, Vol. 23, No. 4, Fall 2014, 341–353

doi:10.1162/PRES_a_00204

ª 2015 by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology *Correspondence to [email protected].

Limperos et al. 341

that stereoscopic 3D presentation in video games has

been available since the early 1980s, the ‘‘big three’’

game companies (Nintendo, Sony, and Microsoft) have

only recently tried to promote widespread usage of this

image format in commercial gaming. This movement to-

ward 3D in the gaming industry has been met with

mixed feelings amongst gamers and industry insiders.

Even though many believe that 3D games are novel and

fun, a recent survey of more than 1000 regular game

players indicated that more than half (51%) did not favor

the 3D movement, and nearly a quarter (22%) felt that

the technology would hinder the game playing experi-

ence (Morris, 2011). The results of this survey and other

popular press reports indicate that not everyone is

enthused by the idea of 3D in video games. Even though

game companies have not made 3D the primary focus of

new gaming devices, they are certainly not abandoning

the idea (Orland, 2012).

Given the fact that personal gaming devices that uti-

lize stereoscopic 3D are relatively new and their usage

has not yet reached critical mass, we devised a study to

gain a better understanding of how differences between

2D and 3D formats impact the overall gaming experi-

ence, specifically in terms of presence and arousal

responses. This study employs a direct experimental test

of how the difference in image format (2D or 3D)

impacts both psychological and physiological responses

to the game-playing experience. Furthermore, this study

investigates whether the frequency of game play (experi-

enced versus inexperienced players) and gender (male;

female) moderate responses to playing 2D and 3D ver-

sions of the same game.

2 Literature Review

2.1 Responses to Technological

Advances in Video Games

Researchers generally agree that understanding the

influence of technological advancement, especially with

regard to digital technologies and video games, is

increasingly important for discerning the effects and

experiences that people have with these types of media

(Ivory & Kalyanaraman, 2007; Lee et al., 2009; Lim-

peros, Schmierbach, Kegerise, & Dardis, 2011; Sundar,

2007, 2008). From a media–effects perspective, video

games’ technological features can be viewed as a collec-

tion of technological affordances. Sundar (2007) concep-

tualizes technological affordances as perceptual or actual

properties of a medium that describe or suggest how we

are to interact with that particular medium. Sundar

(2008) finds that the four main classes of affordances—

modality, agency, interactivity, and navigability—impact

our perceptions, experiences, and responses to different

types of media. With regard to video games, an afford-

ance is essentially anything that mediates the interaction

with the environment and the user. The graphics associ-

ated with games (regardless of whether they are 2D or

3D) are essentially a visual modality feature, which has

the potential to impact the game-playing experience.

The stereoscopic 3D technology that is widely avail-

able for use on many home gaming systems serves rela-

tively no practical purpose except for enhancing the

game-playing experience. People who play games on

advanced 3D systems aren’t typically afforded any dis-

tinct advantages over those who play on 2D systems.

Schild, LaViola, and Masuch (2012) found that players

reported greater spatial reasoning/presence, intensity,

immersion, and realism when playing 3D games as com-

pared to games presented in a traditional monoscopic

2D manner. Even though 3D does not provide a com-

petitive advantage, it can serve to enhance presence and

the overall playing experience (Rajae-Joordens, 2008).

As a result, it is important to better understand how ster-

eoscopic 3D enhances the game-playing experience and

whether these enhanced experiences are universally

favorable for both frequent and infrequent game players.

2.2 Stereoscopic 3D Game Interfaces

and Feelings of Presence

2.2.1 Effects of other technological video

game advances on presence. Research that has

sought to understand the effects of playing video games

has often focused on the role played by ‘‘presence’’ in

bolstering a sense of connection and immersion with

games (Tamborini & Bowman, 2010; Tamborini &

Skalski, 2006). Although there are many different con-

ceptualizations of presence, the term generally refers to

342 PRESENCE: VOLUME 23, NUMBER 4

the ability of a mediated interface to facilitate a feeling of

nonmediation between the user and that particular inter-

face (Lee, 2004; Lombard & Ditton, 1997). Essentially,

presence describes a game player or media user’s feeling

that his or her interaction with the media is real or causes

a heightened sense of realism.

Research on video games has consistently shown link-

ages between technological affordances (e.g., agency,

interactivity, and modality) and increased feelings of

presence, which in turn have an impact on various cogni-

tive, behavioral, and affective outcomes. For example,

Ivory and Kalyanaraman (2007) found that a newer

(more graphically enhanced) version of a video game cre-

ated greater feelings of presence than an older version of

a similar game. Research has also shown that game-like

content displayed via immersive VR or IVE technology

is more presence-inducing than content that is experi-

enced on less advanced technology (Meehan, Razzaque,

Whitton, & Brooks, 2003; Persky & Blascovich, 2008).

Collectively, these studies suggest that more graphically

enhanced gaming interfaces are inherently more pres-

ence-inducing than systems that are not as advanced.

2.2.2 Prior game play as a potential

moderator of responses to stereoscopic 3D. While

some might expect that the modality of 3D should

enhance users’ feelings of presence, it is also possible to

predict that these differences may vary according to the

prior game play experience. In other words, responses to

3D interfaces are not necessarily uniform, but may be

moderated by their levels of familiarity with the medium.

Just as the media-effects tradition has recently empha-

sized the important effect of antecedent variables on

media use (Oliver & Krakowiak, 2009), research from

the domain of human–computer interaction has also rec-

ognized the importance of individual-level differences,

specifically differentiating between novice and expert

users (Chen & Macredie, 2006; Jenkins, Corritore, &

Wiedenbeck, 2003). In terms of multimodal interfaces,

novices are generally expected to experience greater diffi-

culty with multimodal devices due to a lack of previous

use, leading to issues such as difficulty and disorientation

that hinder enjoyment. By comparison, expert users are

generally capable of avoiding disorientation due to their

extensive prior use of technology and a greater motiva-

tion to understand and master the affordances that new

technologies provide (Chen & Macredie, 2006; Mar-

athe, Sundar, Bijvank, van Vugt, & Veldhuis, 2007).

Based on these distinctions, it might be expected that

games presented in stereoscopic 3D would be more

appealing to more experienced expert players, or ‘‘power

users,’’ who are capable of utilizing the full range of ben-

efits offered by this image format as an enhancement of

the games’ other dimensions and features; while inexper-

ienced or novice players would be expected to find the

use of multimodal devices less appealing as another fea-

ture added to an already unfamiliar range of interface ele-

ments. However, despite the notion that the novelty of

any technological innovation is often enough to bring

about its widespread usage and acceptance (Venkatesh &

Davis, 2000), some evidence suggests that seasoned

gamers have mixed feelings about the relative impor-

tance of 3D or the likelihood that they would engage

with these types of games (Morris, 2011). Similarly, the

diffusion of innovation literature suggests that the deci-

sions to accept or reject any technology come down to

whether or not the new technology has distinct advan-

tages over the previous technology (Rogers, 1995).

Given this paradox, it is possible to alternatively expect

that stereoscopic 3D may serve no functional purpose

other than to enhance the game play experience, and

more experienced game players may consequently view

3D as an obstacle that hinders immersion and enhances

difficulty (Ravaja, Saliminen, Holopainen, Saari, Laarni,

& Jarvinen, 2004). This is consistent with the ‘‘bells and

whistles’’ heuristic proposed in the MAIN model

(Sundar, 2008), which predicts that newer modalities

may be perceived by some users as ‘‘all flash and no sub-

stance’’ (Sundar, 2008, p. 28). Along the same reason-

ing, 3D may be more appealing to less experienced users

due to the ‘‘coolness’’ heuristic, which Sundar (2008)

explains is a positive feeling generally elicited by the nov-

elty associated with recent advancements in modality.

Although expertise is not solely defined as total expo-

sure to a medium (Sundar & Marathe, 2012), more fre-

quent use of technology is a necessary prerequisite for

mastering new technologies. Most video game users’ ex-

pertise is not formally assessed, and as the medium

Limperos et al. 343

evolves rapidly, users’ experience in the past may be a

poor predictor of current video game ability, so video

game players’ frequency of play may serve as the most

meaningful marker of general game expertise. Taken to-

gether, then, the conflicting body of literature on expert

and novice users’ responses to interfaces suggests that

individuals’ frequency of video game play should moder-

ate the effects of the stereoscopic 3D format on feelings

of presence. However, it is less clear whether frequent or

infrequent game players are more likely to enjoy their

interaction with the added feature of 3D modality, given

the conflicting predictions of alternative theoretical pre-

dictions related to disorientation (Jenkins et al., 2003)

and novelty (Sundar, 2008). Thus, while there is reason

to believe that frequent and infrequent game players may

respond to 3D game interfaces differently, it is less clear

whether this level of experience with games will create a

more immersive and presence-inducing gaming experi-

ence with a 3D interface than with a 2D interface. As a

result, the following competing hypotheses are proposed:

H1a: Frequent players will experience greater presence

during 3D game play than during 2D game play,

while infrequent players will experience greater

presence during 2D game play than during 3D

game play.

H1b: Infrequent players will experience greater pres-

ence during 3D game play than during 2D game

play, while frequent players will experience greater

presence during 2D game play than during 3D

game play.

2.3 Stereoscopic 3D Game Interfaces

and Arousal

2.3.1 Effects of other technological video

game advances on arousal. Another way of gauging

how people engage with and respond to 2D and 3D

games is by assessing levels of arousal. In fact, measuring

physiological arousal (in addition to self-reported meas-

ures of presence) in response to media formats has

become common practice in research that focuses on

responses to VR, IVE, and 3D technologies (Meehan

et al., 2003; Phillips, Interrante, Kaeding, Ries, &

Anderson 2012; Slater et al., 2006; Wiederhold et al.,

2003). Physiological arousal, which is effectively an

increase in sympathetic nervous system activity that can

be tied to a number of moods and states, can vary in

responses to media stimuli for a number of different rea-

sons (Rajava, 2004). In the context of gaming research,

some studies have shown that intense engagement with

an exciting game experience can be associated with

increased psychophysiological arousal (e.g., Ivory &

Kalyanaraman, 2007; Schneider, Lang, Shin, & Bradley,

2004). However, this excitement may not always be of a

pleasant nature; physiological arousal has also been

implicated as a marker of increased frustration with some

gaming experiences (see Adachi & Willoughby, 2011).

Stereoscopic 3D imaging is similar to immersive vir-

tual technology. Although virtual immersive technology

allows a game player to be engulfed in or feel as if they

are actually present in a virtual world, 3D mimics this by

creating an illusion of visual depth for the game player.

Research has consistently shown that games played with

advanced immersive virtual technologies can induce

more arousal than games that are played without these

capabilities (Persky & Blascovich, 2007, 2008; Schild

et al., 2012; Tamborini, Eastin, Skalski, Lachlan, Fediuk,

& Brady, 2004). However, research on arousal and pres-

ence responses to IVEs has yielded mixed results, with

some studies showing a link between reduced arousal

and heightened feelings of immersion and presence, and

others finding that high arousal is linked to heightened

feelings of presence (Meehan et al., 2002, 2003; Slater

et al., 2006; Wiederhold et al., 2003). Given that 3D as

a modality is designed to induce a similarly advanced

immersive experience, it might be expected that the use

of such interfaces should induce similarly heightened lev-

els of arousal—however, responses may be dependent

upon previous experience.

2.3.2 Prior experience as a potential

moderator of responses to stereoscopic 3D. As with

presence, though, there is reason to believe that effects of

stereoscopic 3D presentation on physiological arousal are

not uniform, but rather moderated by familiarity with the

medium. Again, research focused on responses to video

games’ technological dimensions has tended to find that

exciting experiences with video games also tend to be

344 PRESENCE: VOLUME 23, NUMBER 4

associated with greater levels of physiological arousal dur-

ing the game experience (Ivory & Kalyanaraman, 2007;

Persky & Blascovich, 2007, 2008; Schneider et al., 2004;

Tamborini et al., 2004). Therefore, the same rationale for

the prediction that prior game play experience moderates

effects of 3D game interfaces on feelings of presence also

serves as a rationale for the prediction that prior game

play experience similarly moderates effects of stereoscopic

3D interfaces on physiological arousal.

Again, though, the literature is less clear regarding

how prior experience might moderate effects of stereo-

scopy on arousal. On the one hand, frequent players may

be familiar enough with game interfaces to effectively

absorb the 3D presentation as a new feature enhancing

their game experience, while infrequent players may find

that 3D presentation does not enhance excitement from

a game experience that is already crowded with unfami-

liar dimensions and affordances (Chen & Macredie,

2006; Marathe et al., 2007). On the other hand, fre-

quent players may find that the stereoscopic 3D presen-

tation is a superfluous ‘‘bells and whistles’’ feature dis-

tracting from the excitement of the game experience

(Ravaja et al., 2004; Sundar, 2008), while infrequent

players may be excited by the novel ‘‘coolness’’ of the

novel 3D presentation feature. Therefore, we propose

competing hypotheses regarding how player experience

moderates effects of 3D game presentation on arousal, as

with our earlier hypotheses for effects on presence:

H2a: Frequent players will experience greater physio-

logical arousal during 3D game play than during

2D game play, while infrequent players will experi-

ence greater physiological arousal during 2D game

play than during 3D game play.

H2b: Infrequent players will experience greater physi-

ological arousal during 3D game play than during

2D game play, while frequent players will experi-

ence greater physiological arousal during 2D game

play than during 3D game play.

2.4 Stereoscopic 3D Game Interfaces

and User Gender

While video games are a popular pastime for both

men and women, research has observed consistent differ-

ences found in video game play frequency and preferen-

ces between men and women (e.g., Lucas & Sherry,

2004). Much attention has been paid to an increased

digital divide between gender and the use of video games

and related forms of new communication technologies,

with a large body of evidence generally suggesting that

men are more frequent users of games than women

(Cooper, 2006; Jackson, Zhao, Kolenic, Fitzgerald, Har-

old, & Von Eye, 2008; Terlecki & Newcombe, 2005).

Applied to user expertise, men may be more likely than

women to be experienced players of video games because

of their more frequent use. Even though this is the case, a

recent study by Schild et al. (2012) comparing various 2D

and 3D video games found mixed results in terms of

arousal, and effects on arousal were moderated by partici-

pant gender. This study, along with an array of other

investigations, indicates that the role of gender in

responses to video game features is not clear; while some

effects of video games appear to be moderated by gender

(e.g., Anderson & Dill, 2000), other effects appear to be

relatively uniform across male and female players, particu-

larly the effects of technological features (e.g., Ivory &

Kalyanaraman, 2007). Therefore, we ask:

RQ1: Does player gender moderate any effects of 3D

game presentation on feelings of presence?

RQ2: Does player gender moderate any effects of 3D

game presentation on physiological arousal?

3 Method

3.1 Design

Hypotheses were examined in a laboratory experi-

ment employing a 2 (game mode: 2D vs. 3D) � 2 (video

game play frequency: weekly players vs. non-weekly play-

ers) � 2 (gender: male v. female) mixed factorial design.

Game mode (2D or 3D) was manipulated as a within-

subjects factor. Video game play frequency was at least

one hour per week or less than one hour per week. Gen-

der was measured as quasi-independent between-subjects

factors. Participants’ feelings of presence, video game play

frequency, and gender were assessed with questionnaire

measures, while arousal was measured as skin conduct-

ance using physiological data–collection equipment.

Limperos et al. 345

3.2 Participants

Participants were 39 university students (21

female, 18 male) participating in exchange for course

credit. They reported a mean age of 19.56 (range ¼ 18–

23, SD ¼ 1.07) and a mean of 3.29 (range ¼ 0–21,

SD ¼ 5.23) hours spent playing video games weekly.

3.3 Stimulus Materials and Manipulated

Independent Variable

3.3.1 Game mode. Participants played two ten-

minute sessions of the video game Ridge Racer 3D on

the Nintendo 3DS portable video game system. The

game system features a 3D display mode that can be acti-

vated or deactivated, allowing games to be played in 2D

or stereoscopic 3D format; other than the stereoscopic

display, there are no differences in game content of

mechanics between the 2D and 3D game modes. Ridge

Racer 3D was selected for the study from the 15 games

available for purchase at the time of the system’s North

American release because races could be completed dur-

ing a short game session as is appropriate for a laboratory

experiment and to minimize the learning curve for par-

ticipants regarding the game’s control scheme and goals.

The driving-based control scheme and racing competi-

tion goals for the racing game were expected to be more

intuitive to new players compared to the control schemes

and goals for other games available at the time (e.g., a

martial arts fighting game or an adventure game with a

lengthy, chapter-based narrative). Racing games have

been used in previous research on responses to other

stereoscopic 3D display technologies (e.g., Schild et al.,

2012).

3.4 Measured Quasi-Independent

Variables

3.4.1 Video game play frequency. The ques-

tionnaire administered before the two game play sessions

included an open-ended response question asking, ‘‘On

average, how many hours per week do you spend playing

video games (including computer, console, online, or ar-

cade games)?’’ Participants who reported playing video

games for an hour or more per week were classified as

‘‘weekly players’’ (N ¼ 19), and participants who did not

report playing video games for at least one hour per week

were classified as ‘‘non-weekly players’’ (N ¼ 20).

3.4.2 Gender. The questionnaire administered

before the two game play sessions also measured partici-

pants’ gender.

3.5 Outcome Measures

3.5.1 Presence. Participants’ feelings of presence

were assessed with a questionnaire administered after

each of the two 10-minute game play sessions to allow

comparison of scores across the game mode conditions.

After each game session, participants completed a three-

item questionnaire measure of presence from Schneider,

Lang, Shin, and Bradley (2004): ‘‘While playing the

game, how much did you feel like you were really ‘there’

in the game environment?’’ (1 ¼ ‘‘there,’’ 7 ¼ ‘‘not

there’’), ‘‘While playing the game, how much did you

feel like the game environment was a real place?’’ (1 ¼‘‘real,’’ 7 ¼ ‘‘not real’’), and ‘‘While playing the game,

how much did you feel like other characters in the game

were real?’’ (1 ¼ ‘‘real,’’ 7 ¼ ‘‘not real’’). The short

three-item measure was chosen to allow quick measure-

ment of the concept and reduce the likelihood of partici-

pant fatigue, given that they completed the same mea-

sure twice during the experimental session. Items were

reverse-scored for analyses so that higher scores indi-

cated higher levels of presence. All three items were aver-

aged to produce a presence score for each participant for

each game mode condition (Cronbach’s a2D ¼ 0.80,

Cronbach’s a3D ¼ 0.75).

3.5.2 Physiological arousal. Continuous skin

conductance level (SCL) was used as a tonic measure of

sympathetic nervous system activity indicating physio-

logical arousal experienced by participants while playing

the video game. Skin conductance, which is measured in

units called microSiemens, is used frequently in psycho-

physiology research as a general measure of sympathetic

nervous system activity indicating physiological arousal,

with increases in skin conductance levels acting as indica-

346 PRESENCE: VOLUME 23, NUMBER 4

tors of increases in arousal level (see Bauer, 1998; Daw-

son, Schell, & Filion, 2000; Ravaja, 2004). Typical skin

conductance levels vary among individuals, so research

measuring skin conductance level in responses to a stim-

ulus often compares participants’ skin conductance levels

during stimulus exposure to a baseline measure in order

to account for individual variability in typical skin con-

ductance levels (see Ivory & Kalyanaraman, 2007;

Sundar & Kalyanaraman, 2004). Skin conductance

level data were sampled 200 times per second at a sam-

pling rate of 66.5 Hz using a BIOPAC MP35 system

(http://www.biopac.com) to produce a continuous

SCL measure during each of four time periods. The first

skin conductance measurement was a baseline measure

taken for a period of 30 seconds before participants

played the first game session. Second, SCL was measured

continuously during the first 10-minute video game seg-

ment (played either in 2D or 3D mode based on ran-

domization of condition order). Third, another 30-sec-

ond baseline SCL measurement was taken, after which

SCL was measured a fourth time during the second 10-

minute game play segment. Physiological arousal for

each of the two game play segments was then calculated

as the percentage change in SCL between each mean

baseline measurement and the subsequent game play

segment (specifically calculated for each of the two seg-

ments by subtracting the mean baseline SCL from the

mean game play segment SCL, then dividing by the cor-

responding mean baseline SCL).

3.6 Procedures

All participants took part in the experiment in indi-

vidual sessions. After participants consented, they were

seated in an office-style armchair. Participants then com-

pleted a questionnaire containing the age, gender, and

video game play frequency measures, after which the

experiment administrator asked them to remove all foot-

wear from their non-dominant foot. The experiment ad-

ministrator then cleaned the instep area of the non-dom-

inant foot with distilled water and a paper towel, applied

electrode jelly to the contact areas of the electrodes, and

attached two disposable adhesive Ag–AgCl electrodes

with 10-mm contact area to the skin above the abductor

hallucis muscle, placing the electrodes adjacent to one

another approximately midway between the medial mal-

leolus and the proximal phalanx of the hallux.

After taking a baseline SCL measurement using these

electrodes for 30 seconds, the experimenter gave partici-

pants a clipboard containing rudimentary instructions

for the video game. The experimenter then set up the

Ridge Racer 3D game on the handheld portable Nin-

tendo 3DS system, using a sliding control to set the

game’s video presentation to either 2D or stereoscopic

3D depending on the condition order randomization.

(Session order was counterbalanced to prevent order

effects.) As the participant began the first game session,

the experimenter simultaneously started the first game

session’s SCL measurement, which continued for the

duration of the 10-minute stimulus exposure segment.

After 10 minutes, the experimenter informed partici-

pants that the first session was complete, stopped the

game and SCL measurement, and gave participants a

questionnaire including the self-reported presence items.

Then, the entire baseline and game session procedure

was repeated with the Ridge Racer 3D game for the sec-

ond condition, with the game’s video presentation set in

2D or 3D—whichever mode was not used in the first

game session. During this second session, another 30-

second baseline SCL measurement was taken, a second

10-minute game session was played with SCL measured

for the duration of the segment, and a second question-

naire with the self-reported questionnaire items was

administered. After both baseline measurements, game

exposure segments, and questionnaires were complete,

the electrodes were removed and participants were

debriefed and dismissed.

4 Results

4.1 Presence

H1a predicted that frequent players would experi-

ence greater presence during 3D game play than during

2D game play, while infrequent players would experience

greater presence during 2D game play than during 3D

game play. Conversely, H1b predicted that infrequent

players would experience greater presence during 3D

game play than during 2D game play, while frequent

Limperos et al. 347

players would experience greater presence during 2D

game play than during 3D game play. RQ1 asked

whether player gender moderated any effects of 3D

video game presentation on feelings of presence.

A repeated-measures ANOVA with presence as the de-

pendent measure, game mode as the within-subjects fac-

tor, and video game play frequency and gender as

between-subjects factors found a significant game mode

operator X video game play frequency interaction, F(1,

35) ¼ 5.04, p ¼ .039, g2p ¼ .12, with feelings of pres-

ence higher in the 3D condition than in the 2D condi-

tion for non-weekly players, but lower in the 3D condi-

tion than the 2D condition for weekly players (see

Figure 1). No other main or interaction effects were sig-

nificant (ps > .05). H1a is disconfirmed, while the com-

peting hypothesis H1b is supported. In response to RQ1,

there is no significant evidence that gender moderated

these effects.

4.2 Physiological Arousal

H2a predicted that frequent players would experi-

ence greater arousal during 3D game play than during

2D game play, while infrequent players would experience

greater arousal during 2D game play than during 3D

game play. Conversely, H2b predicted that infrequent

players would experience greater arousal during 3D

game play than during 2D game play, while frequent

players would experience greater arousal during 2D

game play than during 3D game play. RQ2 asked

whether player gender moderated any effects of 3D

video game presentation on arousal. A repeated-meas-

ures ANOVA with skin conductance change as the de-

pendent measure and the same within- and between-

subjects factors found a significant game mode operator

X video game play frequency interaction, F(1, 33) ¼6.44, p ¼ .016, g2

p ¼ .16,1 with non-weekly players’ skin

conductance increasing in the 2D condition and decreas-

ing in the 3D condition, but weekly players’ skin con-

ductance decreasing in the 2D condition and increasing

in the 3D condition (see Figure 2). No other main or

interaction effects on feelings were significant (ps > .05).

H1a is supported, while the competing hypothesis H1b is

disconfirmed. In response to RQ2, there is no significant

evidence that gender moderated these effects.

Figure 1. Game mode X video game play frequency interaction effect

on feelings of presence.

Figure 2. Game mode X video game play frequency interaction effect

on skin conductance change.

1. Two study participants’ skin conductance change scores were

removed from analysis due to recording errors.

348 PRESENCE: VOLUME 23, NUMBER 4

5 Discussion

Even though media that use stereoscopic 3D capa-

bilities have been around for decades, the use of this vis-

ual enhancement in commercially popular games is still

relatively new. Based on the existing literature and

theory related to the effects of technological enhance-

ments in gaming, we proposed competing hypotheses

and research questions focusing on the relationship

between game format (2D; 3D), video game play fre-

quency (weekly; non-weekly), and gender (male; female)

on feelings of presence and arousal. This study suggests

that the addition of stereoscopy to a handheld gaming

device can create an immersive and arousing gaming ex-

perience, but only for certain types of game players.

Shafer et al. (2011) explain that heightened feelings of

presence are often associated with greater perceived

enjoyment of games, but the broader presence literature

suggests that decreases in arousal can signify an array of

different experiences ranging from immersion, excite-

ment, frustration, or stress. Considering the previous

research and results of the current study, it appears that

infrequent players responded more positively than regu-

lar players to the addition of stereoscopic 3D. Further-

more, this pattern appears to be consistent for males and

females. While the findings of this study do not conclu-

sively shed light on what ultimately makes the game-

playing experience enjoyable, they do help theoretically

untangle how visual enhancement of stereoscopic 3D is

affected by previous game-playing experience.

Research involving video games and presence (Ivory

& Kalayanaraman, 2007; Persky & Blascovich, 2008;

Tamborini & Skalski, 2006) has tended to show that

technologically enhanced interfaces are more presence-

inducing than their counterparts. Also, research has

shown that heightened feelings of presence are typically

unaffected by individual differences such as previous ex-

perience (Malbos, Rapee, & Kavakli, 2012; Nunez &

Blake, 2006; Schild et al., 2012; Shafer et al., 2011).

Past research on technological affordances and power

users (Sundar, 2007; Sundar & Marathe, 2012) has

demonstrated that users’ responses to and expectations

of technological affordances can be shaped by level of ex-

perience. In this study, frequent game players did not

feel that the stereoscopic 3D game format was as

presence-inducing as the infrequent game players.

Sundar’s (2007; 2008) MAIN model can help explain

why experienced game players responded more nega-

tively to the stereoscopic experience. In studies on power

and non-power users of PCs, Marathe et al. (2007) and

Sundar and Marathe (2012) found that experienced PC

users tended to rate newer features (especially those that

were ‘‘gimmicky’’ and full of ‘‘bells and whistles’’) as

generally useless, whereas inexperienced users were

intrigued by the idea. In our study, it is possible that the

frequent game players reported feeling less presence

because they found the 3D features distracting and were

not as engaged as when they were playing the 2D format

game. However, for the infrequent game players, the

novelty of 3D seemed to elicit feelings of presence, creat-

ing the feeling of more engagement.

With regard to the physiological response to playing

3D and 2D versions of the game, an inverse pattern

emerged. For frequent players, arousal was highest when

playing a 2D game in comparison to the 3D game. For

infrequent players, arousal was highest when playing the

3D version of the game in comparison to the 2D version.

Due to the limited discriminant validity of physiological

measures such as skin conductance, it is possible that the

observed changes in physiological arousal are associated

with several potential outcomes. Related to the distinc-

tion between expert and novice users, previous HCI

research suggests that multimodal devices are often per-

ceived by expert users as interfering with users’ direct

engagement with the content in question. These find-

ings from HCI research can help us contextualize and

explain the logical connection between the decreased

feelings of presence and increased physiological arousal

that was felt by regular game players when interacting

with a handheld stereoscopic 3D game interface. Since

frequent game players had a heightened degree of

arousal that was concurrent with decreased feelings of

presence, it appears that they may have perceived the 3D

interface as nothing more than ‘‘bells and whistles’’ or

‘‘all flash and no substance,’’ thus increasing feelings of

aggravation. We are relatively confident in this explana-

tion, especially since infrequent users felt a lower degree

of arousal and a heightened sense of presence when

Limperos et al. 349

using the 3D interface. For infrequent users, the 3D

interface may have cued feelings of novelty and the

‘‘coolness’’ heuristic, which is why they had a more pres-

ence-inducing and better overall experience with the 3D

format than frequent users.

Although past research suggests that greater physio-

logical arousal is associated with heightened feelings of

presence, these differences may not be consistent across

frequent and infrequent game players. In the case of

infrequent players, it is instead possible that 3D game

play is approached as a relaxing media experience rather

than a competitive task to be mastered, which would

potentially result in a calming and less physiologically

arousing media experience. This explanation is consist-

ent with previous research on IVEs (Wiederhold et al.,

2003). However, additional research should replicate

these findings so that concurrent validity of physiological

arousal can be verified as an indicator of self-reported

perceptions of novelty and frustration. These findings

are somewhat consistent with previous research on the

negative effects of 3D (Ravaja et al., 2004) and shed

light on how previous experience can interact with gam-

ing technology to impact responses. However, it is

unclear whether or not regular gamers would have simi-

lar responses to all 3D games.

Even though we are relatively confident in the design

and results of the study, there were a few notable limita-

tions. First, it is possible to conclude that the short pe-

riod of game play allotted during the current study did

not provide ample time for more experienced users to

fully explore the different possibilities for action that 3D

as a modality provides. As a result, extended or repeated

game-play sessions that allow veteran players to use 3D

for longer periods of time may alleviate their perception

that the modality does not serve a necessary purpose as

additional functions of the medium are discovered

through trial and error. Alternately, inexperienced play-

ers whose initial perception that 3D is a novel, ‘‘cool,’’

and exciting interface may fade over time. This is similar

to the initial popularity of related game systems that rely

on multimodal controls such as the Nintendo Wii, which

attracted a large population of non-traditional game

players initially but failed to maintain popularity as the

initial novelty of the system faded.

Also, it is important to note that these effects were

observed with a single game from the racing genre on

one specific handheld device. Players’ responses to ster-

eoscopic 3D presentation may not be generalizable to

effects of 3D with regard to other types of games or 3D

technologies (Schild et al., 2012), although past research

has found that changes in graphical improvement do not

necessarily amplify effects of all game content (e.g., vio-

lence). Future research should consider whether certain

forms of 3D games and types of 3D presentation (e.g.,

virtual reality) are more or less likely to elicit greater feel-

ings of presence on small screen devices, given that

screen size has been noted to impact various user experi-

ences, including presence (Lombard & Ditton, 1997).

Future research should also employ a broader array of

dependent measures to provide a fuller understanding of

the game experience.

Finally, the current study also relied on a measure of

power usage with relatively limited construct validity.

Differences between power and non-power users are

defined by several characteristics aside from total use,

including greater technological efficacy and a greater in-

terest in the affordances that technology can provide.

Thus, although frequency of use is a necessary condition

for power use, additional characteristics of power usage

that apply to video game players as a unique population

should also be identified. For example, Blom et al.

(2012) employed a self-reported measure of ‘‘gamer

type’’ to further probe how previous experience may be

connected to specific types of gamers and the genres of

games that they play. Incorporating this type of measure

in future work could enhance our understanding of this

phenomenon further.

To conclude, our findings suggest that stereoscopic

3D in handheld games elicits varied psychological and

physiological responses in different users. With a major-

ity of video games research focusing solely on content,

there is an ever-growing body of literature seeking to

enhance our understanding of how specific technological

features can impact the gaming experience. This study

adds to the growing body of research on the effects of

gaming and highlights theoretical and practical relation-

ships between individual differences, technological fea-

tures (2D; 3D), and psychological and physiological

350 PRESENCE: VOLUME 23, NUMBER 4

responses. In the future, researchers and developers

should carefully consider how responses to stereoscopic

3D can vary across users with different backgrounds and

goals. For some players, stereoscopic 3D games may

have less appeal as a modality than initially expected.

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