PROMOTION OF BUDDHIST TOURISM CIRCUITS IN SELECTED ASIAN COUNTRIES

0487 CoverUNITED NATIONS
PROMOTION OF BUDDHIST TOURISM CIRCUITS IN SELECTED
ASIAN COUNTRIES
UNITED NATIONS New York, 2003
ESCAP TOURISM REVIEW NO. 24
PROMOTION OF BUDDHIST TOURISM CIRCUITS IN SELECTED
ASIAN COUNTRIES
ESCAP WORKING TOWARDS REDUCING POVERTY AND MANAGING GLOBALIZATION
This publication was produced with financial assistance from the Government of Japan.
The views expressed in the study do not necessarily reflect those of the United Nations. The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
This publication has been issued without formal editing.
ST/ESCAP/2310
Introduction ...................................................................................... 1
Experiences and challenges for Buddhist tourism in selected Asian countries ................................................................................. 5
A. Bangladesh ...................................................................... 5
B. Bhutan ............................................................................. 11
C. India ................................................................................. 19
E. Myanmar ......................................................................... 34
F. Nepal ............................................................................... 39
List of tables
1. Bangladesh: Tourist arrivals from selected Asian countries, various years ............................................................................ 7
2. Bhutan: Main indicators for tourism industry ....................... 12
3. Nepal: Tourist arrivals by purpose of visit, 1997-2000 ........ 41
4. Sri Lanka: Trend in number of international visitors, 1998-2000 ................................................................................ 51
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INTRODUCTION
Most ESCAP member countries and areas have recognized that tourism makes a significant contribution to their socio-economic development. Tourism has a role in expanding the economic base, increasing foreign exchange earnings and providing employment. The role of tourism has become particularly significant in many developing countries that may face a situation of having few alternative development opportunities.
Analytical studies undertaken by ESCAP and other international and regional organizations has clearly shown that tourism can provide several important development benefits. First, tourism can help reduce disparities in income and employment within countries, since areas suitable for tourism development are often situated far from the locus of other economic activities. Second, tourism can contribute to poverty alleviation in rural areas by focusing development through ecotourism and cultural tourism on other parts of the country outside the main commercial centres. Third, international tourism can be a crucial means for income redistribution among countries and thus contribute to more balanced development of the world economy.
The benefits from tourism do not come automatically, and this means that countries need strategies, plans and policies that can harness the full potential of tourism. Countries need to carefully formulate strategies, plans and policies that develop the tourism sector in a way that is economically viable, socially acceptable and environmentally sustainable. At the same time, governments, local communities, NGOs and others have to be ready for new opportunities and challenges that relate to sustainable tourism development.
One of the newest and most difficult challenges relates to how Asian people’s cultural and religious heritage could be linked to tourism development. In fact, the diverse yet shared history of Asian countries in terms of their religious, artistic and general cultural heritage is a unique attribute that has been attracting tourists from around the world. The challenges of cultural and heritage-based tourism created would require choices about strategy and policies that are simultaneously both learning and teaching opportunities.
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The Buddhist cultural heritage has a long and special history that dates back more than 2,500 years and actually unites most of South, South-East and East Asia. The influence of Buddhism can be seen across all Asian countries in terms of history and culture in the broadest senses of these two terms. That is, Buddhism is more narrowly the focus for academic study and research of Buddhist history, religion and culture throughout most of Asia. More broadly, however, the art, architecture, understanding of history and awareness of shared elements from the Buddhist heritage are integral to many Asian people’s ways of life. How this becomes an element of tourism raises major challenges.
The member countries of ESCAP have been considering the wealth of historical and cultural heritage that is shared because of Buddhism and how that links the countries together. The countries have recognized that it might be possible to join hands in promoting Buddhist tourism circuits as a way to (1) give tourists and local people a better understanding of the Buddhist heritage, (2) strengthen regional cooperation and (3) contribute to sustainable social and economic development.
The potential for Buddhist tourism circuits has already been recognized. Two important subregional groupings, namely Bangladesh-India-Myanmar- Sri Lanka-Thailand Economic Cooperation (BIMST-EC) and the Tourism Marketing Task Force for the Greater Mekong Subregion: East-West Economic Corridor, have recently identified the development of Buddhist tourism circuits as a priority area for cooperation. Moreover, at the regional level, the Commission that guides the work of ESCAP decided at its fifty-sixth session in June 2000 to organize a seminar about the development of Buddhist tourism circuits.
An ESCAP Seminar on the Promotion of Buddhist Tourism Circuits was held from 26 to 28 November 2001 at Kisarazu, Japan. The Government of Japan generously provided financial assistance to the seminar. Country representatives attending the ESCAP seminar had the opportunity to share experiences and report on good practices related to development, management and promotion of Buddhist tourism as well as analyze constraints and make recommendations about increased cooperation to create regional and subregional Buddhist tourism circuits.
Participants at the ESCAP Seminar on Promotion of Buddhist Tourism Circuits learnt about the experiences of a number of countries with respect
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to how Buddhism is part of cultural and heritage tourism. While there was a focus on the benefits and opportunities from tourism based on cultural, religious and artistic heritage, there was a strong awareness that social and aesthetic issues were involved as well as the need to maintain cultural integrity, respect the diverse ways of life and preserve the heritage for future generations. It was clear that issues of sustainability would require active participation by all stakeholders in order to address the formidable challenges involved.
The papers presented in this Tourism Review give an insight into the approaches, policies and practices of several Asian countries. At the same time, a better picture is emerging of the complex social and cultural issues that are involved; the role of various stakeholders and their main concerns at the national level; and thoughtful recommendations of what approaches and actions could be part of the dynamic for greater regional and subregional cooperation to promote Buddhist tourism circuits.
Increased prosperity and a better quality of life that is sustainable and beneficial for both present and future generations might remain the aspirations behind the various development goals and strategies. However, a better understanding of the history, culture, religion and aesthetics associated with the Buddhist heritage throughout Asia can do much more than enhance the economic and development contribution of tourism. In terms of heritage, Buddhism can help provide a guiding philosophy, aesthetic and approach to progress that tourists, local communities, planners and policymakers can use in their approach to tourism in Asian countries.
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ASIAN COUNTRIES
A. Bangladesh1
1. Overview of tourism development and its economic impact
Tourism in Bangladesh is still dependent on programmes that are state-led or state-owned to a great extent. A major reason for this situation is because the economy is in the process of developing, while the overwhelming majority of the people have marginal standards of living. In this context, the government has taken steps to develop the tourism industry by concentrating on achieving economic gains by building up transport infrastructure such as roads and highways and air links, as well as telecommunications and electricity. The government has been responsible for large-scale investment in order to achieve the expected economic gains from tourism and attract the private sector to the tourism industry. However, large-scale investment and greater private sector participation to develop tourism has not been forthcoming, despite government incentives.
The economy of Bangladesh remains heavily dependent on the agricultural sector, and by comparison tourism has a very small impact on the national economy. Tourism has been estimated to contribute about 0.5 per cent to GDP. However, over 500,000 people are employed in the tourism sector in both skilled and unskilled positions. Tourism had been growing at steady rates from 1995 to 1997 in terms of tourist arrivals, with about 156,000 visitor arrivals in 1995 and 182,000 in 1997. In 1995, foreign exchange earnings from tourism totalled about $US19.7 million and rose to $US56.5 million in 1997. The number of visitor arrivals declined to about 171,960 in 1998, but then recovered to the highest level of almost 200,000 in 2000. The foreign exchange earnings went down to about $US51 million in 1998 and declined further to about $US46.3 million in 2000.
1 Based on a country report prepared by the Secretary, Ministry of Civil Aviation and Tourism, Bangladesh.
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It has been noted that earnings from tourism are constrained by the fact that the average length of stay and level of daily spending by tourists are comparatively low in Bangladesh. However, the tourism industry does contribute significantly to government revenues in the form of VAT, customs duties and sales tax.
2. Current situation in Buddhist tourism
There is a wealth of historical and archaeological relics in Bangladesh covering the medieval period during Muslim rule and in the period of pre-Muslim period of Hindu and Buddhist rule. Most of this heritage is unexplored and unknown since archaeological field work and research had been neglected for a long time. There were many reasons for this neglect, and one reason has been the difficult geography, inhospitable climate and remoteness from main centres of the subcontinent. Since the independence of Bangladesh in 1971, the government has undertaken a number of field projects, including a comprehensive survey and study of areas not previously explored. There are a significant number of recent explorations that could help add to knowledge of the life and culture in ancient Bangladesh.
The early history of the area covered by Bangladesh reveals that Buddhism received royal patronage from some important royal dynasties such as the Pala rulers, the Chandras and the Deva kings. Under their patronage, monasteries were built throughout the area. Atish Dipankar was a Buddhist savant and spiritual leader who played a significant role in spreading Buddhism in South and South-East Asia. The ashes of this spiritual leader have been brought back from China to Bangladesh, where they are kept in the central Buddhist temple at Kamalapur in Dhaka.
There are a number of sites from ancient times that are of importance to Buddhism, but some have yet to be excavated. Such places have not yet become known widely to tourists from predominantly Buddhist countries such as Japan, the Republic of Korea, Thailand, Cambodia and China. The figures in table 1 give some idea about the potential for Buddhist tourism, using tourist arrivals to Bangladesh from eight Asian countries as an indicator.
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(a) Buddhist sites
The influence of Buddhism from the time when it received royal patronage can still be seen in the culture and heritage reflected in the life and scenery of the people living in the Hill-tracts districts. There have been some significant discoveries about Buddhism that add substantially to knowledge about the history and chronology of ancient Bangladesh in the various aspects of Buddhist life. Several major Buddhist sites are described.
Pahapur is a small village 5 km west of Jamalganj in the greater Rajshahi district where the remains of the most important and largest known monastery south of the Himalayas have been excavated. This archaeological find dates from the seventh century and covers about 27 acres of land. The entire structure occupies a quandrangular court measuring more than 900 feet externally on each side, with high enclosure wall that are 12 to 15 feet high. There is an elaborate gateway complex on the northern side with about 45 cells, plus an additional 44 cells on the three remaining sides. The architecture is a pyramidal cruciform temple showing a profound influence from South-East Asia, especially Myanmar and Java. A small museum was built on the site that contains a representative collection of objects recovered from the area. Terracotta plaques, images of gods and goddesses, pottery, coins, inscriptions, ornamental bricks and other minor
Table 1. Bangladesh: Tourist arrivals from selected Asian countries, various years
(number of persons)
two time periods
Myanmar 1,255 1,012 -19.0
Singapore 7,061 7,863 11.4
Thailand 4,686 7,866 68.0
Total 43,568 55,622
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clay objects that have been excavated are preserved at the Varendra Research Museum at Rajshahi.
Mahasthan, the oldest archaeological site, is located on the western bank of Karatoa River 18 km north of Bogra town beside the Bogra-Rangpur Highway. The site is an imposing landmark surrounded by paddy fields, with a fortified oblong enclosure measuring 5,000 feet by 4,500 feet at an average height of 15 feet. Ancient ruins stand far out beyond the fortified area in a semi-circle with a 7.5 km radius. A number of mounds, some of which temples, are surrounding the fortified city. The site dates from the third century and is still considered a place of sanctity by Hindus and Buddhists. In mid-April of each year and in December every 12 years, thousands of Hindu devotees join the bathing ceremony on the bank of Karatoa River. A wide variety of recovered antiquities can be seen at the Mahastangar site museum.
Mainamati is an area dotted with more than 50 ancient Buddhist settlements dating from the eighth to twelfth century A.D. The area is an isolated range of low, dimpled hills known as the Mainamati-Lalmai range, which extends through the centre of the district of Comilla. Salban Vihara is located almost in the middle of the Mainamati-Lalmai hill range. It consists of 115 cells built around a spacious courtyard with a cruciform temple in the centre. Its only gateway faces to the north and resembles that of the Paharpur Monastery.
Kutila Mura is situated on a flattened hillock about 5 km north of Salban Vihara inside Comilla cantonment. It is a picturesque Buddhist location with three stupas side by side representing the three jewels of Buddhism. Charpatra Mura is an isolated small oblong shrine about 2.5 km north-west of the stupas of Kutila Mura. The only approach to the shrine is from the east through a gateway leading to a spacious hall.
The Mainamati site museum has a rich, varied collection of copper plates, gold and silver coins and bronze objects. Over 150 bronze statues have been recovered along with terracotta plaques. Mainamati is 114 km from Dhaka and just a day-trip by road on the way to Chittagong.
There are other important pagodas in Bangladesh. A central pagoda is located at Kamalapur in Dhaka. The Buddhist temple at Ramu, Cox’s Bazar, is said to have the largest statue of Lord Buddha in the area adjoining
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Bangladesh and Myanmar. There is a bronze statue of Lord Buddha worshipped by the Rakhayeen community at Kuakata in the district of Patuakhali. It is believed to be the tallest statue of Lord Buddha in the subcontinent.
(b) Major Buddhist festivals
Buddhism was the dominant influence on the subcontinent from the reign of the Great King Ashoka (about 70 B.C.) into the seventh century A.D. While Buddhism spread further East, it began to lose its dominance on the subcontinent, although there were some effects on Hindu traditions, as well as vice versa.
Following a lunar calendar, Buddhist festivals are usually at the time of the full moon (Purnima). The traditional festival begins with worship (Puja) in the morning, with gifts of food and flowers laid on the alter along with prayers and perhaps singing. The afternoon and evening are for functions that are more social, including accepting visitors. There are five major Buddhist festivals in Bangladesh:
(1) Baishakhi Purnima is the greatest of the festivals because it celebrates the three major events in the life of the Lord Buddha. It falls in the Bengali month of Baishakha (April to May).
(2) Ashari Purnima is in the Bengali month of Ashar (June) and marks the beginning of the three-month period (Shadhan) when Buddhist monks observe more restrictions and Buddhist lay people go to the temple at every full moon and every dark moon.
(3) Ashwini Purnima marks the end of Shadhan with most of the same rituals as Ashari Purnima. The festival takes place in the month of September-October.
(4) Khothin Chibor Dan (Gift of Monk’s Robe) is the day when contributions are made to the Buddhist monks so they may have food and clothing for the upcoming year. It is celebrated on any day within the prescribed month; from the full moon of the month Ashwin (September-October) to the full moon of the month Kartik (October-November). A number of villages usually choose different days for the festival since the monks must travel to each village for the celebration.
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(5) Maghi Purnima commemorates the Lord Buddha’s declaration of the date of his death and the day of preaching to five of his disciples. This festival is during the Bengali month of Magh (January-February).
There are also other days of Buddhist celebration, such as the Water Sparkling Festival of the Rakhayeens and the Bijou Festival of Chakmas.
4. Initiatives to manage and promote Buddhist tourism
The government has taken a number of measures to excavate, preserve and maintain Buddhist relics, and this can also help promote tourism. A master plan was prepared in 1988 containing suggestions about the development of Buddhist relic sites and infrastructure. A number of initiatives have been taken or suggested. First is management authority and making the plan. At this stage, extensive investigation and studies are needed about all of the planning, management and development issues. The creation of a Buddhist Zone and related development plans may be designed to ensure the protection and preservation of sites in order to have sustainable development of Buddhist tourism.
Heritage management must also be undertaken. The initial planning and research for restoring and conserving a monument should always include consideration of the demands of the local community as well as the international tourists. A tourism development plan for a potential heritage tour site should incorporate the interests of the community living closest to it. Site maintenance work is a basic element in preventative monument conservation. Local teams would have to be organized and trained to protect Buddhist archaeological sites from encroaching vegetation or other natural threats. International assistance and expertise may be needed.
It is important to encourage Bangladeshi people to promote and preserve Buddhist culture as an important aspect of their national heritage. Protecting monuments and sites against theft and looting of art objects is an enormous task and requires coordinated efforts and mobilization.
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5. Issues and constraints related to the development of Buddhist tourism
Bangladesh is rich in Buddhist culture and heritage, but there are many gaps and constraints that prevent proper planning and management for site development and promotion of Buddhist tourism. Access to Buddhist sites is not easy due to infrastructure being underdeveloped or lacking.
There has not been any formulation or implementation of comprehensive human resources development strategies, especially aimed at people who would specialize in Buddhist heritage and knowledge. A conception of the need to preserve sites of cultural and natural heritage has been lacking up to now. The Bangladeshi Government does have much greater awareness at this time. However, government funding constraints and lack of investment from the private sector have impeded Buddhist tourism. It is clear that knowledge and greater awareness are needed to maintain and preserve the Buddhist heritage, including monuments and sites.
B. Bhutan2
1. Overview of tourism development and the economic impact of tourism
Tourism is a relatively new industry in Bhutan. When…