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Preparing ASEAN for the Information Century : A Comparative Study of Policies and Programmes on Computers in Science and Mathematics Education. A Research Report.

169 pages (Asia and the Pacific Programme of Educational Innovation for Development).

1. Science and Technology Education - Asia and Pacific. 2. Information Pro- cessing Including Computers in Science and Mathematics Education - Asia and Pacific. 3. Research in Science and Technology Education - Asia and Pacific. I. UNESCO- PROAP. 11. Title Series.

Asia and the Pacific Programme of Educational Innovation for Development

Preparing ASEAN for the Information Century : A Comparative Study

of Policies and Programmes on Computers in Science

and Mathematics Education

UNESCO PRINCIPAL REGIONAL OFFICE FOR ASIA AND THE PACIFIC, BANGKOK

@ UNESCO 1991

Published by the Principal Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific

P.O. Box 967, Prakanong Post Office Bangkok 10110, Thailand

Printed in Thailand

The designation employed and the presentations of material throughout the publication do not imply the expression of and opinion whatsoever on the part of UNESCO concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning its frontiers or boundaries.

Preface

In the last two decades, considerable efforts have been directed towards the improvement of science and technology education (including mathematics, and computer education), in almost all countries participating in the Asia and the Pacific Programme of Educational Innovation for Development (APEID). In the future, these efforts will be further developed in one of the programmes proposed under science and technology education - the use of information processing technology including computer education. The success of such programmes depends critically on national policies that are supportive of actions in this area.

This report, submitted to UNESCO-PROAP/ACEID for publication, is a valuable contribution towards educational innovation development. It documents the experiences of ASEAN countries (Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Philippines and Thailand), in their efforts to prepare themselves for the coming information century. It also provides information on the progress in selected countries outside ASEAN.

Dr. Vivien M. Talisayon, Specialist in Science Education, University of the Philippines did the research at the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies (ISEAS) in Singapore, and has obtained permission from S E A S to have the document published.

It is hoped that the information about policies and programmes on computers in science and mathematics education will be found useful by all Member States participating in the APEID network.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author would like to thank the Director and staff of the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore, for the research fellowship that enabled her to conduct the research and write this monograph. Thanks are also due the Director of the Institute for Science and Mathematics Education Development, University of the Philippines and the Chancellor of the University for allowing the author to undertake the research in Sin- gapore.

The author gratefully acknowledges the materials, information and insights given by the interviewed persons cited in this work, and the assistance of the following institutions in obtaining the interviews:

AKLl Unit, E C A Section, Ministry of Education, Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei;

Directorate of Secondary General Education, Department of Education and Culture, Jakarta, Indonesia;

Science and Mathematics Unit, Schools Division, Ministry of Education, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia;

Institute for Science and Mathematics Education Development, University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines;

Singapore; and

Science and Technology, Bangkok, Thailand.

Curriculum Development Institute of Singapore,

Institute for the Promotion of the Teaching of

The author also wishes to thank the National University of Singapore and the Institute of Education in Singapore forthe use of their library. Gratitude is expressed, too, to her colleagues at the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, particularly Dr. Subbiah Gun- asekaran, for their valuable suggestions.

Finally, the author is indebted to her husband, Serafin, for his unfailing moral support, and to her children, Magiting and Diwa, for their understanding without which this research would not have been conducted.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page Chapter I - Introduction 1

The Coming of Information Technologies 1 Impact of IT on the Third World 2 A Curricular Gap 2 The Task Before Educational Policy Makers 3 Policy Constraints in the Third World 3 Purpose of The Study 4 Sources of Data 6 Outline of Chapters 6 Notes 6 References 7

Chapter I 1 - Use of Computers in Schools: Empirical 8 Findings and Emerging Issues

1ntroduct.ion e Learning with Computers 8 Learning about Computers 10 Computer Managed Instruction (CMI 1 10

Effectiveness of CAI 11 Research Findings 11 Pros and Cons of CAI 14

Policy Issues and Problems 15 Role of Educational Technologies 1 5

Teacher Training 17 Software Development and Evaluation 17 Equity of Access to Computers 18

Notes 18 References 19

Chapter I 1 1 - Computers in Education Outside 23

The United States 23 Computer Use in Schools 23 Policies on Computers in Education 24 Problems and Prospects 26

Japan 28 Computer Use in Schools 28 Surveys and Policy Studies 29 Professional Societies 31 Teacher Education 32 Problems and Trends 32

in Third World countries

The ASEGN Region

Other Developed Countries 33 The United Kingdom 33 France 34 Germany 35 Ne t he t- 1 an d s 35 Australia 36 New Zealand 37

Socialist Countries: USSR and China 38

V

Soviet Un ion 38 People's Republic of China 39

Developing Countries Outside ASEAN 40 India 40 Pakistan 41 Sri Lanka 42 Hong Kong 42 Fiji 42

Highlights of the Situation Outside QSEAN 43 Notes 47 References 47

Chapter IV - Policies and Programmes in Brunei 53 Introduction 53 Computer Policy Environment 53 Policy on Computers in Education 54 Computer Use in the Schools 54

Computer Appreciation Clubs 54 Computer Studies 57 Computers as Teaching Tools 57

Computers in Science and Mathematics Education 57 Programmes at Secondary Level 57

Teacher Education Programmes 58 Support of the Private Sector 60 Highlights of the Brunei Situation 60 Notes 61 References 61

Chapter V - Policies and Programmes in Indonesia 63 Computer Policy Environment 63 Policy on Computers in Education 63 Computer Use in Schools 64 Computers in Science and Mathematics Education 65

Teacher Education Programmes 66 Support of the Private Sector 68

Assistance of Industry 68 Linkages with Associations 68

Highlights of the Indonesian Situation 69 Notes 69 References 70

Chapter VI - Policies and Programmes in Malaysia 72 Introduction 72 Computer Policy Environment 72 Policy on Computers in Education 73 Computer Use in Schools 75

Computer Literacy Project 75 Computer Clubs 76 Computers in Other Schools 77 Computing for Teachers 78

Computers in Science and Mathematics Education 78 Support of the Private Sector 80

Programmes at the Secondary Level 65

v i

Highlights of the Malaysian Situation Notes References

Chapter VI1 - Policies and Programmes in the Philippines

Computer Policy Environment Computer Industry General Computer Use Computer Sc hoo 1 s

Policy on Computers in Education Computer Use in the Schools

Computing for Teachers Computers in Science and Mathematics Education

Programme at the Primary Level Programme at the Secondary Level Teacher Education Programmes

Assistance of Computer Industry Foreign Assistance Linkages with Associations

Support of the Private Sector

Highlights of the Philippine Situatian Notes References

I n t rod u c, t i on Computer Policy Environment

Chapter V I 1 1 - Policies and Programmes in Singapore

National Information Techno 1 ogy P 1 an General Computer Use

Policies on Computers in Education Computer Use in Schools

Computer Appreciation Clubs Computer Studies Computing for Teachers Computers for School Management

Programmes at the Primary Level Programmes at the Secondary Level Teacher Education Programmes

Support of the Private Sector Highlights of the Singaporean Situation Notes References

Computer Policy Environment Policy on Computers in Education Computer Use in Schools Computers in Science and Mathematics Education

Computers in Science and Mathematics Education

Chapter I X - Policies and Programmes in Thailand

Programmes at the Secondary Level Teacher Education Programmes


82 83 84 87

87 87 88 89 89 94 96 97 97 100 100 102 102 102 103 103 104 104 107 107 107 107 108 109 110 110 111 111 112 112 112 114 115 116 116 117 118 121 121 122 123 124 124 126 128

v i i

Highlights of the Thai Situation 128 Notes 129 References 130

Chapter X - Comparisons and Analysis of Policies 132

Intra-ASEAN Comparisons 132 Computer Policy Environment 132

Policy on Computers in Education 136 Programmes at the Primary Level 139 Programmes at the Secondary Level 139 Teacher Education Programmes 140 Support of the Private Sector 141

ASEAN and Other Countries 141 Computers as Teaching A i d s 143

ASEAN Issues and Problems 143 Limiting Factors to Computer Use 143 Economic and Social Issues 145

Notes 148 References 148

Chapter X I - Proposed Areas of Regional Co-operation 151 Hardware Development 152 Software Development 156 Regional Teacher-Training Programmes 157 Co-operative Research Projects 158 Note 159 References 159

Chapter X I 1 - Summary and Conclusions 160 The ASEAN Situation 160 Towards 4SERN Cooperation 163 References 164

Glossary of Terms 166

and Programmes

viii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1-1

Table 111-1

Table 111-2

Table 111-3

Table 111-4

Table 111-5

Table IV-1

Table VII-1

Table VII-2

Table IX - 1

Table X-1

Table X-2

Table X-3

Table X-4

Table XI-1

Table X I - 2

Growth of Computer Use in Some Asian Countries

Page

1

Percentage of Japanese and American Schools With at Least One Microcomputer 29

Number of Microcomputers in European Sc hoo 1 s 33

Number of Microcomputers in Schools 44

Computer-to-Student Ratio 45

Percentage of Schools Outside ASEAN With at Least One Microcomputer 45

BBC Education Software in Science and Mathematics Available in Brunei 59

Computer-Related Mathematics Concepts and Skills for Grades 5 and 6 98

Computer-Related Science Concepts and Skills for Grades 5 and 6 99

Teacher-Written Software for Secondary Science and Mathematics in Thailand 127

Indicators of a Computer Environment in ASEAN Countries 133

Some Indicators of FISEAN Capability for Computer Use in Education 134

ASEAN Population and Per Capita Gross National Product (GNP), 1986 136

Percentage of Schools in ASEAN With at Least One Microcomputer 137

Cost of Microcomputer Relative to Teacher Sa 1 ary 153

National Education Systems of ASEFIN Countries 157

i x

CHEIPTER I INTRODUCTION

The Cominq of Information Technoloaies

The consensus of opinion among social scientists and business planners is that information technology (IT) is a growth area in the foreseeable future.

The fraction of total employment deployed in the tertiary o r services sector, which is highly information- and knowledge-intensive, has been increasing in many developed countries. This historical trend led Bell (1973) to suggest that developed countries are shifting towards a "post-industrial stage", a term which has since gained widespread currency.

The invention of the computer has been likened t o the invention of the printing press (Watson et al. 1987). Since the first commercial computer appeared in 1951, man's capability to handle information had indeed undergone a revolutionary change. Intel Corp. developed the microprocessor in 1971. This made possible the introduction of the first low-cost commercial microcomputer in 1975, the Altair 8800 (Argila 1977).

Before, computers belonged only t o institutions and large organizations. Now, the "personal" computer placed computing power in the hands of numerous individuals and households. Access to, and capability to handle information are being democratized. The first half of the 1980s decade saw an explosive growth of computer usage attributable largely to microcomputers. Data for four Asian countries are shown in Table 1-1 (Shams 1987).

Table 1-1 Growth of Computer Use in Some Asian Countries

After the invention of the microprocessor, high- density storage devices, video tape recorders, compact discs, optical cables, satellite telecommunications and other information and communication technologies appeared. These developments led many to claim that the 21st Century would be an information-centred century.

1

Preparing ASEAN for the lnformafion Century

Impact of IT 02 the Third World Newly-industrializing countries in the Third World

are catching up and moving quickly towards information- intensive industries. Other Third World countries which had not even fully entered the industrial stage are speculating whether they can adopt a "leapfrogging" strategy towards information-intensive industries. Some are suggesting that Western-style industrialization is the result of a fortuitous historical convergence of two factors that cannot be repeated by the Third World or anywhere, namely, cheap energy and captive colonial markets.

Already, microcomputers and video tape recorders are flooding world markets faster than government planners can anticipate their social consequences and development implications. Confronted by the rapid growth in personal computers, the same appears to be happening on the part of educational planners, both in developed and developing countries.

A_ Curricular Gap

Before microcomputers were popular, Morales (1977) argued that teaching of informatics in secondary schools is as necessary in developing a s in developed countries. She pointed at some factors related to this issue:

1. The "cu1 tural and technological gap" between developed and developing countries will increase with the growth of IT;

2. A critical mass of members of a developing society must know what, how and when to make adequate use of IT if that society is to reap benefits from IT; and

3. Preparing society as a whole should lessen the social and economic shock coming in the wake of the new technologies.

The rapid diffusion of microcomputer and associated technologies in homes and offices in the 1980s lends more weight to her arguments. It now appears to be proceeding faster than educational bureaucracies can cope with it. A curricular gap is threatening to widen: the gap between what is used in private homes and in the marketplace, and what is being taught to children in schools. This gap sometimes takes the form of that between some "computer literate" children and their "computer illiterate" teachers.

The gap threatens to become more serious in Third World countries, which already are burdened by weighty development problems. I f not adequately addressed at all

2

introduction

educational levels, serious consequences on quality of manpower and competitiveness in international markets will result. I f that happens, the advent of the information century would become a bane more than a boon to many Third World countries.

The pressure to examine the new technologies and to see how they square against existing curricula i s placing stress on the educational bureaucracy. Educ a t iona 1 planners seem to be caught merely reacting after the events, rather than anticipating and planning for them. Those teachers and educationists for whom computers a r e still unfamiliar may easily feel that they are being threatened by professional obsolescence, a feeling that obstructs a balanced view on the proper role of computers in classrooms.

The Task Before Educational Policv Makers

As a matter of long-term survival, then, it appears that the question facing educational planners, in view of

information technologies, is not a question of whether but how best to prepare children for this future.

A characteristic of information technology i s its phenomenal rate of growth, in magnitude as well a s complexity. Rates of obsolescence a r e also high. A s information technologies get more sophisticated, so d o educa tiona 1 technologies which are essentially applications of information technologies in the classroom. Consequently, the speed by which government and specifically educational bureaucracies can formulate policies, plan forward, or even simply react, is put t o the test.

the increasing pervasiveness and importance of

Policy Constraints in the Third World

The environment surrounding policy-making a s regards computers in education can be quite complex in Third World countries. Aside from simple lack of financial resources, policy on computers in education must consider adequacy of infrastructures such a s telecommunication system, adequacy of market supports such as repair and maintenance services, institutional capabilities t o retrain thousands of teachers, availability of high-level manpower to develop appropriate software, and so forth.

A Third World educational policy maker gives a cogent reminder to planners not to lose their priorities. Why talk of introducing computers in schools when basic amenities such a s classrooms are wanting in rural school s.l

Policy issues are further complicated by the fact

3

Preparing ASEAN for the Information Century

that knowledge on how best to employ new educational technologies in the classroom is at best incomplete and at worst sometimes conflicting. The same predicament is faced by school planners in developed countries. A satisfactory wedding of computer science and learning theory -- the promise of "expert tutoring systems" and "intelligent computer-assisted instruction" -- has not yet taken place.

Research on computer-aided instruction spans more than two decades. An increasing number of research findings on the effectiveness of computer-based instruction are published. Therefore, two issues are important: policy experiences and processes a s regards use of computers in schools, and empirical research on effectiveness of computers for learning/teaching. Both are unfolding rather rapidly in many countries.

The task for Third World educationists is to take stock of these two issues-- while they are, in a manner of speaking, "on the move" -- evaluate them, and attempt to apply them to their own educational settings. The task is a continuing one.

A useful start in taking stock of this moving body of knowledge was made by the UNESCO Regional Office for Education in Asia and the Pacific in 1985 (APEID 1985) and 1986 (Anderson e t al. 1986). The Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organisation Regional Centre for Education in Science and Mathematics (SEAMEO-RECSAM) is conducting a Computer in Education Project among southeast Asian countries through questionnaires (RECSAM News 1986).

Puroose of The Study

Therefore, the first objective adopted for this study is stock-taking. Stock-taking and evaluation of current knowledge will cover the technology itself but more importantly past policy experiences in other countries. Another objective is to make comparisons of policies on computer use in science and mathematics education in ASEAN countries. The goal of the study is to suggest possible strategies and steps for cooperation among educational planners in ASEAN countries.

Specifically, this study aims -- 1. to review the literature on effectiveness of

2. to gather and compare ASEAN data/information on computers a s a learning tool;

2.1 computer policy environment, 2.2 policies on computers in education, 2.3 general computer use in schools, and 2.4 computer programmes in science and

mathematics education at the primary,

4

Introduction

secondary and teacher education levels; 3. to compare the ASEAN situation with selected

4. to propose areas of regional co-operation. "Computer pol icy environment" a s used here means domestic factors which influence o r determine the processes by which government policy and programmes on computer use in schools are formulated. Included under this rubric are general computer use, availability of public funds for education, adequacy of telecommunication infrastructures, scope of commercial product5 and services supportive of computer use, and extent of private sector involvement and support of computer education.

The computer policy environment is the broad context against which computer use in schools, and specifically computer use in science and mathematics courses, are situated.

For the most part of the study, computers refer to microcomputers. The rapid decline of computer cost and the phenomenal growth of microcomputer use in the eighties have made microcomputer use in the school system in developing countries a real possibility.

This work examines long-term preparation for the information age, particularly computer literacy for the school population and manpower development for computer specialisation. The tertiary level is not highlighted. Computers have been used in universities even in developing countries since the sixties.

The study is, therefore, limited to the primary, secondary and teacher education levels. At the primary and secondary levels, children get equipped with basic skills and literacies, which may soon include computer 1 i teracy .

Further, this study focuses on science and mathematics education. The computer is a product of science (electronics, logic circuits, magnetic storage) and mathematics (binary system or Boolean algebra). The computer itself is an object of study relevant in science and mathematics courses. Rudimentary principles of computer design and operation can and have been included in upper secondary school subjects.

The earliest use of computers in schools in many countries has been observed to occur often in mathematics courses. Therefore, the state of use of computers in this school subject is a good gauge of the extent of computer use in schools in general. Computer literacy often starts as an elective or optional course and/or component of required mathematics courses.

Science in this work is regarded both a s a school subject in itself, and a s the field of physical and natural sciences embracing school subjects like

countries outside the region; and

5

Preparing ASEAN for the hformation Century

chemistry, physics, biology and earth sciences. The end goal of this work i s to suggest cooperative

regional activities. Inasmuch a s issues facing ASEAN countries exhibit similarities, the author assumes benefits accruing from regional cooperation in computers in education.

Sources of Data

Interest in this work is on policy and policy making processes in ASEAN countries. This dictates that its research methodology rely heavily on in-depth interviews of ASEAN educational policy makers and planners, and other key people. Interviews were conducted in the ASEAN capitals. Country reports in regional and international conferences were are also consulted.

The state of the art in IT use in classrooms, and policy experiences in other countries, was obtained from journals, books and other publications.

Outline of Chapters

Chapter I 1 looks into computer-assisted instruction: state of the art, empirical findings on effectiveness of computers a s teaching or learning tool, and policy issues in countries adapting this tool to teaching and learning in the school. Chapter I 1 1 reviews country experiences in the formulation of policy and application of the new technology in their respective school systems. General patterns and lessons are hoped to be drawn from experiences from developing, socialist and developed countries .

Chapters I V to I X examine the evolution of policies, testing and application of the technology, and problems or issues that arise, in each of the six ASEAN countries. These are finally compared in Chapter X. Comparison is aimed at identifying: ( 1 ) unique problems and strengths, ( 2 ) similarity of issues, and ( 3 ) similarity of experiences with countries outside ASEAN having mure advanced stages of development and implementation of computer use in schools. On these bases, Chapter X I makes an attempt at proposing regional cooperative projects for consideration of ASEAN educational policy makers. Chapter X I 1 is a summary and concluding chapter.

Notes

IMalaysian Deputy Education Minister Dr. Leo Michael Toyad, quoted in “Why Low Priority for Computer Courses”, Computimes ( a weekly supplement of N e w

ln rroductio n

Straits Times), 10 September 1987, p. 1.

References

Asia and the Pacific Programme of Educational Innovation for Development (APEID). Computers in Education: 41 Outline of Country Experiences. UNESCO Regional Office for Education in Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, 1985.

Anderson, Jonathan, Narong Boonme, H. N. Mahabala, H. Nishinosono, E. Teodoro. Developinq Computer U s &. Education: Guidelines. Trends a n d Issues. UNESCO Regional Office for Education in Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, 1986.

Argila, Carl A. "The Micro-Processor Revolution -- I t 5 Impact on the Developing Countries". Proc. International Conference on Computer Apolications &. Developinq Countries, Bangkok, 22-25 August 1977. pp. 1183-1195.

Bell, Daniel. T h e Cominq of Post-Industrial Society. New York: Basic Books, 1973.

Morales, Amilcar. "Milestones to Build a Course of Informatics for Secondary Schools". International Conference 02 Computer Applications in Developinq Countries, Bangkok, 22-25 August 1977. pp. 1411- 1417.

"SEAMEO-RECSAM Computers in Education Project". RECSFSM News, October-December 1986, pp. 3-4.

Shams, Khalid. "Introduction: The Project". Searchincl -for a_ Paddle: Trends IT Applications in Asian Government Systems, Vol. I. eds. Mohan Kaul, Nitin R. Pate1 and Khalid Shams. Kuala Lumpur: Asia- Pacific Development Centre, 1987. p.17.

Watson, J. Allen, Sandra L. Calvert and Vickie M. Brink ley. "The Computer/Information Technologies Revolution: Controversial Attitudes and Software Bottlenecks -- A Mostly Promising Progress Report", Educational Technoloqy, volume 28 number 2 (February 1987), pp. 7-12.

7

CHCIPTER I 1 USE OF COMPUTERS IN SCHOOLS:

EMPIRICCSL FINDINGS fiND EMERGING ISSUES

Introduction

Computers can be employed in schools in three generic ways: ( 1 ) a s a learning tool (teaching or learning through o r with computers), (2) a s itself the object of study (teaching/learning about computers), and ( 3 ) a s a planning and management tool for teachers o r school administrators. The three modes are distinct but there are applications which employ two o r even all three modes at the same time.

A computer can be an infinitely patient tutor, ever ready whenever the student i s ready. Learning can take place a t a pace the student can determine, and selection/presentation of subject matter can be made to suit the entering behavior of a student: hi5 strengths, weaknesses, etc. Programs have been written which encourage a student to exercise creativity and design skills.

At the same time, computers have many inherent deficiencies a s a tool for teaching and learning. Computers, and the softwares needed to use them, a r e still very expensive. They subtly reinforce a technological worldview on the child, at the same time that they prepare him for living and working in an increasingly information-intensive world. Programmes need to be carefully and skillfully developed according to sound pedagogic principles.

Learning with Computers

Use of computers to assist instruction i s referred to a s computer-assisted (or computer-aided) instruction (CAI). Equivalent terms used variously are: computer- assisted learning or CAL, computer-assisted education o r CAE, computer-based instruction or CBI, and computer- based education or CBE.

The computer, a s learning tool, have been used with varying degrees of dependence on the computer, learner's control over the learning process, and teacher mediation. At one end there are programmes using drill and practice, and tutorial approaches which can, but not always advisedly, be undertaken without teacher mediation or intervention. At the other end is a class of CAI, referred to as computer-enriched instruction (CEI) by Niemiec and Walberg (1987) which includes simulation of real-world processes, monitoring and control of

8

Use of Computers in Schools: Empirical Findings and Emerging Issues

laboratory experiments, and graphic presentation of data. Hasselbring (1986) calls CAI where teacher interaction is an important component as adjunct CAI.

Clt one extreme, drill-and-practice and tutorial forms allow very little exercise of learner's control over the learning process. At the other end is software which allows great latitude for learner's control and creativity: word and picture processors like Printshop, design of rules or geometric relations a s in LOGO and PROLOG, music composition, and programming. Some authors call the former learning "through computers", and the latter, learning "with computers" (Nichol and Nichol, 1986; Nichol, Briggs and Dean, 1987). According to Papertl, the inventor of LOGO, the computer in the former acts a s a "tutor" while in the latter it is a "tutee".

CAI is a member of the class of educational technology that embraces "the media born of the communication revolution which can be used for instructional purposes alongside the teacher, textbook and blackboard... the pieces that make up instructional technology : television, films , overhead projectors, computers ..." (Ely and Plomp, 1986 quoting Tickton, 1970). A broader, later definition follows:

Educational technology is a complex, integrated process involving people, procedure, ideas, devices and organization, for analyzing problems and devising, implementing, evaluating and managing solutions to those problems, involved in all aspects of human learning. (Murphy, 1986 quoting AECT, 1977). For science and mathematics teaching, many

simulation programmes are available which enable sufficiently faithful and heuristic representation of physical reality and how it behaves according to man-made changes (Drage 1987). Expensive o r dangerous laboratory experiments in physics and chemistry can be simulated using computers, and indirectly studied a s often a s desired under varying conditions for learning effect.

A computer can also be employed for doing what it does best: computing. This applies well to mathematics c o u r ~ e s , for long o r iterative computations, finding

geometrical relationships, and graphing of equations (Jacobsen 1987).

In the physics laboratory, computers have been used in conjunction with monitoring devices for data acquisition such a 5 measuring, recording and graphing temperature (Stein 1986-87) or motion (Thornton 1987). They are used, too, for automatically controlling experiments, such a s by turning on or off electronic switches, relays o r motors depending on pre-specified

proofs, algebraic manipulation, illustration of

9


conditions. An exciting new class of CAI systems, called

intelligent CAI or ICAI, is emerging from applications of research experiences in artificial intelligence ( A I ) and expert systems, combined with latest developments in cognitive learning theory. ICAI seeks to approximate the way knowledge is represented, structured and manipulated in the minds of experts, and the way an expert tutor interacts with a student (Kearsley 1987).

Learning about Computers

Learning how a computer functions (computer science/studies) and how it affects society are taught in many schools. The basic functional components and information flows within a computer can be taught without advanced knowledge of mathematics and physics. The computer thereby ceases to be a "black box" but becomes a "gray box" to the student.

Mathematics and physics course contents at upper secondary o r junior college levels normally include principles and other materials which can be used by the teacher in explaining the rudiments of how a computer works. Elementary binary arithmetic and logic operations can be part of mathematics courses. Basic concepts of logic circuits can be part of upper secondary physics courses. Advanced students who while learning Assembly programming language gains deeper insights into the internal operations of computers: they learn about computers while learning Assembly programming.

Computer Managed Instruction (CMI)

Softwares have been written to assist teachers in keeping students' marks and other academic records; devising, categorizing and storing test items; checking and evaluating examination answers; constructing drills and CAI softwares (authoring software or authoring system) ; preparing transparencies for overhead projectors, and others (Bluhm 1987). In lecture classes, the computer is used a s an adjunct in demonstrations.

The computer can be used by school administrators just a s well a s it can be used by the teacher for managing learning at the classroom level. Computers are used in big firms for a wide variety of administrative purposes and similar procedures can be employed by a school administrator: student and teacher records, financial planning and records keeping, scheduling of c 1 asses.

10


Effectiveness o_f_ C A

Effectiveness of CAI or CAL is defined in many ways. The definition most often used is enhanced achievement: student score in achievement tests, in comparison with standard or traditional teaching methods not using computers. Other definitions are: improvement in attitudes and other affective variables, reduced learning time, longer retention of knowledge or skill, and cost of achieving a fixed learning outcome (Niemiec and Walberg 1987). Effectiveness of CAI is often synonymous with effectiveness of the particular software for that CAI, although more accurately, it i s effectiveness of a learning environment consisting of the hardware and software, quality of teacher intervention, and reward system, among others.

Research Findings

Besides the problem of varying definitions of effectiveness, empirical evaluation of the overall effectiveness of CAI is hampered by problems of considering numerous factors that affect learning outcomes: level of education, CAI mode, type of learning outcome, degree of competition/cooperation, and Hawthorne and novelty effects.

Before microcomputers appeared in the late 19705, CAI had been implemented for some two decades using larger computers. After reviewing evaluative studies, Hasselbring (1986) concluded that "students receiving CAI demonstrate equal or better achievement" compared to tradi t iona 1 methods. This conclusion is true across various types of CBIs, computers and grade levels of students. Drills were more effective among slow learners. An interesting conclusion from his review i s that primary CAI, where there is zero teacher intervention, is much less effective than adjunct CAI, where teacher mediation is a critical part of the instruction.

Kulik, Bangert and Williams (1983) reviewed 51 experimental studies in Grades 6 to 12 and found a .32 standard deviation average increase.

Lieberman (1985) surveyed several reviews on effects of CAI on learning. Forty eight secondary school math and science CAI evaluations showed an average rise in achievement test scores of .32 standard deviations; 35 math CAI evaluations showed a .41 rise; and rises in math achievement after CAI of .4 for primary, .3 for secondary and .1 for tertiary or college level students. Increased positive atti tudes towards computers and reduced instructional time were reported. However, s h e noted that few evaluations controlled for instructional content, and where it is controlled by having the s a m e

11


teacher-CAI programmer in both control (traditional) and treatment (CAI) classes, smaller differences were found. Cl "novelty effect" i s another methodological problem which confounds interpretation of evaluation results (Lieberman 1985; Zuk 1986).

A survey of several researches by Parry et d. (1986) found that CAI is effective as a supplement to the regular curriculum. Teacher and/or student attitudes to CAI were found to be positive. It results in savings of instructional and/or learning time; and it is particularly effective with low achievers. However, five researches before the 1980s revealed that student achievement i s about the same a s that from traditional methods.

Niemiec and Walberg (1987) summarized 16 reviews of the literature on effectiveness of CAI versus traditional teaching methods and found that, averaging across various educational levels and across various modes and types of learning outcomes, CAI i s effective in bringing about a slight but statistically significant improvement of .42 standard deviations in various measures of learning outcomes. The effect of CAI, overall, is to shift the average student's ranking from the 50th to the 66th percentile of the control o r non-CAI group distribution.

The average gains in standardized scores reported in such "meta-analyses" of reviews must, however, be interpreted with caution since the empirical bases of the "average" consist of a motley collection of different

experimental subjects (Levin e t al. 1986b). In 1986, the U.S. Department of Education created a

policy study body, the National Task Force on Educational Technology (NTFET). The most important findings and recommendations of the Task Force, released in 1986, are a s follows:

( 1 ) "In the course of its work, the Task Force became more deeply convinced that information technology represents a powerful array of tools that when creatively applied and appropriately integrated will help meet three fundamental goals: improving the quality of learning; increasing equity of opportunity, access and

effectiveness... The Task Force...found both negative and positive aspects [in information technology]. Overall, however, the trend i s toward better, more exciting and more effective use of technology.. ."

(2) "Cln analysis of 169 research studies found that computers were an effective teaching tool at the elementary, secondary, post-secondary, and

research designs employing different kinds of

quality; and ensuring greater cost

12


adult education levels." (3) Three of the more important recommendations of

the Task Force are: the establishment of demonstration schools for further evaluation and R&D, teacher education including in-service training, inclusion of IT (information technology) in school budgets, and software development.

Positive non-cognitive effects of CAI were observed by other investigators. Classroom social interaction is heightened: mutual consultations, peer-tutoring and, in general, increase in helping and assisting behaviours have been observed (Shade et d. 1986; Lieberman 1985). Student-to-student interaction were found to increase in six studies. Pairwise student use of a computer was found to have advantages (Lieberman 1985).

The rapid growth of adoption and use of microcomputers across all educational levels and over many countries (see Chapter 1 1 1 ) is evidence of belief on the part of many educational planners that CAI is needed for the school system, or that computers are in one mode of application or another, efficacious for learning. On the part of the general public, a Gallup Poll in the United States showed that 81% approves of the use of computers for instruction (Bear 1986).

It must also be pointed out that describing and evaluating CAI, in view of its very rapid worldwide development, is a s difficult a s "hitting a moving target". Rapid technical developments in a number of directions could alter CAI theory and practice: ICAI; interactive videodiscs (IVD) which combines picture storage capability of videodiscs with processing capability of computers (Helgerson 1987; Quinn 1987; Stevens et d. 1987); networking between schools, between school and learners at home, and between learners and data banks (Newman and Goldman 1986-87; Bork 1987; Schack 1987).

New ICAI and expert tutoring systems promise to be far removed from the earlier generations of CAI: starting with the linear, computer-controlled and inflexible

' drill-and-practice programmes. Results of evaluations of LOGO, the most popular precursor of school-level ICAI, were mixed (Horton and Ryba 1986; Kelly et &. 1986/87; Park 1987). Reservations have been expressed because most ICAI research has been approached not from cognitive psychology but from computer science. ICAI programmes were written mostly by experts in artificial intelligence ( A I ) with little consideration of learning theory (Hajovy and Christensen 1987). However, ICAI is still in its infancy and it is safer t o say that the first ICAI software cannot be used to predict improved ones that

13


will follow. Superior, next generation CAI tools are likely to

appear in the future. In view of future developments in theories of learning, the last word on the subject of evaluating CAI effectiveness has not been said. According to Papert, inventor of LOGO,

The first thing we did when we had this new technology ... was to d o with it the various things w e did before in school or what we saw being done around u s in offices. I think this is a shallow and first tier way of using computers in schools. As w e move into the future we’ll see more and more genuine rethinking of the function that a computer could satisfy> Although results of hundreds of evaluative studies

conducted so far are generally in favor of CAI, a complete picture of the state-of-the-art can be drawn only by additionally pointing out limitations, drawbacks and some misgivings expressed and observed about CAI in its present form and stage of development.

Limitations of Computer Use in School

Telfer and Probert (1986) summarize the arguments for and

1.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

against C4I. The advantages of CAI are:

CAI can be adjusted to suit the individual. Cinteractiveness of most CAI1 CAI provides one-to-one instruction. Students have favourable attitudes toward CAI. The computer has unlimited patience. Simulations of unusual situations are possible. CAI provides instruction on demand. CAI may be cost efficient. The computer will [can] recognize many input devices. CAI allows for comprehensive student records. Student absences do not mean missed lessons. Immediate feedback Decrease in lesson completion time External students may engage in interactive CAI.

The disadvantages are: 14. CAI isolates students from human interaction. 15. Students are denied the teacher a s role model. 16. Initial costs are beyond budgets of most schools. 17. The quality of available software has often been

18. Computer programs are [very often1 not

19. CAI use may not suit a timetable.

poor.

transportable between different machines.

14


20.

21.

22. 23.

25.

Different CAI packages do not use the same commands for communication with the user (lack of standardization). The same lesson is replicated in many classes, leading to a standardization which may not be optimal. The equipment may fail. Understanding and achievement are not just learning facts (not applicable to new ICAI systems) There are often n o permanent records of the lesson for the student.

Many arguments on both sides are neither permanent nor unsolvable. Therefore, a s new developments in hardware, software and classroom management take place, this checklist and the balance of arguments may still change.

Doubts that had been expressed related to number 14 and 15 appear to be the most fundamental. Murphy (1986) warned against the obscuration by educational technology of the creative, interpretive human side of education, the "human presence" that mediates the acquisition of knowledge. At a deeper level, he thinks that a 'I t ec hn o 1 og i c a 1 i n t o the formation of our image of the social world and thereby "materializes existence." According to Streibel (19861, the computer being a part a "technological framework" when used tends to "delegitimize other frameworks". In Streibel's words, "we are then left with a very restricted mental landscape".

At the operational level, some empirical findings pertinent to these arguments can be mentioned. From paired comparison using a drill-and-practice CAI program, peer-tutoring was found by Levin et al. (1986a, 1986b) to be more cost-effective than CAI. However, this conclusion could change with decreasing costs and newer modes of CAI superior to drill-and-practice. Adjunct CAI was found to be superior to primary CAI (Hasselbring 1986). The awareness by CclI teachers of value assumptions is important in affecting learning outcomes (Ragsdale 1986).

ra t i on a 1 i t y I' i n s i n ua t es i t se 1 f

Policy Issues Problems

Role of Educational Technologies in Third World countries

The proper role of computers, and related educational technologies developed mainly in the West, for developing countries has been debated.

The conclusions from a 1971 United Nations report on T A Application 02 Computer Technoloqy - for Development are still pertinent (Bogod 1979):

15


1. "Education and training for the application of computers to accelerate the process of economic development must receive first priority.

2. "Each developing country needs a broad national policy, consistent with its national goals, on the application of computer technology.

3. "International co-operation needs to be increased in activities relating to the

development. 4. "Computer technology will increase in

importance in the developing countries during the Second United Nations Development Decade, and its diffusion and sound application can make a significant contribution in accelerating the rate of their economic and social development. I'

Smithson and Land (1986) of the London School of Economics observed that "one of the few areas of agreement in the discussions surrounding IT and developing countries is the importance given to education".

The prevailing assumption is that information and communication industries are among the growth areas now and in the future, and developing countries, if they are to survive in international trade and competition, have to catch up with developments in information technologies ( I T ) in industrialized countries. For a developing country to make the critical shift from a "basic" to an "operational" stage in computer usage, Bogod (1979) argues that it needs "an educational programme on a national scale" to enable the general population "to participate in a system based culture".

A second, 1973 United Nations report said that "education and training are the most fundamental prerequisites for the successful application of computer technology for development. It is, therefore, vital for every developing country wishing to use computer technology to enhance its own development ... [and to1 formulate at the earliest possible moment dynamic and detailed policy in education related to computers and computer technology" (Bogod 1979). Ingle (1986) stressed the role of IT in educational technology, pointing out that the shift from mass media to "personal media" (e.g., personal computer, video disc/cassette, audiocassette) and low unit costs are desirable deve 1 opmen t s .

The recognition that children must somehow be prepared for living and working in a society increasingly dominated by IT, is now widespread.

On the other hand, fears are expressed about the

application of computer techno logy to

16


growing "knowledge gap" between North and South, further technological dependence of the South on the North, undesirable cultural side-effects (Ghosh 19871, and the train of problems unplanned transfer of IT might bring to the South (Hurtado 1987). The South's political dilemma, according to Bogod (1979) and Lind (19861, is how to increase their competence and self-sufficiency in the face of control by developed countries over information systems and entry of computer firms from the North motivated by obvious commercial interests. However, some sectors in the United States view with concern the free flow of American technology to its competitors, including socialist countries, and the rampant copying of its software by developing countries.

Teacher Training

The rapid growth of microcomputers has been placing new problems to teachers , school administrators and planners who need to adopt policies and programs to assist teachers.

Suddenly, teachers around the world are realizing that they are computer illiterate. At the primary level, i t does happen that a student is more computer literate than his teacher. Many countries recognize the importance of, and have adopted, teacher training and retraining programmes. However, the overriding aim of such programmes appear to be centred on students. It is recognized that CAI programmes must be "user friendly" (i.e., the student is the user) but there is scarcely any mention of making CAI programmes "teacher friendly". It must also be recognized that the pervasive growth of microcomputers and introduction of CAI produce stress or even threats on school teachers who never had received any training or experience on computers. This "tech- phobia" on the part of many teachers and school administrators (Sinqh 1987) can influence the attainment of a balanced perspective on their part a s regards the role of computers in the school.

One proposal is to initially introduce to teachers computer programs similar to the teaching style of the teachers and which make their tasks easier, such as test makers and quiz item banks (Bitter and Gore 1986). Anyhow, teachers who initially use familiar drill-and- practice programs were observed to shift, over time, to more sophisticated programs (Becker 1983; Ragdale 1986).

Software Development and Evaluation

With availability, decreasing cost and improving performance of hardware, a subsequent problem is how to

17


properly fit hardware uses to school curricula. Software is the critical component of this interface problem. In actual practice, software is developed mostly commercially and occasionally by the few teachers who know programming. In countries like the United States, software development is left to private initiative and market forces .

Governments of many countries had decided, a s a matter of policy, to establish and support centres tasked with development and evaluation of software. Since curricular requirements vary from country to country, commercially-developed software often cannot be used a s is. To many developing countries, cost of imported educational software i s often prohibitive. A survey of computer users in the education/research sector in 1985 in Thailand revealed that 41% of their budget is allocated for software, compared to 25% for hardware and 23% for personnel (Tang and Cabrera 1986). It could likely happen that software development will become a national o r even local preoccupation.

Equity of Access to Computers

Equity of access to computer facilities is another issue. Not all schools can afford computers. In schools with computers, not enough computers can be obtained; hence the problem of equity. The problem i s greater in developing countries.

New Zealand and Fiji are among the countries with national policies which expressly include provision of equitable (across urban-rural, racial and sex groupings) access to computer education. Regional disparity is a problem recognized in China.

Equity considerations are prominent in the Code of Ethical Conduct for Computer-Using Educators, of the International Council for Computers in Education? An international teacher training programme, EQUALS, was initiated by the University of California at Berkeley with focus on equity of access especially with reference to women and minorities?

Notes

l"papert Points the Way", Electronics Education, September 1986, pp. 10-11.

2''Code of Ethical Conduct for Computer-Using Educators: An ICCE Policy Statement". T A Computinq Teacher - 14(5): 51-53 (February 1987).

1 8


3"EOUALS in Computer Technology", Math Teacher 8l3(2) :167 (February 1987).

References

Association for Educational Communications and Technology (RECTI. The Definition of Educational Technoloqy. Wash., D.C., 1977.

Bear, George G. "Teaching Computer Ethics: Why, What, Who, When, and How", Computers in the Schools, J_(2):113-118 (Summer 1986).

Becker, H. J. School Uses of Microcomputers, No. 2. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, Center for Social Organization in Schools, June 1983.

Bluhm, Harry P. "Computer-Managed Instruction: A Useful Tool for Educators?", Educ. Tech. 23(1):7-13 (January 1987).

Bogod, Julian. The Role of Computinq in Developinq Coun- tries, The British Computer Society Lecture Series No. 2. London: British Computer Society, 1979.

Bork, Alfred. "Computer Networks for Learning", TA HI4 E. Jour. =(9):68-71 (May 1987).

Drage, Chris. "Simulations in Schools", Acorn User, Issue NO. 60, pp. 156-157 (July 1987).

Elyand, Donald P. and Tjeerd Plomp. "The Promises of Educational Technology: A Reassessment", Interna- tional Review of Education 32(3):231-249 (1986).

Ghosh, Ratna. "New .Educational Technologies: Their Impact on Relationships of Dependence and Interdependence for Third World Countries", Inter. Rev. Educ. 33( 1 ) : 33-50 ( 1987 1 .

Hajovy, Halyna and Dean L. Christensen. "Intelligent Computer-Assisted Instruction -- The Next Generation", Educ. Tech. =(5):9-14 (May 1987).

Hasselbring, Ted S. "Research on the Effectiveness of Computer-Based Instruction: A Review", Inter. Rev. Educ. J2(3):313-324 (1986).

Helgerson, Linda W. "Optical Discs: New Storage Media for Education", T. H. E. Journal 14(7) :SO-51 (March

19

Preparing ASEAN for the lnformation Century

1987).

Horton, Jane and Ken Ryba. "Assessing Learning with LOGO: A Pilot Study", The Computinq Teacher &(1):24-28 (August/September 1986).

Hurtado, Maria Elena. "The Computer Tangle", South, July 1987, pp. 9-11.

Ingle, Henry T. "New Media, Old Media: the Technologies of International Development", Inter. Rev. Educ. 32(3):251-267(1986).

Jacobsen, Ed. "Background Paper" for the Reqional Train- inq Workshop = School Mathematics @ Micro- Computers in Asia and the Pacific. Tokyo: National Institute for Educational Research of Japan, 23 June - 13 July 1987.

Artificial Intelliqence and Instruction: Applications a n d Methods, ed. Greg P. Kearsley. Reading, Massachu- setts: Addison-Wesley, 1987.

Kelly, Gwendolyn N., Joseph T. Kelly and Raymond B. Miller. "Working with LOGO: Do 5th and 6th Graders Develop a Basic Understanding of Angles and Distances?", JL Computers in Math. s( Science Teachinq VJ(2):23-27 (Winter 1986/87)

Kulik, J., R. Bangert and G. Williams. "Effects of Computer-Based Teaching on Secondary Sc hoo 1 Students", J. Educ. P s y c h o l o ~ y B ( 1 ) :19-26 (1983).

Levin, Henry M. and Gail Meister. "Is CAI Cost- Effective?", Phi Delta Kappan, June 1986.

, Gene U. Glass and Gail Meister. "The Political Arithmetic of Cost-Effectiveness Analysis", Phi Delta Kappan, September 1986.

Lieberman, Debra. "Research on Children and Microcomputers: A Review of Utilization and Effect5 Studies", Children a n d Microcomputers: Research on the Newest Medium, eds. Milton Chen and William Paisley. London: Sage Publications, 1985.

Lind, Par. "Computers, Myths and Development", Info. Tech. for Dev. &(2):?9-117 (1986).

Murphy, John W. "Humanizing the Use of Technology in Education: A Re-examination", Inter. Rev. of Educ.

20


32(2): 137-148 (1986).

The National Task Force on Educational Technology (NTFET). "Transforming American Education: Reducing the Risk to the Nation", a Report to the Secretary of Education, United States Department of Education. T. H. E. Journal, volume 14 number 1 (August 1986), pp. 58-67.

Newman, Denis and Shelley V. Goldman. "Earth Lab: A Local Network for Collaborative Classroom Science", J. Educ. Tech. Systems 15(3):237-247 (1986-87).

Nichol, Jon, Jonathan Briggs, and Jackie Dean. "PROLOG in Education", Educ. Rev. 32(2):137-146 (1987).

Nichol, Jon and Rosalind Nichol. "Prolog: Expert Systems and Authoring Shells", MUSE Summer Course 1986 Part II, p. 4.

Niemiec, Richard and Herbert J. Walberg. "Comparative

Synthesis of Reviews", J. Educ. Computinq Research 3(1):19-37 (1987).

Effects of Computer-Assisted Instruction: A

Park, Ok-choon and Robert J. Seidel. "Conventional CBI Versus Intelligent CAI: Suggestions for the Develop- ment of Future Systems", Educ. Tech. 27(5):15-21 (May 1987).

Parry, James D., Ron J. Thorkildsen, Thomas M. Biery and Christine A. Mac f ar lane. " Com pu t e r - B a sed Instruction (CBI 1 : The Transition from Research Findings to Teaching Strategies", Educ. Res. Quart.erly E ( 1 ) :30-39 (1985-1986).

Quinn, Tony. "Is There Life After Domesday?", Educ. Computinq 8_(5):19-23 (June 1987).

Ragsdale, Ronald G. "Computers in Education: Values and Assumptions", Educ. s( Computinq 2:207-214 (1986).

Schack, Markham E. "Interface Your College to the Outside World with your Own Computer Bulletin Board", Colle- qiate Microcomputer v(3):251-254 (August 1987).

Shade, Daniel D., Robert E. Nida, Judith M. Lipinski and J. Allen Watson. "Microcomputers and Preschoolers: Wor-king Together in a Classroom Setting", Computers in - the Schools ___--.-_ 3.(2):53-61 (Summer 1986).

21


Singh, Gurdyal. "Computers in Fiji Schools: A Country Report", UNESCO Reqional Seminar on the Evaluation of Computers in Education. Melbourne, Australia, 24-29 May 1987.

Smithson, S. C. and F. F. Land. "Information Systems Education for Development", Information Tech. for Dev. 1(2):59-74 (1986).

Stevens, Dorothy Jo, Linda Zech and Chandida Katkanant. "The Classroom Applications of an Interactive Video- disc High School Science Lesson", J_ Computers in Math. &- Science Teachinq VI(3):20-26 (Spring 1987).

Stein, Joanne Striley. "The Computer as Lab Partner: Classroom Experience Gleaned from One-Year of Micro- computer-Based Laboratory Use", J- Educ. Tech. Systems B(3):225-236 (1986-87).

Streibel, Michael J. "A Critical Analysis of the Use of Computers in Education", Educ. Communication &- Tech. J. 34( 3) : 137-161 (Fa1 1 1986) .

Tang, John C. S. and Agnes C Cabrera. "Computer Usage in Thailand: A Statistical Survey", Science and Public Policy 1J(6):341-346 (December 1986).

Telfer, Ross and Patricia Probert. "For and Against: The Pros and Cons of Computer Assisted Instruction", Educ. News 19(9):24-27 (1986).

Tennyson, Robert D. "MAIS: An Educational Alternative to CAI", Educ. Tech. 27(5):15-21 (May 1987).

Thornton, Ronald K. "Tools for Scientific Thinking -- Microcomputer-Based Laboratories for Physics Teach- ing", Physics Educ =(4):230-238 (July 1987).

Tickton, S. G. T o Improve Learninq: A n E v a l u a t u of Instructional Bchnoloqy. New York: Bowker, 1970.

Zuk, Dori. "The Effects of Microcomputers on Children's ,

Attention to Reading", Computers in Schools 3(2) :J9- 51 (Summer 1986).

22

CHfiPTER 111 COMPUTERS IN EDUChTION OUTSIDE THE ASECIN REGION

The information revolution is occurring at different rates in different countries. Government policies o r the lack of them can affect these rates. This is true for policies on computer use in schools.

Comparative study of experiences of countries outside the ASEAN region is a basis for formulation of policies on computer use in schools by ASEAN governments. In this chapter, experiences of countries outside the region are analysed and compared. Specifically, the purposes of such analysis and comparison are ( a ) to identify policy issues, and ( b ) to learn from other countries’ experiences.

The countries covered in this chapter are: ( a ) developed countries: the United States, Japan, United Kingdom, France, Germany, Netherlands, Australia, and New Zealand; ( b ) socialist countries: Soviet Union and People‘s Republic of China; and ( c ) developing countries: India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Hong Kong and Fiji. The choice of countries was influenced by availability of materials from the literature.

The United States

Computer Use in Schools

Computer use in elementary and secondary schools in the United States is fast increasing. Secondary schools usinq computers increased from 34.4% in 1970 to 58.2% in 1975. A national survey in 1983 revealed that 85% of high schools and 42% of elementary schools had at least one microcomputer (Becker 1985). It was estimated that computers in grades K-12 classrooms increased from 291,000 in mid-1983 to 1,075,000 by mid-1985, and will further increase to 2,400,000 by mid-1988. As of 1986, the ratio of computers to public school students was 1:40. It is officially anticipated to be 1:15 by 1989 (NTFET 1986).

Becker (1985) conducted a nationwide survey of computer use using a sample of 2,265 schools across the country. He found that drill-and-practice and introductory courses dominate usage, although a s schools gain more experience there is a tendency to move away from drills towards programming. BASIC is overwhelmingly employed a s the programming language (98% of schools). No single brand or make of microcomputer dominates usage in school (Yin and White 1985).

23


Policies on Computers in Education

Policy initiatives from the American federal government appears to be overshadowed by private-sector and local-level initiatives.

In 1972, well before wide use of personal microcomputers, the Committee on Computer Education of the Conference Board of the Mathematical Sciences published, through a grant from the National Science Foundation ( a federal grants and assistance agency) a report entitled "Recommendations Regarding Computers in High School Education". It recommended the institution of a universal computer literacy course, covering capabilities of the computer itself and the range of concepts and applications of computers. It was in mathematics courses where the earliest use of computers was observed at the secondary level. Noteworthy in this area was the Computer aided Mathematics Program published by Scott, Foresman & Co. which was used from grade 8 to grade 12 in the late 1960s and early 1970s (Atchison I985 ) .

O n e of the earliest experimental computer course employed in a number of secondary schools was published in 1975 by Forsythe, "Computer Science: A First Course". It w a s a revision of an earlier (1965) attempt by the School Mathematics Study Group at Stanford University, en ti t 1 ed and Mat hematic s " (Atchison 1985).

A 1980 report entitled "Agenda for Action -- Recommendations for School Mathematics of the 1980's" by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, similarly urged that computer literacy be "a part of the general education of every student" (Atchison, 1985).

American fears that they are beginning to lose competitive edge in international trade and technology spurred the creation of a National Commission on Excellence in Education, which in 1983 came up with a now well-known report, A_ Nation a& Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform. One of the needs identified by the Commission is formal training in computers in schools.

By early 1984, state-level legislation in five states and the District of Columbia required computer skills on students. By 1983, at least six states and the District of Columbia required teacher training on microcomputers (West 1985-86).

In the fall of 1984, the U S Secretary of Education created the National Task Force on Educational Technology (NTFET) a policy study body to investigate the potential of appropriately integrated technology t o improve learning in schools. The prime focus of the Task Force was on information technology (IT), with additional

" A 1 gor i t hms , Compu ta t ion

24

Computers in Education Outside the ASEAN Region

attention to older and more traditional forms such a s books, radio and television, and various other audio/visual technologies. It consisted of 26 experts drawn from schools, universities and the private sector (NTFET 1986).

The Task Force recommended the establishment of demonstration schools for further evaluation and R&D, teacher education including in-service training, inclusion of IT (information technology) in school budgets, and software development.

The creation of the Task Force i s the latest development in policy a t the federal level in the United States. However, well before 1984, experimentations had begun at the state and school levels, usually with the assistance of the private sector.

One of the earliest state-supported (and also private sector supported) programs was the Minnesota Educational Computing Consortium started in the 1970s. The program started on the basis of time-sharing terminals linked t o mainframes but late in the 1970s it began to use large numbers of microcomputers. The percentage of 5chools using computers increased from 18% before the program started, to 52% in 1973 and 96% in 1981 (Atchison 1985).

The first state-administered program which addressed the issue of computer-aided instruction at the state level was the California Teacher Education and Computer Centers or TEC Centers of the State of California school system (Meilach 1984). Its policy-making board includes leaders from 40 large companies. Fifteen TEC Centers have been established across the state.

Among TEC Centers' functions, the highest priority is given to teacher training. Successful teacher training created further problems. For example, over 80 percent of teachers who had gone through the education technology centres at San Diego State University have not returned to teaching. According to the director of the San Diego TEC Center, "the problem is frightening.. how to attract and keep teachers with an average starting salary of 313,500 [while they1 can easily make 323,000 to $25,000 at the entry level in the business world" (Meilach 1984).

In Colorado, over one-half of self-motivated teachers who sought computer training left their teaching jobs (Swadener and Jarrett 1987).

The TEC Centers' second priority function is t o help create a state-wide resource for software evaluation. They also serve a s a link between schools and business/industry, whereby private companies "adopt" local schools.

Forefront development at the secondary school level

2 5


i s illustrated in Fresno, California. In 1983 the Fresno Unified School District created the Fresno Academy of Computer Technology, or Computech, "to infuse technology into all areas of the curriculum while providing specific academic instruction in math, science, and computer science" (Lyles 1985).

Word processing is included in English and history classes, computer aided data acquisition is used in science laboratories, and even library records keeping and lunch program management are computerized. Computer literacy and LOGO are taught at entry level or Grade 7 ; BASIC programming is required at Grade 8; and specialization in Pascal, COBOL or FORTRAN at Grades 9 and 10. Computech is attracting the brightest and serious students. In the fall of 1983, only 600 of 1600 applicants were accepted and in 1984, only 450 of 900 applicants (Lyles 1985).

Problems and Prospects

Problems and prospects can be gathered from findings from four surveys of school use of computers (Atchison 1985; Swadener and Jarrett, 1987; Watson et 6 1987; Kloosterman e> al. 19871, which agree in many respects.

Firstly, teachers were found to be generally unprepared, both technically and attitudinally, in the classroom use of computers. The rapid growth of information industries have created a major problem in teacher training and retraining. Teacher training was therefore recognized a s most important. Kloosterman e& a&. (1987) observed that computer use in schools often begins with a cadre of teachers who are motivated and enthusiastic about the potential of computers. fitchison noted that

I f the teacher is not highly motivated to learn to use the new computerized course material, the students will not receive any of its benefits. The Working Group on Informatics Education in

Secondary Education of the International Federation for Information Processing believes that the best way to get information technology into schools is have a teacher there trained in information technology (Atchison 1985). Yin and White (19851, Kloosterman et d. (19871, and Swadener and Jarrett (1987) recommend that schools should have at least one resource person or computer coordinator each to spearhead their programs.

The general observation on teachers' attitudes were also made by Watson et al. (1987) from school administrators. They noted that:

A thorough review of the educational/computer

26


literature reveals that microcomputers in public schools are a grassroots phenomenon, one sponsored by parent5 and reluctantly accepted by school administrators.

They also noted, however, that this attitude is slightly moderating. Atchison (1985) echoed the same observations:

Although computers are prevalent in society, they are underused and underacknowledged in the 5c hoo 1 s. Secondly, an observation related to the above is the

decentralized nature of diffusion of microcomputer usage in the United States. Supporting their conclusion from their study of nine high schools in California, Rogers et al. (1985) noted that

The literature on microcomputer diffusion in schools indicates that the process is often more decentralized than centralized. The spread of microcomputers has not been organized a s a planned campaign at the federal, state, o r local school district level. Yin and White (1985) observed from case studies

across the United States that difficulties are encountered when schools tried to implement programs and ideas initiated from outside such as federal agencies. He hypothesized that “the abundance of failures to implement external innovations led many people to think of schools a s highly bureaucratic and non-innovative organizations.” Their case studies also show the importance of teacher training and the role of a school microcomputer coordinator towards successful implementation of computerization programmes. The grassroots nature of adoption of microcomputers and the importance of the teacher (over authorities at higher levels of the educational bureaucracy in the United States) may be related phenomena.

Thirdly, the surveys generally agree that many problems presently surround software: cost, availability, appropriateness, effectiveness, proper evaluation, compatibility, etc. This issue i5 related to the broader need identified by the federal level Task Force (NTFET 1986) for research, development, evaluation and dissemination of IT for education.

St must be noted that earlier, at the state level, the State of California TEC centres had been organized for the purpose of coordinating and pooling efforts in software evaluation. Atchison (1985) also recommended the establishment of local software clearinghouses or exchanges among participating schools.

Compatibility among microcomputer systems’ hardware and software becomes a pressing issue in view of an

27


emerging next stage of development: telecommunication linkages among schoo15, and between school and off-campus students. Two examples are the IBM/Educational Testing Service Secondary School Computer Education Program (Bennett, 1984) and the National Science Foundation/- National Geographic Society Kids Netw0rk.l A purely

TeleLearning Systems, which markets courses across all

microcomputers to communicate with the central unit by means of an innovative software called Runtime (Stahr 1984; Pearlman 1985).

Fourthly, the trend of increasing use of computers in American schools appears irreversible, despite some misgivings expressed about limitations of the technology and beliefs that it is only a passing fad. Computers are "here to stay"; the question is no longer "if" but "how" to best use the technology.

Contrary views remain. An example is the National Field Studies of Instructional Uses of Computers by the Johns Hopkins Center for Research on Elementary and Middle Schools started in 1987. By comparing classes using computers to those using only traditional methods, the program aims to provide empirical evidence on the educational impact of computers in schools (Becker 1987). Apparently, its implementors are more concerned with the issue of whether or not computers are effective learning tools, than with the issue of how to best prepare students to an information society which, for good or ill, will be increasingly involved with computers.

private venture, the Electronic University of

educ a t i ona 1 levels, enables various types of

Japan

Computer Use in Schools

Computer use in Japanese schools is just beginning to pick up. In 1983, Japanese schools with at least one microcomputer made up 0.1%, 2%, and 46% at the elementary, lower secondary, and upper secondary levels, respectively. In 1985-86, the figures increased to 2%, 14% and 81%, respectively. The average number of microcomputers per school is 3 at the elementary and lower secondary levels, and 10 at the upper secondary level. 10% of Japanese schoolchildren in large cities are estimated to have a computer at home in 1986. (NIER 1987; Nishinosono 1987).

The table below compares computer usage between Japan and the United States (Shimozawa 1986).

28


Table 111-1. Percentage of Japanese and American Schools With at Least One Microcomputer

I I I Japan U.S.A. (1984) I

I L eve 1 I 1983 1985 CA I CMI clubs : ; Primary 0.14 1.0 69.4 38.9 47.2 : ; Lower Secondary 1.8 10.0 25.3 70.1 32.5 : ; Upper Secondary 45.6 85.0 34.6 63.1 37.0

I --_--------- ----_--___--_-___- I

1 --__-__--___-__

I : Tertiary 100 100 ... ... ... , .......................................................

Surveys and Policy Studies

A number of surveys and policy studies by the Japanese government pr.eceded adoption of policies and programmes on computer use (Nagasaki and Senuma, 1987):

-- 'I Survey on the Educational Use of Microcomputers" in 1983 by the Social Education Bureau of the Ministry of Education, Science and Culture (SEB-MESC) or Mombusho;

-- "Standards for Training in the Educational Use of Microcomputers", a set of curricular guidelines for teacher training completed by the Subcommittee on Educational Broadcasting of the Social Education Council (SEC) in 1984;

-- A "Committee for the Study of Elementary and Secondary Education in the Age of Information Society" set up in February 1985 by the MESC Elementary and Secondary Education Bureau, and finishing its report on August 1985;

-- "Use of Microcomputers in Education", a SEC report released in March 1985 which incorporated two earlier reports;

-- A December 1985 SEC report on "Guidelines for the Development of Educational Software".

An important development at the national level was the creation in 1984 of the National Council on Education Reform. The Council is an advisory body to the Prime Minister. It submitted its interim reports in 1985 and 1986, and a final report in April 1987, all of which included sections dealing with educational plans for the use of IT in schools. The dominant theme is how Japanese schools can "cope with the information age". As set by the Council (Nishinosono 19871,

'I.. .education designed for the coming information age should be based upon the following principles: ''(1) Developing a system of education which

will truly prepare society for the coming information age;

29


" ( 2 ) Applying the potential of these new information media to the activities of educational institutions at all levels; and

" ( 3 ) Compensating the evils of the information age, by emphasizing the humanization of the educational environment".

In 1985, a Curriculum Council was established to advise the Minister of Education, Science and Culture on matters concerning curricular implications of IT. In the same year a Cooperative Committee on Elementary and Secondary Education and the Information Society was also set up (Nishinosono 1987).

Concrete government programmes and actions following these policy studies include the following :

Y 2 billion per year wa5 allocated by MESC starting 1985 as special subsidy fund for local boards of education for purchase of educational equipment such a s computers, word processors and video discs. 6s a result 13 062 microcomputers were purchased by schools in 1985 through 1986 (Shimozawa 1986; Nagasaki and Senuma 198717 In 1981, microcomputers were largely confined to commercial and technical high schools (Nishimura 1986).

_- In 1986 the Elementary and Secondary Education Bureau of MESC designated eight schools a s pilot schools to conduct a study on the use of computers in school (Nagasaki and Senuma, 1987).

_- The Ministry of Education, Science and Culture and the powerful Ministry of International Trade and Industry jointly set up in 1986 the Centre for the Development of Computer Education (translated variously a s Centre for Educational Computing) operating under the Bureau of Elementary and Secondary Education, in order to undertake R&D in educational computer systems (Nagasaki and Senuma 1987).

The establishment and work of this Centre, the National Council on Educational Reform, and the Curriculum Council, can be viewed together as an institutional commitment and a recognition from the highest policy levels in Japan towards use of IT in sc hoo 1 s.

Institutionalized government support for R&D appears to be proceeding at a fast pace. In 1985, many boards of education at the prefectural and down to the municipal levels responded to MESC initiatives and allocated from their own budgets research on computerization in education. The National Federation of Educational

--

30


Research Institutes (NFERI), an association of 227 local educational research institutes and teacher training centres, set up the NFERI Computer Assisted Instructions Project. The NFERI chairman is the Director General of the National Institute for Educational Research (NIER), which acts a s the NFERI national secretariat.

Twenty-one schools are designated a s experimental schools under the project, which aims to develop software, test them in schools, evaluate them and in general seek most effective ways of computer-assisted instruction. University specialists are tapped together with NIER experts a s advisers (ACEID 1986; Nagasaki and Senuma 1987).

Policy commitment had filtered down to the prefecture level (Nishimura 1986). An example is a prefecture in southwestern Japan the Governor of which adopted a program involving prefecture-wide use, experimentation and teacher training in IT. Its targets by end-1988 are: ( a ) every primary and middle schools will have at least 3 microcomputers each, ( b ) 11 primary and 11 middle schools will have 20 each, ( c ) all high schools will have 1 0 microcomputers each, and ( d ) 10 high schools will have 25 each. This program requires purchase of 3600 microcomputers (Nishimura 1986; Nishinosono 1987).

Professional Societies

Professional societies are apparently contributing to the momentum. New associations devoted to computer- related education appeared such a s the Japan Association for the Promotion of Educational Technology, the Japan Society of Educational Technology, and the Japan Society of Educational Information.

The Japanese Society of Mathematical Education (JSME) is the most active. J S M E conducts training courses for school teachers. In cooperation with JSME, the Ministry of International Trade and Industry sponsors annual computer programming contest for upper secondary school students. Programme content must be related to school life. Recent symposia held by the Japan Society of Science Education focused on computers.

The Japan Association for the Promotion of

commercial softwares. It adopted the following software classification system (Nishinosono 1987):

Educational Technology undertakes evaluation of

( 1 ) textbook type, e.g. tutorial and drill, ( 2 ) classroom lecture/demonstration type, ( 3 ) database/information retrieval type, (4) creative problem-solving type, (5) experimental aids,

31

Preparing ASEAN for fhe Information Century

( 6 ) gaming and simulation, and ( 7 ) other general-purpose softwares, e.g. word

processors, spread sheet, graphics, CAD, etc.

Teacher Education

Teacher education takes two forms: formal pre- service education and in-service (usually voluntary in Japan) training. Pre-service teacher education is undertaken at the tertiary level. Curricular guidelines had been prepared by the Council of National University Centers for Educational Technology. In-service training, which currently given more priority, is conducted by many educational centres at the prefectural level based on curricular guidelines issued by the Subcommittee on Educational Media of the Social Education Council (March 1985). A survey of 90 such centres in 1986 revealed that 82% provide training courses involving microcomputers and 53% offer microcomputer courses. The latter are short- term courses hewing close to the curricular standards set by the Social Education Council.

Problems and Trends

A 1985 survey showed that most software is of the drill and tutorial/demonstration type, and mostly on arithmetic, mathematics and computer science (Nagasaki and Senuma 1987; Nishinosono 1987). Interestingly, more than one-half of computer programs in use were developed by teachers, and the rest were mainly obtained commercially. BASIC is the most popular programming language (APEID 1985). Still, the perception is that too many teachers are unprepared to use or cannot yet appreciate IT in teaching (Shimozawa 1986; Nishimura 1986; Nishinosono 1987). From the same survey, nearly one-half (47%) of teachers were found to be ambivalent about the value of computers, while the rest tend to agree (33%) more than disagree (20%).

Other problems were pointed out which seems to be unique to the Japanese experience. The difficulty in adapting Japanese Kanji characters to the keyboard, and the less widespread use of typewriting compared to the West, were mentioned a s constraints. There is also the long-held proverbial belief in Japanese culture that special skills must be taught "through kinship between teachers and pupils" rather than by machines. Too, the earlier and more rapid proliferation of home video/- computer games were claimed to influence school children's attitudes towards computer use in school (APEID 1985; Shimozawa 1986).

32


Other Develooed Countries

In their efforts to remain competitive in IT with the United States and Japan, most European governments are taking steps to introduce the new technology in their school systems. European schools have about one million computers, and it i s estimated that by 1990 the number will increase to about three million (Leming, 1986):

Table 111-2. Number of Microcomputers in European Schools ( x 1000)

I I 1986 1990 : ; France 287 605 : : UK 262 541 : : West Germany 143 549 : ; I taly/Spain 118 585 : Scandinavia 95 263 : : Netherlands 49 178 ; : Others 84 299

'-----__-_--_---_-_-__-----------~ I

................................ The United Kingdom

The United Kingdom is a forerunner in government- supported introduction of microcomputers in schools. The first plan to encourage study of microelectronics in schools by the Department of Education and Science (DES) was made in 1978. The introduction of computers in the schools system was emphasized in the 1980 Manpower Services Commission Report. The Scottish Microelectronic Development Programme was started in 1979 and in November 1980, the Microelectronic Education Programme (MEP) was started with DES financial support. In 1981, 1982 and 1984, the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) offered matching funds for schools buying locally-produced microcomputers. This programme is known a s the "Micros- in-Schools" Programme. It was allocated a budget of L9 million. CI similar scheme called "Software-in-Schools'' Programme was started by DTI (Leminq 1986; Hung 1986).

Operational decisions and implementation lie with the 190 Local Education Authorities (LEA). An MEP Regional Information Centre serves groupings of LEFls in terms of information on hardware and software, in-service training for teachers, curriculum development, and liaison with external groups. Nearly all LEAS have in addition established their own computer education support centres to provide in-service computer courses and to help schools develop their own hardware and software (Hung 1987). Implementation at the local level was not

33


without problems and resistances (Burdett 1987). T h e pressing need for teacher training and

retrajning in IT was also raised in the United Kingdom. In 1983, the Council for Educational Technology went a s far a s recommending to Secretaries of State for Education that "no student teacher should achieve qualified status without first acquiring skills in educational technology" (Chan 1987). In 1987, the Minister of State for Education asked every LEA to submit to DES a five-year plan for training teachers in all subjects in the use of microcomputers and for installing hardware in their sc hoo 1 s. The directive noted that IT "is still not a part of the teaching repertoire which all teachers fully appreciate o r feel comfortable with" (Boseley 1987).

The marriage of microcomputers with telecommunications have begun in UK schools with T h e Times Network of Schools (TTNS) Primary Project. Over 100 primary schools participated. Electronic mailing connected some UK schools to schools a s far a s Cleveland and Tasmania.

France

France' approach was unique, namely: teach teachers as the very first step. The Ministry of National Education supported an experimental program starting in 1970 to train school teachers in the use of mainframe computers (microcomputers were not yet developed then) a s teaching tools. The program was part of "Plan Calcul", the overall French computer plan.

Private computer companies (IBM, CII and Honeywell Bull) trained a total of 80 teachers during the first year. From the second year onwards, different universities (at Grenoble, Nancy, Toulouse and Rennes, and the Teacher Training College at St. Cloud in Paris) took turns to host the program (seven months full-time study plus six weeks practicum in a computer firm). Ninety teachers graduated each year. By 1976 when the program was terminated, 500 secondary level teachers have gone through the program (Sacco 1980; Hung 1986).

Teachers were able to write instructional programmes in their own fields at the end of the course. Sacco (1980) believes that the diffusion of expertise and perhaps interest to their teacher-col leagues was psychologically advantageous.

Almost during the same time, the National Center for Correspondence Teaching (CNTE) started a correspondence course (on tuition fee basis) written by university teachers.

Teacher training took a different form starting 1979. 36 teachers trained under the previous program were assigned full-time at Sevres to handle three-week

34


microcomputer courses for other secondary school teachers. It was observed, though, that this format was inferior to that of the previous programme. Hung (1986) noted that in the subsequent period up to 1985, a total of 2500 teachers had gone through long-term and another 45 000 teachers, through short-term courses.

France, like U.K., introduced a massive hardware program called "Informatique Pour Tous" in 1985-1986. 120,000 microcomputers were given by the Education Ministry to primary and secondary schools. Like U.K., microcomputers were purchased from local French producers. Foreign brands like Apple were purchased only by private schools (where 17% of students are enrolled) because they were not eligible under the the "Informatique Pour Tous" programme and because they used their own funds. As of 1986, French schools have the greatest number of microcomputers in Europe. (Leming, 1986)

Germany

In Germany, the school system is administratively decentralized resulting in uneven policies and extent of computer usage. In industrial hi-tech areas such as Bavaria and Baden-Wurttemburg, computer education enjoys high priority (Leming 1986).

Netherlands

In Netherlands, school computer usage had been a matter of "grassroots" or "spontaneous" development (Plomp and Carleer 1987) before the Minister of Education and Sciences, in a 1982 white paper, urged the inclusion of information and computer science in schools. However, the government's white paper "does not refer to particular strategies for introducing (information and computer literacy) in schools." A national survey by Plomp and Carleer (1987) showed that about one-fourth of Dutch schools do not use computers, one-half are in the process of preparation (e.g. teacher training), and the remaining one-fourth are active in using computers for instruction. They also discovered that teachers, more than administrators or higher authorities, play the role of originator.

Australia

Computer use in Australian schools is widespread: 98% of secondary schools and 55% of primary schools in 1985. In Australia's decentralized educational system,

35


policy initiatives had been made at all levels: Commonwealth, state and school levels.

Commonwealth policy attention started only at about 1982 when the Advisory Committee on the Educational Use of Communications Technology wa5 established to recommend an experimental programme in the educational use of communications technology. In 1984, the Australian Education Council (AEC) set up a Task Force on Education and Technology to investigate the educational implications of technological change. A report entitled ”Teaching, Learning and Computers” submitted to the Commonwealth Schools Commission (CSC) led to the creation of a three-year (1984-86) Computer Education Program with A821 million funds from the Commission, ta provide policy guidelines, funding and various services such as teacher training (Murray 1987).

Follmuing from a National Software Clearinghouse Study funded by the Curriculum Development Centre of CSC, the Centre set up a National Software Coordination Unit in 1987 in cooperation with state-level Education Depart- ments. The Unit performs software evaluation, review and dissemination functions.

State policy and programme initiatives appear to have antedated that at the Commonwealth level. South Australia had set up the Anglo Park Computing Centre in 1968 which serves schools. Tasmania established a statewide time-sharing network, the Elizabeth Computer Centre, in 1975, and later a Centre for the Continuing Education of Teachers which include computer education. The Schools Computing Centre was established in Western Australia in 1977. Other states followed after the 1982- 1983 policy initiatives from Canberra. Professional societies such a s the Australian Computer Society and the Australian Association of Mathematics Teachers, also played an early role in influencing government policy (APEID 1985).

A 1985 survey of 1000 schools commissioned by the Commonwealth Department af Education revealed, among other things, that:3

( 1 ) the computer-to-student ratio was 1:123 in city schools and 1:82 in country schools;

( 2 ) 70% of hardware cost was shouldered by the government and the remainder by parents’ associations;

( 3 ) word processing, data base functions, simulation/gaming, and drill/practice, in that order, were perceived to be most advantageous;

(4) lack of computers, funds and trained teachers were the problems most often mentioned.

36


New Zealand

In New Zealand, computer use i s also widespread. In 1986 98% of secondary schools and about 50% of primary schools have at least one computer. There is an average of 11-12 computers for each secondary school, or a 1:50 computer-to-student ratio. Hardware cost i s usually borne o r raised by the school (Begg 1987a; Werry 1987). The government does not give funds to schools for purchase of computers (Boswell 1986).

A 1984 survey showed that computers were used largely in science subjects: 80% of schools use them for mathematics applications, 55% for teaching mathematics, and 36% for teaching physics (Boswell 1986).

The educational system of New Zealand, in contrast to that of Australia, is centralized. The Department of Education set up a Consultative Committee on Computers in Schools to guide future policy on computer use in secondary schools. According to Boswell (19861, it was set up by the Department due to pressure from teachers and parents. The Committee recommended in its 1982 report that priority be given to computer awareness "for all students", computer studies for students close to school leaving age, and the use of computers as "a teaching tool o r aid in all subjects of the curriculum."

Before, only one course (Applied Mathematics in Form 7 at Year 12) required the use of computers. Thereafter, the Department produced instructional materials for a 12- hour computer awareness course at Year 9, and for an elective 120-hour computer studies course for Year 11.

A Computer Courseware Development Unit, later renamed the Computers in Education Development Unit reflecting widened functional scope, was set up in the Department of Education in 1984. It performs software development and evaluation, in-service training, and exploratory studies. It has developed a standard procedure for software evaluation.

The Department of Education had started an Exploratory Studies Project with NZ$ 800 000 funding for schools to undertake research and evaluation on computer use in schools (Boswell 1986).

Use of computers for drill/practice, unlike in other countries, is low. There are notable features of New Zealand policy:

(1) "Stress is on ... the student asking the computer to d o things rather then responding to the computer's request. " Word processing, interactive fiction/simulation, and LOGO ( a language that a1 lows creative programming by children) are the most popular computer uses. The main idea is to "empower students" that

37


they "take more control of their learning." (Begg 1987a, 1987b)

( 2 ) Equity across sexes, economic class and ethnic groups is a conscious program criterion (Begg 1 9 8 7 ~ 1 , 1987b).

( 3 ) Curriculum integration of Geography, English, Biology and Computer Studies, i s being pilot tested wherein computer use is not viewed a s separate from the totality of learning means and ends (Nolan e t &. 1986).

Socialist Countries: USSR and China

Soviet Union

Throughout the Soviet Union, there a r e about 250 000 personal computers, compared t o around 30 million in the West (Suprowicz 19871. Computers are rare in Soviet schools. "Computer use in schools" in Soviet literature often refer to calculators.

In 1984, the USSR Supreme Soviet passed "Guidelines for Reform of General and Vocational Schools" which, among others, provided that "particular attention be paid to.. subjects.. especially those associated with new techniques and technology and automated manipulatory devices". The head of the commission which drafted the proposal was Mikhail Gorbachev, who has since rose to become General Secretary of the Soviet Union. A plan to use microcomputers in secondary school have been devised by the Central Commit/tee of the CPSU and a n ambitious programme t o introduce one million microcomputers in 60 000 schools by 1990 was started (Hoot 1987; Kerr 1987).

FI Pravda article on 29 March 1985 published a Politburo decision to adopt measures "to assure computer literacy among students of secondary schools" and a directive that all secondary schools introduce a course on "Principles of Information Science and Computing Technology", and that "a broad experiment on the use of computers in teaching school subjects" be carried out (Kerr 1987).

The Soviet Union i s behind the West in computer technology and farther behind in software development. Its top microcomputer model, "Agat" introduced in 1983, is inferior to Apple I and is virtually absent in schools. Hoot (1987) discovered an extremely rare "computer club" in Moscow which had 21 microcomputers all of Western make. The computers were donations of the club president, who turned out to be former world chess champion Anatoly Karpov.

The explosive rate of IT innovation in the West must be alarming to the Soviet Union, which under Gorbachev,

38


is displaying signs of reform. However, Hoot (1987) believes that, in addition t o the problem of technological gap with the West, an ideological dilemma confronts Soviet leaders: catching up in educational computing with the West would mean making a wealth of information available to its people. The political will at the highest levels appears to be there. Meanwhile, a t the grassroots level, unauthorized use of a copying machine remains punishable by imprisonment.

Kerr (1987) suggests that the centralized nature of the Soviet school system may make changes actually easier to achieve than would be the case in the West, although the outcomes of the changes may turn out to be more circumsc-ribed than would be true here.

People’s Republic of China

Chinese government policy on microcomputer use in schools began in 1982. Previously, in the 1978-1982 period, several small-scale local programmes were set up by individual schools (Huang 1986). In 1978, the Shanghai Children’s Science Centre first tried teaching microcomputers to children. In 1980, the Beijing Council of Science and Technology gave a few microcomputers to the Jingshan Middle School in Beijing, which students started to use in their spare time (APEID 1985). T h e first student contest on computer programming was held in Shanghai in 1980 (Su 1985).

A proposal from Chinese participants to the 1982 Third World Congress on Computer Education held in Lausanne was endorsed by the Ministry of Education ( n o w the State Education Commission). An experimental programme was immediately adopted for implementation in five university-affiliated upper secondary schools in Beijinq, Qinghua, and Shanghai. A National Experimental Centre for Computer Education in Secondary Schools was established in 1983 and attached to the Beijing Teachers Co 1 lege. Its first assignment was to oversee the experimental programme. Its functions include programme development, school assistance, software and CAI R&D, and international linkages (Su 1985; Huang 1986; Chen e t e. 1986; Chen 1987).

The pace quickened thereafter. At South China Normal University, a Department of Computer Science was s e t u p in 1984 (Gao 1986). A s in Beijing Teachers College, the approach is that of linking CAI R&D with a teacher training institution.

In 1984, the Chinese Computer Society sponsored the first nationwide microcomputer programming contest for students (Su 1985). By 1986, two other national contests had since been held by the State Education Commission in

39


cooperation with the Chinese Association of Science and Technology (Huang 1986).

By 1986, three national conference had been held on experimental work in computer education in secondary schools. A national ministry-level planning meeting had been convened on educational software development, between the State Education Commission, the State Science and Technology Commission, and the Ministry of Electronic Industry (Chen 1987).

Computer courses in China are mostly offered at the first two years of senior high school, following a teaching syllabus issued by the former Ministry of Education. Course objectives are ( 1 ) computer literacy, ( 2 ) programming in BASIC language, and ( 3 ) development of logical thinking, problem solving, and creativity. The specific choice of BASIC language is a notable feature in Chinese policy.

In early 1986, 33 950 computers were in 3319 primary and secondary schools all over China (excluding Xizhang). An additional 20 000 units outside schools were estimated to be also available for students' use. They were predominantly Apple-compatible machines, according to national policy on locally-built microcomputers, with special hardware modification to enable u s e of Chinese characters. In 1985 China produced 32 000 microcomputer units. Local production of microcomputers is part of the government's Seventh Five-Year Plan (1986-1990).

Problems met are familiar, such a s financial constraints, lack of trained teachers, and lack of teaching materials. Problems mentioned by the Chinese specifically are language and regional disparities among sc hoo 1 s. A foreign observer noted their focus on memorization a s a teaching method, and the lack of student feedback and interactiveness in the classroom (Rasmussen 1986).

Developinq Countries Outside ASEAN

India

India's approach is to embark in a large-scale pilot programme, the Computer Literacy and Studies in Schools (CLASS). CLASS is a joint project of the Department of Electronics and the Ministry of Education, under the coordination of the National Council for Educational Research and Training (NCERT). NCERT is the highest national body responsible for research and development, training and extension programmes in education. Programme objectives such a s "to provide students with a broad understanding of computers" and "to familiarize the students.. .'I, and t o "encourage teachers to use the

40


technology in improving effectiveness of their teaching" were rather modest, and some say were "rather loosely defined" (Mallik 1987). Its initial budget was about US8 250 million (APEID 1985; Maheshwari 1986; Murthy and Ramji 1986; Asian Computer Monthly 1987a).

Implementation of CLASS began in 1984 in 250 secondary schools, grouped around 50 Regional Resource Centres attached to universities or engineering schools. The number of participating schools have grown to 1250 and 500 more are planned to be included in 1987. The Centres have a rather broad range of responsibilities; they perform consultancy, programme monitoring, teacher training, repair and maintenance, curriculum development, 1 iaison, and promotional functions. Software development, interestingly, is only an "optional role" (Mallik 1987).

Student participation in CLASS is limited to those selected by the teacher. It is not examinable because it is not part of the required curriculum. In the Indian educational system, curriculum i s a State prerogative whereas CLASS i s a centrally-initiated programme. Allocation of student time and facilities for CLASS is therefore left to the discretion of sc hoo 1 administrators. Another problem is language. ROM chips to generate Indian scripts have been developed for 1 0 different Indian languages but softwares to utilize them are not yet developed.

Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi is observed to be a strong supporter of the local computer industry. However, hardware remains a problem after the initial donation of 250 units of EEC microcomputers from U.K. A total ban on imports of personal computers and a reduction of import duties on parts were intended to hasten the development of locally-manufactured models. However, on the meantime supply is still way below local demand? 3

Pak is tan

Pakistan's National Education Council of the Ministry of Education has a Computer Resource Centre which started a teacher and student training programme in 1986. The Science and Technology Wing of the Ministry began a pilot project on an introductory computer course in four selected secondary schools in 1987. Two hiqh- level government committees were created to formulate a national computer policy: the National Informatics Committee and the Committee on Computer Education which covers all educational levels. An Institute for the Promotion of Science Education and Training (IPSET) had been set up (Ilyas 1986; Mahmood 1987).

41


Sri Lanka

In 1982 Sri Lanka's Ministry of Education introduced a pilot microcomputer education programme in 108 selected schools. It featured a computer awareness course for Grade 12 students. The ministry selected the Sinclair ZX Spectrum microcomputer, which has a BhSIC interpreter in ROM. Teachers for the programme were trained in six microcomputer training centres establ ished for the purpose, a few of whom were additionally taught minor repairs and maintenance. By the end of 1986, the Drogramme has been extended to 200 schools.

Observed waning of student interest after taking the course was attributed to unavailability of software and to students' preparation for competitive examinations. No evaluation of the programme had as yet been undertaken (APEID 1985; Abhayaratne 1987; Kumarasiri 1987).

Hong Kong

In 1982, the Hong Kong Education Department started the first phase of the Computer Studies Pilot Scheme for Grades 9 and 10 in thirty pilot schools. The course is examinable. It includes programming in BASIC. A minimum hardware complement was prescribed for each school: 11 microcomputers, 12 disk drives and 2 printers.

In 1987, a more elementary, computer literacy course was introduced at 70 government secondary schools. The target is for "all school students to eventually know something on computers".

Availability of skilled teachers is not a problem in Hong Kong. Software is the problem like elsewhere. The pilot scheme was judqed favorably on the basis of pass rates of students in elementary certificate examinations. The government's policy of accepting tenders for hardware each year led to different microcomputer brands being bought each time. However, no follow-up advanced computer studies course ar-e offered in succeeding grades; instituting such a course and making it part of requirements for entering the university has been proposed (Cheung 1986; Asian Computer Monthly 1987b).

Fiii beqan computer education in schools in 1984. The Ministry of Education allocated funds from its hudqet for this purpose. A Computer Education Centre was established in 1984 to undertake teacher training, hardware and software support service5, curriculum development iincludinq software development), vocational

42


courses for school leavers, and community awareness courses in computing. The Ministry supplies hardware only to those schools with trained teachers. Another noteworthy policy is providing equal access t o the technology for schools located in remote areas. Because of unavailability of software, computer use is focused on programming rather than CAI (Singh 1987).

Hiqhliqhts of the Situation Outside RSEAN

The overall impression one obtains after surveying experiences of many countries outside ASEAN is the pervasive belief that computer use in schools is desirable. Differences arise only in the question of how to introduce computers in the educational system.

The degree and promptness of policy support from the central government vary between countries. The United Kingdom's Microelectronics Programme started in 1980 i s among the earliest government-initiated and supported programmes. New Zealand set u p its Consultative Committee on Computers in Schools in 1982. In 1983, China established its National Experimental Centre for Computer Education in Secondary Schools. The U.S. National Task Force on Educational Technology, which started a federal policy study in 1985 and completed it in 1986, appears late in comparison.

In the United States, private and local initiative since the sixties antedated federal attention on u s e of computers in schools. Computer use in schools has been described a s a decentralized o r "grassroots" phenomenon in the United States, leading to t h e hypothesis that educational systems are bureaucratic and slow to respond to societal changes. Cheap personal computers o r microcomputers had penetrated American homes a t an unparalleled rate. School policy in the United States i s largely a state and local school hoard concern. T h e result is a lag in adoption of computer technology between homes and schools, and a bottom-to-top evolution of pol icy.

In contrast, governments in many other developed countries took stronger and earlier policy initiatives. Institutional and budgetary supports were established in Japan, the United Kingdom, France, Australia and New Zealand. One difference between Japan and the United States is the stronger role and policy initiative of the central government in Japan coupled with a top-to-bottom technology adoption process. The Soviet government had enunciated a program of massive introduction of microcomputers in schools. China and India have officially initiated their own broad-based experimental programmes.

43


It has been pointed out that the Soviet system of government lends itself readily to rapid decision-making and implementation of central policies, but adequacy of resources to realize large-scale programmes is doubted. This observation is pertinent to Third World countries with similar limited public resources.

The assumption behind this observation is that extent of computer use in schools is influenced by two factors: ( a ) political will from the central government, and ( b ) adequacy of public and private financial resources.

The first factor i s related to whether a country's educational policy tends to be centralized or decentralized. The second factor is related to the importance and vigour of the private sector in the economic system. For example, although there appears to be a comparative policy lag in the United States compared to, say, Japan, computer use in American schools is more widespread (Table 111-3). In Australia and New Zealand, which have well-enunciated government policies a s well as the financial resources, computer use is even more widespread (Table 111-4 and 111-5). With both resources and government support, Japan is likely to show a faster rate of computer use in the future.

Table 111-3 Number of Micracomputers in School5

I I 1985 1986

: u.s.Fl.a 1 075 000 I I

I : Franceb ; U.K.b I I

I

; West Germanyb

: Netherlandsb I I

I L

287 000:

262 000:

143 000:

49 000:

I I

I I

I I

aNational Task Force on Educational

bLeming 1986. CChen 1987.

Technology 1986.

44


Table 111-4 Computer-to-Student Ratio

a Education News 1986.

National Task Force on Educational Technology 1986. bBegg 1987 C

Table 111-5 Percentage of Schools Outside ASEAN

With at Least One Microcomputer

I a dl I U.S.A. Japanb Australiac New Zealand I : Level i (1983) (1983) (1985) (1986) I

I

i Primary i 42% 0.1% 55% 50% I I

I I I I I I

I I

I I

I I

: Secondary : 85% 98% 98% i Lower I 1.8% I

: Upper I 45% I

Becker 1985

Murray 1987

a

bShimozawa 1986

dBegg 1987

C

This brings the discussion to the issue of improving international competitiveness and supporting domestic information industries a s two underlying motives behind policies on computer education at any level of a country ' s educational system. This motive or apprehension is apparent in the American federal study, fi Nation & R i sk: Imperatives for Educational Reform. The policy of purchasing only domestically produced microcomputers for public schools in the United Kingdom and France is another example.

Japan, too, i s undergoing a national re-examination o r reform of its educational system to "cope with the information revolution". Japanese planners are aware of

45


the importance of information industries to the country's economic future. Thus, the general impression one gets is not only the desirability of teaching about or with computers throughout the school system, but also assumed essential role of computers in achieving competitiveness in international trade and other economic relations.

Except for the importance of teacher retraining, educational experts and planners do not seem to agree a s to how best to use computers in schools, and how best to institutionalize such use within the educational systems. The new technology is developing much faster than the rate a t which school administrators can determine how best t o handle it.

Consequently, experimental and research and development programmes have been observed to precede or accompany government policies in all countries studied. Such programmes, e.g., developing and evaluating software, testing of methods in designated experimental schools have been institutionalized at various degrees.

At o n e end, new government bureaucracies are created such a s in Japan (Centre for Development of Computer Education) and China (National Experimental Centre for Computer Education in Secondary Schools). At the other end, new functions are added to existing bureaucracies such as in Australia (National Software Coordination Unit within the Commonwealth School Commission), New Zealand (Computers in Education Development Unit within the Department of Education), and India (National Council for Educational Research and Training). In Japan, an existing educational research institution, the National Institute for Educational Research, is also involved in computer education.

Computer education i s a concern which straddles the traditional sectoral domains of the Ministries of Education, Science and Technology, and Industry in a any country. It is not surprising, therefore, that a number of instances of official cooperation among these Ministries have been observed.

The Centre for Development of Computer Education in Japan was jointly initiated by the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of International Trade and Industry, a powerful policy body in the Japanese government. In China, the State Education Commission, the State Science and Technology Commission, and the Ministry of Electronic Industry are cooperating in educational software development. The CLQSS project in India is a joint project of the Department of Electronics and the Ministry of Education.

46


Notes

l''NSF Grant for Elementary School Science via Telecommunications", Journal of Computers in Mathematics and Science Teachino, volume V I number 3 (Spring 1987), p. 8 f f .

2'tJapan: Science Education at Elementary and Secondary Levels Using Computers", ACEID Newsletter, number 31 (December 19861, p. 11.

3''Computer Applications in Australian Classrooms", Educa- --- tion News 19(9):28-37 (1986).

4'1A Computer Boom in India", Asiaweek, 3 August 1986, pp. 48-50.

5"Digital Delhi." The Economist, 3 May 1986, pp. 76-77.

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Asia and the Pacific Programme of Educational Innovation for Development (APEID). Computers in Education: F\Q Outline of Country Experiences. UNESCO Regional Office for Education in Asia and the Pacific, Bang- k o k , 1985. pp. 36-47.

Atchison, William F. "The Development of Computer Science Education", Advances in Computers, volume 24 (Mar- shall c. Yovits, ed.).New York: Academic Press, 1985.

Becker, Henry Jay. "National Field Studies of School Computers", The Computinq Teacher, volume 14 number 6 (March 19871, p. 28.

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Begg, A. J. C. "New Zealand Report", paper prepared for

47


Reqional Traininq Workshop 02 School Mathematics and MicroComputers in Asia and the Pacific. Tokyo: National Institute for Educational Research of Japan, 23 June - 13 July 1987.

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Bennett,Randy Elliot. "Teachers Reach Out and Touch with PCs", P C Maqatine, 13 November 1984, pp. 335-337.

Boseley, Sarah. "Schools Told to Plan for Micro Age", T A Guardian (London), 23 July 1987.

Boswell, Colin R. "Computers in Secondary Schools in New Zealand", Proceedinas of Reqional Conference 01 Microcomputers in Secondary Education "86, eds. S. Moriguti, S. Ohtsuki and T. Furugori. Tokyo, Japan, 18-22 August 1986, pp. 451-454.

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Kam Hung. "Development of Computers in Education and the Uses of Microcomputers in Schools", Honq Konq Science Teachers Journal 14(2):200-206 (Decem- ber 1986).

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Shu-Kai, Hsu Cho-Chun and Lin Jian-Xiang. "Develop- ment of Computer Education in China", Proceedinas of Reqional Conference on Microcomputers in Secondary Education '86, eds. S. Moriguti, S. Ohtsuki and T. Furugori. Tokyo, Japan, 18-22 August 1986, pp. 7- 14.

Cheung, Derek F. W. "The Introduction of Advanced Level Computer Studies in Hong Kong Secondary School", Proceedinas of Reaional Conference 02 MicrocomDuters in Secondary Education B, eds. S. Moriguti, S. Ohtsuki and T. Furugori. Tokyo, Japan, 18-22 August 1986, pp. 329-334.

48


Czernezkyj, Vic. "Country Report: Australia", Reaional Traininq Work~jhoo on School Mathematics Micro- Computers in FIsia and the Pacific. Tokyo: National Institute for Educational Research of Japan, 23 June - 13 July 1987.

Gao Ling Biao. "Some Ideas about Cf4I in Middle School Science Teaching in China", Proceedinas of Work- shop on * U s e of Microcomputers & Science Teachinq. University of Honq Konq, Department of Professional Studies in Education, 24-27 June 1986, pp. 282-286.

Goodchild, Stanley. "Electronic Mail and Accessing Data- bases: the Primary Project", MUSE Report No. (August 19861, p. 14ff.

Hoot, James L. "Computing in the Soviet Union." Computinq Teacher (May 19871, pp. 8-10, 56.

Huang Shiqi. "The Impact of Technology on Education in China", International Review of Education, volume 32 number 3 (19861, pp. 330-334.

Ilyas, Muhammad. "Computers in Education", Information Technoloqv for Development, volume 1 number 4. London: Oxford University Press, 1986.

Kerr, Stephen T. "Soviet Applications of Microcomputers in Education: Developments in Research and Practice During the Gorbachev Era", Journal of Educational Computinq Research $(l): 1-17 (1987).

Kloosterman, Peter, Phyllis Campbell Ault, and Harold Harty. "School-based Computer Education: Practices and Trends", Educational Technoloav, volume 27 number 4 (April 19871, pp. 35-38.

Kumarasiri, M. G. R. "The Use of Computers in Schools in Sri Lanka", UNESCO Reqional Seminar thg Evalua- tion of Computers in Education. Melbourne, Australia, 24-29 May 1987.

Leming, Paula S. "It's An International Affair", glee- tronic Education, volume 6 number 3 (November/- December 19861, pp. 17, 24.

Lyles, Rebecca Moore. "California-Style Computer Curricu- lum", PC Magazine, 9 July 1985, pp. 235-237.

Maheshwari, Shachindra N. "Indian Computer Literacy Pro-

49


gramme: Past and Prospects for the Future", Proceed- inas of Reqional Conference on Microcomputers & Secondary Education' 3, eds. S. Moriguti, S. Ohtsuki and T. Furugori. Tokyo, Japan, 18-22 August 1986, pp. 51-56.

Mahmood, Tariq. "Pakistan: Country Report", paper prepared for Reqional Traininq Workshop 02 School Math- ematics a& MicroComputers in CIsia and the Pacific. Tokyo: National Institute for Educational Research of Japan, 23 June - 13 July 1987.

Mallik, Utpal. "Computers in Indian Schools", UNESCO Regional Seminar on the Evaluation of Computers in Education. Melbourne, Australia, 24-29 May 1987.

Meilach, Dona Z. "Computers Teach the Teachers", PC Maaa- zine, 16 October 1984, pp. 295-297.

Murray, Steve. "The Evaluation of the Educational Use of Computers in Australia", UNESCO Reqional Workshop 02 Evaluation of Computer Proqrams in Education. Melbourne, (lustralia, 24-29 May 1987.

Murthy, H. N. N. and S. Ramji. "Microcomputer Trends in Science Education in India: The COSTED Experience", Proceedinas of a_ Workshop 02 the Use of Microcom- puters in Science Teachinq. University of Hong Kong, Department of Professional Studies in Educa- tion, 24-27 June 1986, pp. 295-299.

Nagasaki, Eizo and Hanako Senuma. "Country Report: Japan", paper prepared for the Reaional Traininq Workshop 02 School Mathematics a n d MicroComputers in Asia and the Pacific. Tokyo: National Institute for Educational Research of Japan, 23 June - 13 July 1987.

National Institute for Educational Research of Japan. School Mathematics: New Ideas with Computers. Tokyo, Japan.

The National Task Force on Educational Technology (NTFET). "Transforming American Education: Reducing the Risk to the Nation", a Report to the Secretary of Education, United States Department of Education. T. -- H. E. Journal, volume 14 number 1 (August 19861, pp. 58-67.

Nishimura, Toshio. "Microcomputers in Japanese Schools", Proceedinas of Regional Conference on Microcomputers


- in Secondary Education '86, eds. S. Moriguti, S. Ohtsuki and T. Furugori. Tokyo, Japan, 18-22 fiugust 1986, pp. 17-20.

Nishinosono, Haruo. "Country Report of Japan", UNESCO Reaional Seminar 02 the Evaluation of Computers in Education. Melbourne, Australia, 24-29 May 1987.

Pearlman, Dara. "A School Without Walls", PC Magazine, 16 April 1985, pp. 225-230.

Plomp, Tjeerd and Gerrit Carleer. "Towards a Strategy for the Introduction of Information and Computer Literacy (ICL) Courses", Comput. Educ., volume 11 number 1 (19871, pp. 53-62.

Rasmussen, Donald. "Teaching the New in a Country of Old", Electronic Education, December 1986, volume 6 number 3, pp. 13-15.

Rogers, Everett M., John H. McManus, John D. Peters and Joung-Im Kim. "The Diffusion of Microcomputers in California Hiqh Schools", Children Microcompu- ters: Research 02 the Newest Medium, eds. Milton Chen and William Paisley. London: Sage Publications, 1985.

Sacco, Maryse. "Informatics in Secondary Education in France: Teachers Training", Microcomputers in Secon- dary Education, ed. E. D. Tagg. North-Holland Publishing Company, 1980, pp. 43-46.

Shimozawa, John T. "Microcomputer Software Development in Japan: Its Background and Some Examples Applied to Chemical Education", Proceedinas of Workshop 02 - the U- of Microcomputers in Science Teachina. University of Hong Kong, Department of Professional Studies in Education, 24-27 June 1986, pp. 300-303.

Singh, Gurdyal. "Computers in Fiji Schools: A Country Report", UNESCO Reaional Seminar on the Evaluation of Computers in Education. Melbourne, Australia, 24-29 May 1987.

Stahr, Lisa E. "The Electronic University", PC World, January 1984, pp. 246-248.

Su Shi Dong. "The Application of Microcomputer in the Teaching of the Sciences in Middle Schools in China", Proceedinas of a_ Workshop on the ULJ of Microcomputers in Science Teachinq. University of

51


Hong Kong, Department of Professional Studies in Education, 24-27 June 1986, pp. 276-280.

Suprowicz, B. 0. "Soviets Still Behind Schedule in Ambi- tious Computerization Plan", U.S. Roundup, 1987.

Swadener, Marc and Karen Jarrett. "Computer Use in Content Areas in Secondary Schools", Journal of Computers in Mathematics a n d Science Teachinq, volume VI number 2 (Winter 1?86/1987), p. 12ff.

Watson, J. Allen, Sandra L. Calvert and Vickie M. Brink ley. " The Compu ter / In format ion Tec hno 1 og ies Revolution: Controversial Attitudes and Software Bottlenecks -- A Mostly Promising Progress Report", Educational Technoloqy, volume 28 number 2 (February 1987), pp. 7-12.

Werry, Bevan. "Country Report: New Zealand", UNESCO Reqional Seminar 02 the- Evaluation of Computers in Education. Melboukne, Australia, 24-29 May 1987.

West, Charlene E. "Microcomputers in the Classroom -- Just What is the Cost?", Educ. Res. Quarterly I 10(1):46-56 (1985-1986).

Yin, Robert K. and J. Lynne White. "Microcomputer Imple- mentation in Schools: Findings from Twelve Case Studies", Children L-4 Microcomputers: Research 02 - the Newest Medium, eds. Milton Chen and William Paisley. London: Sage Publications, 15'85.

52

CHAPTER IV POLICIES fiND PROGRAMMES IN BRUNEI

I n trod uc t ion-

Brunei Neqara Darussalam, a former British protectorate, achieved its independence in 1984. With the smallest population in ASEAN, Brunei has the smallest number of schools, 178 primary schools and 28 secondary schools in 1984 (Ministry of Finance 1986).

The educational system, patterned after the British system, has six years at the primary level and seven years at the secondary level (Table)::-2 ). About 40% of the secondary school teachers are expatriates.

A bilingual (Malay and English languages) system of education was instituted in 1985. Starting at Primary IV up to Form VIA, Mathematics, Science, English Language, History and Geography are taught in English and the rest of the subjects in Malay (Ministry of Education 1985).

The curriculum for the primary level and Forms 1 - 1 1 1 of the secondary level was revised in 1985. Forms IV-VIE use the United Kingdom Cambridge Syllabus. The priority of the Curriculum Development Division, Ministry of Education for the next two years is the development of local textbooks following the 1985 Primary and Secondary Curriculum?

The country has two teacher-training institutes. The Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah Institute of Education is the Faculty of Education of the newly-established University Brunei Darussalam.

Officials of the Ministry of Education interviewed

government priority. Educational programmes and projects need the approval of the Sultan, the head of government.

b y the author indicate university education as a

Computer Policy- Environment

About seventeen computer companies, local distributors of foreign computers - mainframe, minicomputer and microcomputer - are listed in the 1987 telephone directory in Bandar Seri Begawan, the capital of Brunei. A t least two private computer schools operate in the national capital. The common microcomputer models sold in Brunei are IBM-PC, its compatibles and BBC? Brunei does not manufacture o r assemble computer hardware. Software development for commercial use is nil. Users of microcomputers in business, government or home use imported commercial software packages.

Preparing ASEAN for the information Century

Policy on Computers In Education

Officials of the Ministry of Education interviewed by the author know of no written policy of the government on the use of computers in the school system. However the Ministry of Education annually gives computer supplies t o every upper secondary school and pays for the maintenance of the computers.

Further, the Ministry prescribes the BBC computer model for the school system. One reason advanced 1s the ease of using the BBC educational software developed in the United kingdom. The Ministry also requires the computer clubs in upper secondar schools t o submit an

The Ministry aims to equip every government upper secondary school, thirteen in all, with ten BBC mi c rocompu tersf Computer Studies is an optional and examinable subject in the secondary school curriculum, starting at Form IV. Approval of the Ministry of Education for a school to offer Computer Studies depends on the availability of trained manpower and adequate computing facilities. The 1985 Secondary Curriculum does not mention or integrate computer uses and concepts in the subject areas.

According to some officials of the Ministry of Education, i f computers in education are perceived a s top priority by the government, funding is not a problem.

annual report of their activities. Y

Computer U s in the Schools

Computet- Appreciation Clubs

In 1983 Brunei Shell Petroleum Compan funded a feasibility study on computers in the schools, At this time, two top government schools, Pusat Tingkatan Enam in Bandar Seri Begawan and Anthony Abell College in Seria already had microcomputers for students.

The feasibility study was conducted by an expert from the Curriculum Development Institute of Singapore. Among the recommendations was the introduction of computer education in upper secondary school via computer appreciation clubs. Computing a s a separate subject could result in displacement of one subject in the curriculum.

A Computers in Education Project Centre wa5 set up in the Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah Institute of Education to provide teacher training and serve a s resource centre for the computer clubs. The Centre has ten BBC Model B microcomputers, three Acorn Master Series 128, two BMC’s, and one Apple IIe, a Torch Z80 Disc pack and a 280 Second Processor.

54

Policies and Programmes in Brunei

In November-December 15’83, the Centre invited twenty four teachers from upper secondary schools to its first five-week course on computer education, conducted by five officers of the Microelectronics Education Programme in the United Kingdom. Brunei Shell funded the training programme (Maawiah 1Y86).

In 1984 Brunei Shell donated four sets of BBC Model B microcomputers with two printers to ten of the eighteen government secondary schools. In 1986 Brunei Shell donated four sets of BBC Master microcomputers with two printers to four more secondary schools, thus equippinq a1 1 government upper secondary sc hoo 1 s with microcomputers. The schools renovated one classroom with special furniture and air-conditioning to house the donated computers.

Shortly after the donation of computers, computer appreciation clubs were formed in the schools a 5 an extracurricular activity mostly for upper secondary students. Students are required to have two to three extra curricular activities. Similarly, teachers are required to participate in one to two extra curricula_r activities with n o additional compensation or incentive3.

The teachers who were trained at the Computers in Education Project Centre became computer club advisers. The advisers took a more advanced computer course at the Centre for three weeks in September 1986. Funded by Brunei She1 1 , the course covered topics like structured programming, graphics, machine code/assembly language, and data processing using the BBC Business Data Processing Pack, and interfacing and control using the Industrial Data Processing pack. The lecturers were the county adviser for computer education in Wales and a senior lecturer of Kingston Polytechnic, London (Maawiah 1986, Brunei Shell 1986).

Computer club members are selected on the basis of interest in computers, aptitude for computing, and presence of a computer at home. Based on 1?86/1987 reports of computer clubs in six secondary schools, the club members normally take short courses after c l a s s hours once a week for one to two hours to Forms IV-V students. R t least two clubs focus on Form 4 students, because Form V students tend to drop out of the course when they start preparing for their ‘0’ 1 e v e 1 examination. The Paduka Seri Begawan Sultan Science College, the top secondary school in science and mathematics, offers the course to Forms 1 - 1 1 students.

One to four teachers handle the course. Usually groups of eight o r twelve students take turns using the four computers with two computers having a common printer. Thus, two-three students work on one computer. Five schools report training 27-48 students a year. T h e

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Sultan Omar Ali Saiffudin (S.O.A.S.) College conducts three ‘LO-hour short c o u r ~ e ~ a year, training a total of 120 students.

The course topics usually include introduction to the operation and uses of the computer, word processing, and simple BASIC programming. In addition, at least two clubs teach graphics, LOGO, and data base package. Some clubs include educational games and application packages in certain subjects. S.O.A.S. College also includes a spreadsheet program. The College has a second course on BASIC Programming for students with computers at home. The 30-40 hour course is offered once or twice a year to about thirty students, one three-hour session a week.

AS resource centre for computer clubs, the Computers in Education Project Centre sponsored in 1986 an Essay Competition for computer club members to use their word processing skills. The prizes were donated by Brunei She1 1. The Centre conducted courses for interested teachers throughout the year on simple BASIC programming, graphics, word processing and other applicatlon software useful to teaching (Maawiah 1986).

The computer facilities of the Project Centre were recommended for transfer to the €CA Section, Ministry of Education in 15’87 when the latter took over the supervision of computer clubs. The ECA Section will continue the teacher-training programmes on computer education:

The clubs are one of eight extra curricular activities handled by the ECA Section. with two officers directly In charge of computer clubs. The ECA Section provides the clubs yearly with 1.00 diskettes, 10 boxes of printing paper, printer ribbon, and two units of WORDWISE-PLUS , an advanced version of WORDWISE , a BBC word processinq program. lhe clubs submit their annual reports to the ECA Sectj.on3

Amonq the recommendations of the club advisers in their 1.9136/1?87 annual reports is the purchase of additional computers by the Ministry for the schools, ranging from four to sixteen more computers. Continuous in--service training and a continuinq resource centre for computer clubs were also suqqested. One club adviser expressed satisfaction with BBC microcomputer for its s0.ftwar.e especially suit.ed to education and for its superior graphics capabi 1 ity. But he suggested having other models far the c l u b , like Apple I 1 and IBM-PC, which have far qr-eater memory capacity t.han BBC Model B.

Use of computers in private schools depends on the resources of t.he school. A local supplier of BBC microcomputers estimates sellincj twenty units to seven- eiqht secnridsr v schools.

Computer use by lower seconcldry students (ages 12-


14) in the Brunei Muara District was explored in a three- week Computer Camp in May 1986. The students were asked to write computer programs within fifteen minutes. Prizes were give. Students' reactions were favorable (Maawiah, 1986).

In June 1987, four public primary schools were each given four BBC microcomputers by the Ministry of Education for use of Primary IV-VI students? One computer club adviser mentioned the abundance of BBC software for the primary level compared with that for the secondary level.

Computer Studies

In Awang Semaun Secondary School, the optional, examinable subject, Computer Studies, was introduced in 1986 to prepare students for the 1987 '0' 1 e v e 1 Cambridge Overseas School Certificate Examination in Computer Studies. Because of inadequate trained manpower, advertisements for overseas teachers of Computer Studies were put out (Maawiah, 1986).

S.O.A.S. College has requested permission from the Ministry of Education to offer Computer Studies and funding for a computer classroom equipped with twelve computersp Similarly, the S.T.P.R.I. Girls' High School has requested to offer Computer Studies?

Computers as Teaching Tools

Whenever the computer clubs are not usinq the computers, teachers can use them for teaching o r developing their computing skills. The most common use of microcomputers by teachers 1s writing their lesson plans and tests with the word processing program.

In S.O.A.S. College, about 25% of the teachers use the BBC word processing program, WORDWISE, to write their lesson plans and tests, In t h i s school teachers (Form teachers) in charge of reporting grades of students in a class use a computer program to summarize the class pe r f o r m an c e,?

Only a handful of upper secondary teachers, mostly expatriates, use the computer as a teaching tool with BBC educational software. Still fewer teachers can write simple BASIC programs to teach their subjects and d o so only occasionally.

Computers in Science a n d Mathematics Education

Programmes at Secondary Level

Before 1984 teachers in a a top qovernment school,

57


Pusat Tingkatan Enam in Bandar Seri Begawan use microcomputers in teaching mathematics and biology.

The computer club adviser of S.O.A.S. College, a British expatriate, also heads the Mathematics Department and has developed two programs in mathematics: Plotting Graphs and Transformations. Another expatriate teacher uses thg BBC science software for Forms IV and V students,

In S.T.P.R. I. Girls High School, one computer club adviser, a Malaysian expatriate, teaches chemistry. She uses computer programs on volumetric titration, mole concept, empirical formulas and equations to evalu te students’ understanding of concepts discussed in class.

The Physics and Biology Departments of the Science College ordered one BBC ‘Master’ computer each to use in teaching (CAC 1987).

The BBC software in science and mathematics available to interested teachers in Brunei are listed in Table IV-1.

3

Teacher Education Proqrammes

The Certificate in Education programme of the Bolkiah Institute of Education mentions the computer only in the subject, Facilities for Teaching Mathematics, for mathematics majors at the primary level. One three-unit subject in the Bachelor of Education degree programme of the Institute is Maths/Computer Studies (Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah Institute of Education Prospectus 1986-1987).

The Institute’s four-year Bachelor of Science (Education 1 Programme is designed to prepare professionally competent secondary school science/mathematics teachers. Students in the programme take five units of Preliminary Maths/Computing.

The Institute submitted a proposal to the Ministry of Education to offer an in-service course (one semester, three hours a week) on Computer Applications in Education. The course is intended for secondary school teachers with little or no previous computer experience (Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah Institute Computer Course Proposal August 1987).

The proposed course aims to help the teacher use the computer a s a teaching aid, organise and run computer clubs and evaluate educational software. The Institute has fifteen microcomputers for the use of fourteen teachers to be taken in the course.

When the Computers in Education Project Centre was based at the Bolkiah Institute, the teaching staff and students of the Institute used the Centre‘s facilities whenever available. Knowledgeable faculty members trained others on using the computers in teaching.

58


Table IV-1. BBC Education Software in Science and Mathematics Available in Brunei

Primary Mathematics

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

Sums M1 t-Div Halving Countrs spots Addin Count Tens Partit Trains5 Tiles3 Signs Crosses Tables

15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27.

Add-Su b Ergo Godown Abacus Make37 Angles Differ Tiles1 Soldie Frac t Clocks Snap Odds

28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40.

Addsub Cwords Looping Lineup Make57 Areas Numrace Ti les2 Tiles Diag Lines Venman Square

Secondary Mathematics

1. Jars 4. Graphs 7. Fourier 2. Sets 5. Multi 8.Calc 3. Polynom 6. Trigo 9. Rationa

Biology

1. Human Energy Expenditure 5. Transpiration 2. Multifactional Inheritance 6. Metabolic Pathways 3. Statistics for Biologist 7. Pond Ecology 4. Heat Exchanger and 8. Predator-Prey

Renal Multiplier Relationship Chemistry

1. Anal 5. Gas Chromatography 2. Elemts 6. Homogeneous Equilibrium 3. Organ 7. Paraffin File 4. Element Games 8. Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid

Physics

1. Gravitational Fields 5. Radioactive Decay 2. Linear Momentum 6. Planetary Motion 3. Photoelectric Effect 7. Acoustics 4. Mass spectrometer 8. Capacitor Discharge

Source: Star Trading and Printing Sdn. Bhd., 1987.

59


Software used included drill and practice exercises, tutorials, demonstrations, simulations, and educational games (Maawiah 1986).

Support of Private Sec tor

Brunei Shell Petroleum Company, fifty-percent owned by the government, initiated the computer awareness programme in the school system in 1984. In 1983 the Company launched its Computer in Education Project a s part of its continuing interest in science and mathematics education and a s its special contribution in education on the occasion of the country's independence in 1984.5

Support of Brunei Shell for computer education was substantive. It included funding of the feasibility study and two intensive teacher-training programmes, purchase of four microcomputers and two printers and some software for all the government upper secondary schools, and the training of the Computers in Education Project leader abroad.

Qnother private company heavily involved in computer education in the schools is Star Trading and Printing Sd. Bhd. which prints some publications of the Ministry of Education. The company supplied the BBC microcomputers donated to the schools by Brunei Shell. Star Trading handles the repair and maintenance of the computers, paid for by the Ministry of Education. The company provides the computer supplies given by the Ministry to the schools?

4s part of its assistance to the schools, Star Trading lends four computer magazines to computer club members and advisers, lends computer units in place of units under repair, does free repair beyond warranty period, and provides free consultancy services.

Hiqhliqhts of the Brunei Situation

Extensive private assistance for BBC computer hardware and teacher training formally started computer awareness in the secondary school system in 1984. The computers in the schools are used mainly in computer clubs, an extra-curricular activity. The clubs' primary objective is computer literacy and appreciation. Support of the Education Ministry i s in providing supplies and funding maintenance for the schools' computers, as well a s monitoring the progress of the clubs.

Pre-service and in-service preparation of science and mathematics teachers for computer use is mostly for computer clubs and computer literacy. Computer use in science and mathematics teaching at primary, secondary

60


and teacher education levels is at the initiative of the teacher. A few teachers, some of them expatriates, use mathematics and science software for simulation, drill and practice, and student evaluation.

With Brunei's high per capita gross national product, funding is not a problem if the government decides on extensive use of computers in science and mathematics education.

Notes

lInterview with Sheikh Mohd. Adnan, Assistant Director, Curriculum Development Unit, Ministry of Education. Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei, 25 August 1987.

21nterview with Lim Soon Bee, Computer Manager, Star Trading and Printing Sdn. Bhd. Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei, 2 5 August 1987.

31nterview with Pangeran Haji Mohd. Hassan, Supervisor, AKLI Unit, ECA Section, Ministry of Education. Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei, 25 August 1987.

41nterview with Badar bin Haji Ali, Head, AKLI Unit, ECA Section, Ministry of Education. Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei, 2 5 August 1987.

5Personal communication from Haji Abed Haji Abdula Hamid. Education Services Officer, Brunei Shell Petroleum Company Sdn. Bhd. 22 September 1987.

61nterview with Yen Tshin Lim, Senior Mistress, S.O.A.S. College. Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei, 25 August 1987.

'Interview with Matthews, E. Computer Club Adviser, S.T.P.R.I. Girls High School. Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei, 25 August 1987.

81nterview with Jones, I., Computer Club Adviser, S.0.FI.S. College. Bandar Seri Beqawan, Brunei, 25 August 1987.

References

Brunei Shell Group of Companies, Public Affairs Department. 1986 Onnual Review.

Computer Appreciation Club (CRC) Reports of:

61


Awang Semaun Secondary School, 1987. Maktab D.P.M.A.-M.B. Secondary School, June 1987. Paduka Seri Begawan Sultan Science College, June 1987. Perdana Wazir Secondary School, 1986. S.T.P.R.I. Girls High School, August 1987. Sultan Omar Ali Saiffudin College, 1986.

Maawiah bin Haji Abdullah. Computers in Education Project Annual Report. Ministry of Education, November 1986.

Ministry of Education. Education Svstem of Neqara Brunei Darussalam. Bandar Seri Begawan: Star Trading and Printing Sdn. Bhd., 1985, pp. 3, 11-12, 21-32.

Ministry of Finance Economic Planning Unit. Brunei Statistical Yearbook 1984/1984. July 1986, pp. 6, 87.

Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah Institute of Education Documents: Prospectus 1986-1987. Proposed Inservice Course: Computer Applications in

Education, August 1987.

62

CHCIPTER V POLICIES CIND PROGRCIMMES IN INDONESICI

Indonesia, having the largest population among ASEAN countries has the biggest number of students, 29,909,188 at the primary level and 7,042,001 at the secondary level in 1984 (Unesco 1986). Primary schooling takes six years and secondary education has three years for junior secondary school,SMP, and three years for senior secondary school, S M A (Department of Education and Culture 1985). Bahasa Indonesia, the national language, is the medium of instruction.

Comouter Policy Environment

In the eighties, with the advent of the cheaper microcomputer, the number of computer shops and computer schools grew rapidly in big cities of Indonesia (RECSQM 1986; Rahardjo 1987). Jakarta's 1987 telephone directory lists thirteen computer schools and 160 computer-related firms.

The trend in hardware used is shifting from APPLE to IBM-PC, with lower-cost compatibles of the latter becoming popular. The trend in software use is towards compact integrated software which can handle different tasks (Rahardjo 1987). In September 1987, the Indonesian Parliament passed a copyright law that includes protection for local and foreign computer software>

Computer schools provide most of the computer education to students, including the use of the computer in learning mathematics. These schools offer courses on computer operations and computer programming. Some schools of fer computer-assisted instruction (CAI ) parallel to the school curriculum. The CAI includes a few mathematics programs at the primary level in the form of tutorials, demonstrations and exercises. Some computer schools develop mathematics software, but n o evaluation of the programs is available (NIER 1987).

Microcomputers are commonly used in the country a s word processors, data processors , and in entertainment" devices. While many people welcome microcomputers as part of modernization, some worry about the "adverse effect.. upon culture and ethics.. and the robotization of human beings" (RECSAM 1986).

Policy 02- Computers in Education

The Department of Education and Culture has not enunciated a clear policy on the use of computers in the schools. The resource requirement for computers is large

63


in view of the huge student population of the country. Computer use in schools, however, is informally

encouraged. Purchase of computer hardware by public schools using government funds is monitored and regulated by the Department, in particular, by the Committee for the Provision of Computers?

The 1984 Curriculum for Secondary Education has a regular course attached to mathematics at the senior secondary level. FI computer package course i s also included for the development of vocational skills of students (RECSFIM 1986). The 1984 primary curriculum does not include use of computers:

Since the Department of Education and Culture cannot supply each school with computers due to budget restrictions, the implementation of the computer package course has been postponed. Similarly, the regular computer course attached to mathematics is taught in schools with computers and only in theory (flowcharting and programming) in some schools without computers (RECSAM 1986 )$

The Department of Education and Culture formulated a standard course outline for non-formal computer education given by computer schools, which are usually private. A state examination for student5 in computer schools was also introduced (RECSAM 1986).

In education, computers are widely used for data base management system, management of information system, and administrative purposes. The Office for Educational and Cultural Research and Development of the Department of Education and Culture, assisted by the United States Agency for International Development, is conducting a feasibility study in 1986-87 on inter-linking computers within the education structure to a central data-based management network (Rahardjo 1987).

Computer U s e in Schools

The increasing use of microcomputers in education at the secondary and tertiary levels in the country is attributed to their low cost and effectiveness in promoting "interaction and individualization" and the microcomputer's ability to do animation and simulation (Hamron 1987).

Several private secondary schools in Jakarta have computers. In Jakarta, out of the 350 senior secondary schools, less than thirty schools, mostly private, are equipped with computers (NIER 1987). The schools offer computer courses attached to mathematics, where students learn computer operation, programming languages and programming skills. Other schools have an arrangement for computer companies to provide computers and instructors

64

Policies and Programmes in Indonesia

for a specified period (RECSAM 1986). The Director of Secondary General Education5 cites

rapidly changing computer hardware, limited software, and prohibitive cost of computer if used for instruction only as stumbling blocks to extensive use of computers in the school system. He speculated that wider use of computers may result if the cost of the microcomputer were reduced to one-fifth of its present cost.

Professional groups have given the following suggestions to overcome the difficulty of supplying schools with computers (NIER 1987):

1. Regional microcomputer centres should be established to enable schools in the region to use the centre's facilities.

2. Cheap computers should be made available to sc hoo 1 s.

3. Microcomputer literacy can be introduced in schools thru students' visits of computer centres.

4. Parent-school associations can provide schools with computers.

Wide computer use in the educational system may have to give way to more pressing educational problems. One education official2 perceives the top problems to be the low quality of students choosing the teaching profession and inadequate supervision of teachers.

Teacher-training institutes for prospective primary school teachers (Sekolah Pendidikan Guru, SPG) d o not offer computer courses, while pre-service teacher- training institutes for secondary school teachers and lecturers (Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan, IKIP), e.g., IKIP Jakarta and IKIP Yogyakarta, do. IKIP Jakarta began offering computer courses in 1981, while IKIP Yogyakarta started the courses in 1983 (RECSAM 1986).

The Computer Centre of IKIP Jakarta offers computer courses to selected majors. The Centre has one IBM-S34 minicomputer with four terminals, two I BM-PC microcomputers, and twenty APPLE 1 1 microcomputers. In 1983, the Centre translated the programming language BASIC into Indonesian and called it KILANG for use in APPLE and aPPLE-compatible machine&


Programmes at the Secondary Level

The computer course attached t o mathematics does n o t use the computer to teach mathematics. Rather, the focus is on computer operations, use of software packages, and computer programming (NIER 1987). However, a few mathematics teachers, on their own, occasionally u4e

65


mathematics software, commercial or self-developed. Available commercial programs from abroad are in English and therefore not frequently used for the Bahasa-speaking students.

Development of software by teachers for the subjects they teach is mostly at their initiative. In Jakarta, for example, a key mathematics teacher leads a small group of upper secondary school teachers meeting weekly to demonstrate and discuss computer programs in mathematics which they themselves have written in BAS IC4.

One education official2 foresees that computer use in science education within the next five years will be most likely at the initiative of the school or teachers.

Teacher Education Programmes

The Computer Centre of IKIP Jakarta offers computer courses, Using Computers and Fundamentals of Programming, to science and mathematics majors. Some graduates of IKIP Jakarta who have taken computer courses become computer teachers in secondary schools? The Centre has not developed software in science and mathematics but students are sometimes assigned to develop simple programs in their respective fields@

The IKIP Jakarta lecturers of science and mathematics are given training (e.g., five hours for physics lecturers) on computer operations, uses and programming. The Mathematics Department has a few microcomputers for use of lecturers in their research and professional growth. The computers in IKIP Jakarta are not used in teaching science and mathematics to students. The mathematics and science courses also do not cover applications of mathematics/science concepts/principles in computers. One speculation is that within ten years computers may be used in physics and mathematics classes for data and graphical analysis?

The National Centre for Teacher Training in Science, PPPG- I PA , in Bandung had a computer course for instructors of mathematics teachers in October 1987, conducted by consultants of UNDP (United Nations Development Programme) from Australia. The Centre also plans to have a UNDP-funded course for science teachers on computer-aided learning or computer-based training in April 1988. Forty microcomputers will be installed and used in the Centre and distributed to the provinces about

The National Centre for Teacher Training in Mathematics, PPPG Matematika in Yogyakarta conducts two- three week computer courses for mathematics teachers. The courses introduce participants, forty at a time, to BASIC

a year later. 7

66


programming, Wordstar and DBase packages. The Centre is equipped with one Radio Shack TRS-80, one IBM-PC compatible and five Apple IIe machines?

Since 1979, the Directorate of Secondary General Education of the Department of Education and Culture has been implementing a major reform: a comprehensive, nationwide teacher-training project for the secondary school teachers, known a s PKG for Pemantapan Kerja Guru, translated Strengthening Teachers' Work (Unesco 1985). Initially supported by UNDP and later with a World Bank loan, the project does not include the teaching of the sciences using computers. In-service courses for mathematics teachers occasionally include, whenever possible, mathematics computer software?

Qmong the emphases of PKG are science demonstrations,experimental work, applications of science and mathematics in everyday life (Unesco 1985). Inclusion of computer-aided instruction may be viewed a s another reform . The Director of Secondary General Education5 recommends 'I the consideration of the estimated relaxation time" for a large-scale educational reform. Once a change is introduced, an incoherent change should not be added to allow the system to reach its relaxed new state.

In this context, PKG with its set of objectives perhaps will be given "relaxation time" , before computer-aided instruction or any other major change will be introduced in teacher-training programmes nationwide. This situation is likely given the huge resource requirements of computers in education, the millions of students and thousands of teachers involved, and the extensive geographical configuration of the country.

Should Indonesia decide to include computers in science and mathematics in preservice and inservice teacher-training programmes, software in science and mathematics developed in some universities in the country can be used for teacher education. Science and mathematics departments and computer centres (PUSKOM) in Institute Teknoloqi Bandung ( I .T.B.) in Bandung, Gajahmada University in Yogyakarta, and Universitas Indonesia in Jakarta are developing computer-based learning materials (Hamron 1987). For example, physics professors of the Institut Teknologi Bandung developed physics software a s teaching aids on the following topics (Hamron 1987k5

1. Critical condition of a nuclear reactor 2. Random motion and Bo1 tzmann distribution 3. Electromagnetic induction 4 Optics: diffraction pattern, interference-

diffraction patter,.slit interference, and polarization

67


5. Viscosity Experiment 6. Introduction to Theory of Special Relativity

These programs can be used for pre-service and in-service training of secondary school physics teachers.


Assistance of Industry

IBM Indonesia has donated computers to universities and teacher-training institutions like IKIP Jakarta. An official of IBM Indonesia believes that assistance of a computer company to the school system will pay off in terms of helping educate future company manpower and customers, besides generating goodwill. However, he believes that Indonesian schools at this time need scholarships more than computersJO

A software company, Widyaloka, develops and sells educational software packages for pre-school, primary and secondary levels (Rahardjo 1987).

GRAMMEDIA, publisher of the newspaper, KOMPAS, co- sponsored with the Centre of Computer Studies of Universitas Indonesia an exhibition of at least thirty computer-generated paintings of sixty children using computer graphics in Jakarta in May 1987 (Exhibition Brochure 1987 ).I1

The publishing company also plans to supply an upper secondary school (SMA 6) in Jakarta Selatan with ten units of IBM-PC compatible machines for which students enrolled in computer courses will pay a certain amount . In three years, the school will own the mac h i n d 2

One education official5 speculates that within the next five years, cooperation between the school system and computer companies will be based on free competition among the companies and not necessarily supported by the government. Another education official2 advised caution in schools dealing with computer companies in view of the profit motive.

Linkages with Associations

The purchase of computers by secondary schools and, in some cases, by primary schools, is often mediated, facilitated or financed by the Parents-Teachers Association of the school. 9 9 1 2 Computer Societies assist in teacher-training on computers when requested by schools and groups of teachers.

68


Hiqhliqhts of the Indonesian Situation

Computer purchase in Indonesian school system is at the initiative of the schools. Similarly, computer use in teaching science and mathematics at all levels is at the initiative of the teacher. The Department of Education and Culture informally encourages computers in the school system.

An elective computer course is attached to senior secondary mathematics. Thus, in-service training on computers is usually for senior secondary mathematics teachers. Pre-service computer courses are offered to science and mathematics majors in leading teacher- training institutes.

The computer courses for teachers often focus on learning about computers, rather than teaching with computers. Few teachers are trained to use mathematics and science software. Fewer teachers can write simple computer programs in science and mathematics.

Given the relatively huge student population, low per capita gross national product, and other educational priorities, it may take some time for computers to be used extensively in science and mathematics education in the country.

Notes

Istraits Times. September 10 and 11, 1987.

21nterview with Moegiadi, Office for Educational and Cultural Research and Development, Department of Education and Culture. Jakarta, Indonesia, 16 May 1987.

31nterviews with IKIP Jakarta Lecturers: Soedijanto, Head of Mathematics Department; E. Talifik , Head of Physics Department; Kaligis, Biology Lecturer. Jakarta, Indonesia, 18 May 1987.

41nterview with Helmi Amin, SMA 6 Mathematics Key Teacher. Jakarta, Indonesia, 1 8 May 1987.

51nterview with Suprapto, B., Director of Secondary General Education. Jakarta, Indonesia, 15 May 1987.

61nterview with Yusiatri, Programmer, Computer Centre, IKIP Jakarta. Jakarta, Indonesia, 18 May 1987.

7Personal communication from Njoman Kertiasa, PPPG-IPFI Bandung. 8 October 1987.

69


8Personal communication from Sumirat, PPPG Matematika Yogyakarta. 27 October 1987.

91nterviews with PKG Personnel, Directorate of Secondary General Education: A. T. Pietersz, National Project Coordinator; Sriyati Soewardho, Gandini, and Ismu Basuki, Resource Officers in Physics, Biology and Mathematics, respectively. Jakarta, Indonesia, 14 May 1987.

lOInterview with B. Boedikoentjara, Education Manager, IBM Jakarta. Jakarta, Indonesia, 1 8 May 1987.

IlInterview with Boedhihartono. Centre of Computer Studies, Universitas Indonesia. Jakarta, Indonesia, 16 May 1987.

I2Interview with Subroto, Headmaster, SMA 6 Jakarta Selatan. Jakarta, Indonesia, 18 May 1987.

References

Department of Education and Culture. Education in Indo- nesia in Brief. Jakarta, Indonesia, 1985.

Exhibition Brochure. Pameran Lukisan Komputer Anak Percobaan Grafis Komputer Pusat Ilmu Komputer U1 Bekerjasama Dengan KOMPAS, Jakarta, Indonesia, 14-20 Mei 1987.

M. Hamron Wahid. State of Microcomputer Use in Physics Instruction and Research in Indonesia. Microcomputers in Physics Instruction and Research. V. M. Talisayon and C. Bernido, eds. Quezon City, Philippines: Asian Physics Education Network, 1987, pp. 9-15.

National Institute for Educational Research (NIER). School Mathematics: New Ideas with Computers. Tokyo, Japan: NIER, 1987, pp. 46-47.

RahardJo, Raphael. Country Report presented at the Unesco Reqional Seminar on the Evaluation of Computers jn- Education, Melbourne, Australia, 24-29 May 1987.

Regional Centre for Education in Science and Mathematics (RECSAM). Indonesian country report presented at the Seminar OJ Computers jn- Education Project. RECSAM,

70


Penanq, Malaysia, 24-27 November 1986.

Suprapto, B. "Implementing a Large Scale Education Reform, An Administrator's View". Paper presented at the Workshop on Administrative Problems - - in the Generalisation of an Innovation as a_ Larqe- Scale Educational Reform. International Institute for Educational Planning, Paris, France, 8-10 December 1980.

Unesco-UNDP Report. Improvement of Science Mathematics Teachinq in the Secondary General Schools in Indonesia: Project Findinqs and Recommendations. Paris, 1985.

Unesco Statistical Yearbook 1986. Belgium: Unesco, 1986.

71

CHCIPTER vr POLICIES CSND PROGREIMMES IN MEILEIYSICS

Introduction

Malaysia is a multiracial and multilingual federation of states. Its educational system is a legacy of the British. The primary aim of the Malaysian educational system, besides manpower development, is to strengthen national unity and to imbue the Malaysian national ideology, Rukuneqara, among its young citizens. Belief in God i s a central theme in the Malaysian philosophy of education (Ministry of Education 1982; CDC 1986). The medium of instruction is Bahasa Malaysia, the national language.

The school system consists of a six-year primary level (Grades 1 through 61, followed by a five-year secondary level (Grades 7 through 11, or more commonly referred to a s Forms 1 through 5). In the last two years of the secondary level, or upper secondary level, streaming into academic and vocational begins?

Thereafter, students can proceed to the ( 1 ) two-year pre-university o r Form 6, (2) two-year pre-employment technical, vocational or business courses, or ( 3 ) other types of specialized training courses. Malaysia and Brunei have the longest pre-tertiary educational system, consisting of thirteen years, in the ASEAN region.

Computer Policy Environment

The earliest computers were installed in Malaysia in 1966 at the Department of Inland Revenue, National Electricity Board, and Penang Port Commission. It was only in the late seventies and early eighties when computer usage rapidly increased. In 1986 the number of computers in Malaysia was estimated at 60 mainframes, 1200 minicomputers, and 7000 microcomputers. Import duties on microcomputers have been removed to encourage their use (Zawawi and Low 1986).

Malaysia is the third largest manufacturer and the world's largest exporter of computer chips. However, these are manufactured by subsidiaries which export all production to their parent companies abroad. Indigenous assembly and manufacture of microcomputers (Accent brand) started only recently (Zawawi and Low 1986).

Distribution of computer installations among schools is concentrated in three highly urbanized areas: Kuala Lumpur, the federal capital; Melaka; and in Johor, the state geographically closest t o Singapore.

Growing commercial interest in computers is evident

7 2

Policies and Programmes in Malaysia

in the number of foreign and domestic firms selling computer products and services in Kuala Lumpur (132 in 19871, national conferences and exhibitions, and private computer clubs.

The Malaysian government established a training, research and development institution, the Malaysian Institute of Microelectronics Systems (MIMOS). According to the Minister of Science, Technology and Environment Datuk Amar Stephen Yong, MIMOS is a part of the efforts to devise a national microelectronics programme (Asia- Pacific Tech. Monitor 1985). A national committee is drawing up a national computer policy.

The number of computer installations per million people in 1986 was sixty two? The number of computer firms listed in the Kuala Lumpur telephone directory in 1987 is 132, while five computer schools are listed.

Policyb on Computers in Education

Malaysia follows a two-pronged policy on computer education: formal means, through a pilot study in twenty secondary schools, and informal means, through guidelines issued to private school-based computer clubs. In Malaysia, computer education has been largely focused on, and often understood to mean, teaching about computers instead of learning with computers .

The first school-based computer club was started in 1981, antedating the Ministry of Education policy on computers in education. The Schools Division of the Ministry of Education issued guidelines for the management of school-based computer clubs in 1986, thereby formally acknowledging the informal o r CO- curricular role of computer clubs.

The guidelines include policy, management, care and precautions, desirable hardware and software features, and suggestions for establishment of district computer centres (Ministry of Education 19861.3 among the specific guidelines are:

1.

2.

3.

4

5.

Schools are encouraged to form computer clubs through their own efforts. Schools should involve their student counseling committee and/or parents-teachers association in the formation of the school computer club. The school must take a careful and cautious stand towards private business concerns who wish to assist schools in setting up computer clubs. Membership should not be considered for only those who can afford.. There ought to be endeavours to allow students who cannot afford but are interested and capable. Hands-on sessions should not involve more than

73


two students to a computer. 6. The total computer study period is preferably

limited to not more than two hours a week per student, outside the official school timetable.

In 1983, the Ministry conceptualized a computer literacy course for a s a core subject in Grade 10, entitled, "An Introduction to Computers" (NIER 1987). Ministry officials expressed concern about unequal access of students to computer clubs. Computer clubs are largely urban phenomena, and membership is limited to those who can afford the membership fees. The pilot project was conceived with this factor in mind (Ram and Ahmad Kabir 1986). According to Zawawi (19871, introduction of microcomputers in schools was probably in reaction to public pressure rather than forward curriculum planning, and that this pressure perhaps stemmed from middle class parents in urban schools.

In March 1985, after conducting studies and consultations, the Curriculum Development Centre of the Ministry developed a syllabus for the introductory computer literacy course for Form I V (grade 10). The syllabus revolved around four themes (Kam and Shahul 1986) :3,4

What is a computer? What can i t do? How d o you tell a computer what to do? How does the computer affect our lives?

The basic goal of the curriculum is to provide: a basic knowledge about computers and their uses to all students in order that they may become aware of the capabilities of computers and their role in assisting human endeavour.

Since school leavers more likely will be end-users of computers rather than computer specialists, the syllabus places more emphasis on teaching and learning about computer applications than on computer programming (Jamaludin 1997; Zawawi 1997).

The curriculum was submitted to the Educational Planning Committee for approval and subsequently pilot testing started in early 1986 in twenty schools spread over the country. The two-year pilot project is essentially an educational R&D project designed to generate information on suitability of the curriculum, instructional strategies, hardware and software, scheduling, and teacher training programme (Kam and Shahul 1986).

Information gained is hoped to provide a basis for policy a s well a s for planning a possible core subject in computer literacy for eventual implementation in all schools nationwide. As of 1987, however, this concept is still under policy review. The cost of any nationwide

74


implementation i s a militating factor. Deputy Education Minister Toyad estimated in 1987 that it would need M 8 127 million to buy hardware to allow every student (totaling 1.2 million) one hour of instruction per week. He emphasized the prior im ortance of providing basic amenities for rural schools. For example, a pressing educational problem is the shortage of school buildings. Another i s the low morale of teachers who have not had promotions for a long time$

Private opinions expressed in newspapers press for formulation and implementation of a national policy on computers in education. However, the Ministry of Education has taken a cautious and studied attitude in view of numerous issues surrounding the adoption of such a policy. Mentioned among them are: high cost, equity of access across income and rural-urban differences, lack of software in Bahasa, and correct curricular design. Desirable attitudinal impact on students i s an important consideration for the Ministry's Curriculum Development Centre.

At a deeper level, reservations on the negative cultural repercussions of the information revolution, in general, on all phases of Malaysian life had also been expressed (Hashim and Wan 1986). The Ministry of Education, however, continues to encourage private sector initiatives, and in the meantime had advised state education departments to seek funds by themselves in order to support training of their teachers?

Computer U s e fi Schools

Thirty nine percent of all secondary schools in Malaysia have at least one computer in 1986. T h e percentages were lowest in the remote states of Sabah (11x1, Kelantan (19%), and Sarawak (19%) and highest in the urbanized states of Melaka (85%) and Selangor (68%). There were 1241 schools in 1986, of which 185 had o n e t o four computers, 165 had five to nine computers, 87 had ten to fourteen computers, 20 had fifteen to nineteen computers, and 27 had more than twenty computers (Ministry of Education 1986).

Computer Literacy Project

In 1986-87, the formal portion of the two-pronged approach was at the pilot testing stage, namely development and field testing of the course "An Introduction to Computers". Malaysian education planners conceived the course a s a basic computer literacy course4.

Twenty secondary schools representing a cross-

7s


section of schools in the country were selected. Each school was given five microcomputers of the same model, two printers and software. Application software includes word processing, data processing, spreadsheets and graphics, BASIC and LOGO language interpreters, demonstration CAI, and one game with educational value. The Ministry decided that it was premature to select a single brand of computer but rather decided to use four models, Apple IIe, NEC, BBC, and IBM-PC, which meet minimum hardware and software requirements (Shahul and Ramli 1986; Siti 1987L4

Two teachers were selected from each school based on several criteria, the most important of which was interest. Prior experience with computers and subject- matter specialization were not part of selection criteria, to enable testing of the hypothesis that background of the teacher i s not a factor influencing effectiveness in teaching computer literacy.

Intensive training took three weeks in two phases. Phase One of two weeks involved mostly hands-on exercises: operation of the computer, application softwares, programming. Phase Two of one week featured a workshop on teaching-learning strategies for each section of the curriculum.

A l l students, including both science and art streams, take the course. Although emphasis i s on computer applications, programming i s included to impress on students the fact that people control computers and not vice versa. LOGO and BASIC languages are used. Teachers were asked not to confine examples to mathematics, in order to give the impression to students that computers are useful for many applications and not just for mathematics (Shahul 1986).

Evaluation of the Literacy Project is to be completed in 1987. Preliminary results indicate students’ preference for hands-on practicals to theoretical parts of the curriculum?

Computer Clubs

Computer clubs attached to schools proliferated starting 1981. They were initiated by enthusiastic teachers o r principals and supported financially by paren ts-teachers associations (PTA), by month 1 y membership fees, and by donations from the private sector including computer vendors. Enterprising companies, using attractive hire purchase and leasing schemes, offered computer units to PTAs and school cooperatives (Lau 1986).

In 1985 the number of computer clubs attached to secondary schools was 183 (Zawawi and Low 1987). In 1986

76


the number reached 475 in secondary schools and 124 in primary schools (Jamaludin 19871, covering 38% of 1,241 secondary schools and about 2% of primary schools (Siti 1987; Ministry of Education 1986). States with many clubs are Selangor (100) and Johor (801, while there a r e few in Perlis (81, Sabah (12) and Kelantan (19). Most clubs have 1-10 computer units, with clubs in rural areas generally having less than those in urban areas (Jamaludin 1987).

In Bukit Bintang Boys'School, a secondary school in the state of Selangor, fifteen computer units are used by 235 computer club members. The computer course is taught by staff of a local computer company. About 10% of the eighty two teachers in the school are interested in computers. The school does not develo software o r conduct computing seminars for

Computer clubs are generally regarded a s useful, but observations had been expressed about the lopsided distribution of, and access by students to, these clubs. Overemphasis on computer programming was observed (Shahul Hamid and Ramli 19861, and teachers advised that clubs should teach applications instead of programming or else students may quickly lose interest>O

Some clubs use computers to compile student records, process examination marks, and analyse past examination results (NIER 1987). The Schools Division of the Ministry of Education also organizes annual national software writing (educational) competitions for computer club members at the secondary level (Shahul and Ramli 1986). In 1983 and 1984, five-day computer camps for forty 16- year old students were sponsored by the Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment and the National Council for Scientific Research and Development. The Ministry of Education assisted by selecting the participants?

Computers in Other Schools

For secondary students in the vocational stream, a course entitled, "Fundamentals of Information Processing" is offered in 17 schools as part of an elective subject, Business Management. The course is allocated 3.5 hours per week for two years (Forms IV to U). It includes word processing, database and spreadsheet applications, BASIC proqramming, and MIS (management information systems). (Jamaludin 1987; Siti 1987)

A l l government residential schools a r e also equipped with computers and computer education i s taught as a subject. The Junior Science College run by MARA ( M a j l i s Amanah Rakyat), a statutory body, also has formal education on computers (Jamaludin 1987). Its computer

77


literacy course started a s early a s 1982 (Lau 1986).

Computing for Teachers

In 1984 and 1985, the Schools Division of the Ministry of Education organized ten-day courses on School Computer Club Management for a total of sixty teachers, in cooperation with several computer companies. The course included computer use and applications (Sit1 1987 1.3 9 However, the courses were not continued in 1986 and 19877

The Curriculum Development Centre is responsible for training of teachers participating in the computer literacy pilot project. The National Institute of Educational Management (IPPN) trains educational administrators, lecturers in teacher training colleges, and some groups of teachers (Jamaludin 1987).

The Centre of Educational Technology and Media, Universiti Sains Malaysia, is involved in both pre- service and in-service training of teachers in computers. I t offers, in conjunction with the School of Educational Studies, a fourth year elective course, "Computers and Education". The Centre also offers a post-graduate M. Ed. programme in Computer and Education. The Centre has three types of in-service training programmes available for teachers :

1. a one-year certificate programme in Educational Technology with emphasis on computer education, for teachers selected and sponsored by the Ministry of Education;

2. a six-weeks Practicum wherein teachers complete a project in computer education, using the Centre's CATS (Computer-Assisted Tutorial System) Laboratory; and

3. a 2-4 weeks intensive course in Computer and Education for any private group of 30 paying participants .

The Faculty of Education of Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia offers two optional computer courses for Diploma and Bachelor of Science in Education students, and occasional in-service training for teachers during school holidays a s requested by the Ministry of EducationJ2

Several teacher training colleges have their own computer clubs. Computer clubs, upon purchase of computers, often obtain training for teachers from the respective computer vendors, following guidelines issued by the Schools Division (Jamaludin 1987).


The government's programmes on computers in

78


education focus on learning about computers. No projects have been designed specifically for computers in science and mathematics education. Educational software used in computing programmes for teachers is not limited to science and mathematic^:,^

Computer use and software development for science and mathematics teaching is at the initiative of teachers in schools with computers. In teacher training institutions, computer courses are optional to students, including science and mathematics majors. For instance, the Faculty of Education, University of Malaya offers "LOGO and usage in geometry" as an option course. Use and demonstration of computers a s teaching aids in method courses in science and mathematics are at the initiative of the lecturer. Among the reasons cited for the sparing use of computers as teaching aids in science and mathematics are the lack of appropriate software, scarcity of software in Bahasa Malaysia, and the problem of translating software in English to the national language?

Much of the locally-developed educational software of computer companies is of the drill-and-practice type with colourful graphics. A few commercial foreign computer programs in science and mathematics are available,e.g., the NEC's programs on : The Atom, Water Treatment, Newton's Law, Space Solar Power Station, The Earth, and Circle and Gluiz (Business Computers 1986). Some students who are computer club members have written software in science and mathematics a s their entries t o the National Software Writing (Educational) Competition for secondary schools. Examples of winning entries in 1985 and 1986 are: Angiosperm Flower, Force and Motion, Gravitation, Central Nervous System, Digestive System, and Breathing and Respiration (Ministry of Education 1985-1986).

Teachers majoring in science and mathematics are generally more computer literate than others, through self-study, enrolling in short commercial courses, o r formal teacher training. It is, therefore, expected that learning with computers will most likely occur in mathematics subjects.

Several computer club advisers are mathematics teachers. However, the Computer Literacy Project of the Curriculum Development Centre, aimed to show that the computer literacy course need not be taught by mathematics teachers.

Some physics teachers have demonstrated interest in computers in physics teaching. Secondary school teachers were among the participants in the two-week Regional Workshop on The Design and Construction of Microcomputer- Aided and Microcomputer-Controlled Physics Experiments

79


organized by the Institut Fizik Malaysia and held at the University of Malaya in 1987>

The New Primary School Curriculum, 1982-1987, makes no reference to computer use in mathematics or in science which is part of the subject, Man and His Environment. Neither are the mathematical and scientific principles of a computer introduced in the curriculum. In the syllabus being developed by the Curriculum Development Centre for the New Secondary Science Curriculum, 1988-1992, computer technology may be included a s part of science, technology and society, and in transport and communication (Ministry of Education 1982 ).I3

The Educational Media Services (EMS) of the Ministry of Education, in charge of producing audio visual aids for the primary and secondary school curriculum, included computers in ten-minute segments of the Mathematics television broadcasts. The black-and-white segments briefly described computers and explained the binary system. One production on machines included computersJ4

Under a World Bank assistance programme in 1987- 1990, the EMS will provide 312 IBM-PC compatible units to media resource centres all over the country. Plans include linking the computers in the centres by telephone. A multimedia package which includes computer software will be given to each resource centre. The package is produced for the primary school curriculum. Thus, development of computer-assisted instruction software for primary science is in the context of the subject, Man and His EnvironmentJ4

Support of - Private Sec tor

The private sector in Malaysia actively supports computers in education. Two national daily newspapers put out weekly supplements on computers: Computers by The Star (before its closure in 1987) and Computimes by the New Straits Times.

Computimes features business and educational computing. Tutorials on computer software and hardware are included. New Straits Times supports activities of computer clubs. It sponsors the selection of the Computer Club of the Month. Together with ESSO Production Malaysia, the newspaper provides assistance to the annual National Software Writing (Educational) Competition of the Ministry of Education for computer clubs of secondary schoolsJ5

New Straits Times also supports and reports on the activities of the Malaysian Council for Computers-in- Education (MCCE). MCCE is a private voluntary

80


organization among teachers and interested people with the goal of assisting teachers in instructional ~ o m p u t i n g ~ ~ , ~ ~ "MCCE is formed by the teachers and for the teachers". Its specific objectives are to (MCCE, 1986 1 :

-- be an umbrella organization that serves as a clearinghouse of information on trends and developments in educational computing?

-- represent the interests of teachers involved in computers in education (CIE); -- help fulfill the needs of teachers involved with CIE;

-- help educators keep on top of the latest developments in instructional computing;

-- bring teachers involved Kith CIE closer together; and

-- enable teachers involved with CIE to exchange ideas, experiences and resources.

MCCE organizes its activities through several nuclear working groups called Special Interest Groups, e.g., software development, courseware development, and computer science education. c\ monthly bulletin is given to membersJ6r l7

The close co-operation between the government and the private sector is demonstrated in a number of national seminars and conferences on CIE organized with private support. Among these are a national seminar on Educational Computing in National Development in 1986 at Universiti of Malaya, a CfiI workshop at Genting Highlands sponsored by the National Institute of Educational Management (IPPN) and MCCE, and the National Conference on Educational Computing (or Educomp 87) at IPPN organized by the New Straits Times and sponsored by MCCE and IPPN:8

Private companies also donated computer hardware to the school system. In 1985, a private company, the Scotch Information Systems donated fifty two computer units to twenty s i x schools all over Malaysia. The schools were selected by the Schools Division of the Ministry of Education?

In 1986 a group of entrepreneurs and computer educationists launched a computer project in twenty five residential schools with the approval of the Ministry of Education. Each of these elite schools was given twenty microcomputers for instruction and a computer system for administrative uses, with telecommunication linkages to each other and to the Ministry of Education. Residential schools in various States can thus communicate with each other by electronic mail and access large data bases such as those on the commodity/stock exchange, economic news, and foreign exchange markets (Lau 1986)P

el


In 1987, the NEC company is donating forty computer units to the Ministry of Education, twenty of which will go to the Schools Division for training computer club teachers, and ten units to the Educational Media Services for software development3. ESSO Production Malaysia also donated one Apple IIe computer system each to fifteen secondary schools in Terengganu state in 1987, bringing the total number of schools receiving FIpple IIe computer units from the company to forty. The company conducted a training course on computers for teachers of the recipient school si9

Hiahliqhts of the Malaysian Situation

Malaysia is the world's largest exporter of computer chips. The government is in the process of shaping its policies, not on whether, but on how to participate and benefit from the new information revolution.

The use of microcomputers in the Malaysian school system is mainly in computer clubs a s an extra- curricular activity, with more than a third of secondary schools having computer clubs and at least one microcomputer. An experimental project of the Ministry of Education is a computer literacy course a s a core subject in the secondary (Form I V ) curriculum. In both cases, the emphasis i s on learning about computers.

The lead agencies in promoting computers in education are the Schools Division and the Curriculum Development Centre of the Ministry of Education. The Schools Division handles matters relating to computer clubs, and the Curriculum Development Centre conducts the computer 1 i teracy pi lot project.

No government programmes have been designed specifically for computers in science and mathematics education. Using microcomputers as a teaching aid in science and mathematics is minimal and at the initiative of school teachers and university lecturers. Similarly, software development in science and mathematics is limited and teacher-initiated, with much software written by secondary school students for the annual National Software Writing Competition of the Ministry of Education.

Computer purchase and training in the school system have been greatly assisted by the private sector, particularly Parents-Teachers hssociations, newspapers, computer companies,and other commercial firms. Private initiative and support for computers in education are perhaps related to the trend towards privatisation favoured by the government .

82


Notes

IInterview with Giam Kah How, Science and Mathematics Unit, Schools Division, Ministry of Education. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 20-22 May 1987.

2personal communication from International Data Corporation (Asia) Ltd., Hong Kong. 28 October 1987.

31nterview with Shahul Hamid bin Ahmad Kabir, Science and Mathematics Unit, Schools Division, Ministry of Education. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 20-21 May 1987.

41nterview with Kam, Rosalind, Curriculum Development Centre, Ministry of Education. Kua 1 a Lumpur , Malaysia, 20 May 1987.

5"Why Low Priority for Computer Courses", Computimes ( a weekly supplement of N e w Straits Times), 1 0 September 1987, p. 1.

61nterview with Ibrahim bin Md. Noh, Principal and Assistant Director, Science and Mathematics Unit, Schools Division, Ministry of Education. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 20 May 1987.

71nterview with Khoo Phon Sai, Head, Department of Mathematics and Science Education, Faculty of Education, University of Malaya. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 22 May 1987.

81nterview with Oh Kong Lum, Headmaster, Bukit Bintang Boys' School. Selangor, Malaysia, 22 May 1987.

91nterview with Chid K i m Moy, Computer Club Adviser and Mathematics Teacher, Bukit Bintang Boys' School. Selangor, Malaysia, 22 May 1987.

10'''Secrets' For a School Computer Club's Survival", The Star, 19 May 1987, p. 8.

llpersonal communication from Ng Wai Kong, Deputy Director, Centre for Educational Technology and Media, Universiti Sains Malaysia. 9 July 1987.

12Personal communication from Robiah Sidin, Dean, Faculty of Education, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. 21 July 1987

131nterviews with Curriculum Development Centre Staff: Lim Teck Sun, Head, Science Unit; Sui Ling Chong,

83

Preparing ASEAN for the Information CentOry

Primary School Curriculum Officer; Yap Wai Kheong, Science Curriculum Officer. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 20 May 1987.

141nterview with Ooi Chooi Seng, Audio Visual Aids Producer, Educational Media Services, Ministry of Education. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 21 May 1987.

151nterview with Dan E, Editor, Computimes, New Straits Times Sdn. Bhd. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 23 May 1987.

161nterview with David, Coleen, Secretary, Malaysian Council for Computers-in-Education. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 23 May 1987.

171nterview with Lim Guan Seang, Vice-chairperson, Malaysian Council for Computers-in-Education. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 23 May 1987.

18'1Getting Ready for Educomp '87", Computimes (a weekly supplement of N e w Straits Times), 24 September 1987, p. 10.

19''Computers for 1 5 Schools from ESSO". Computimes (a weekly supplement of N e w Straits Times), 26 November 1987, p.4.

References

Asia-Pacific Tech. Monitor, May-June 1985.

Business Computers Sdn. Bhd. NEC Software List, February 1986.

Curriculum Development Centre, Ministry of Education, Draft Translation, Philosophy and Objectives of Primary and Secondary Curriculum, September 1986.

Hashim Awang and Wan Abdul Kadir Yusof, "Cultural Aspects of the Information Revolution in Malaysia", in The Passinq of Remoteness? Information Revolution the A_sia-Pacifi&, eds. Meheroo Jussawalla, Dan J. Wedemeyer, and Vijay Menon (Singapore: Asian Mass Communication Research and Information Centre, Hubert H. Humphrey Institute of Public Affairs, Institute of Culture and Communication, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1986).

Jamaludin Mohaladin, "Country Report" read in UNESCO Reqional Seminar 02 the Evaluation of Computers in

84


Education (Melbourne, Australia, 24-29 May 1987).

Kam, Rosalind and Shahul Hamid bin Ahmad Kabir, "Computer Education in Malaysian Schools", in Proceedinqs of Reqional Conference on Microcomputers in Secondary Education B, eds. S. Moriguti, S. Ohtsuki and T. Furugori (Tokyo, Japan, 18-22 August 19861, pp. 315- 318.

Khoo, Derrik. "Training the Teachers", in Computimes (a weekly supplement of N e w Straits Times), 25 June 1987, p. 1.

Lau, C. F. "Computer Education in Secondary Schools in Malaysia", in Proceedinqs of Reqional Conference on Microcomputers in Secondary Education '86, eds. S. Moriguti, S. Ohtsuki and T. Furuqori (Tokyo, Japan, 18-22 August 1986), pp. 21-26.

Malaysian Council for Computers-in-Education (MCCE) .) Welcome to MCCE, 1986.

Ministry of Education, The New Primary School Curriculum: Aims;, Rationale, fireas of Study and Teachinq a i Learnina Strateqies (Kuala Lumpur: Curriculum Development Centre, 1982).

Y Schools Division, Na tiona 1 Software Writing (Educational) Competition Lists of Entries, 1985-1986.

, Panduan Penubuhan d z Penqurusan Kelab Komputer Sekolah, Kuala Lumpur, 1986.

Schools Division Science and Mathematics Unit Data on Distribution of Computer Installations in Malaysian Schools, 1986.

National Institute for Educational Research (NIER), School Mathematics: New Ideas with Computers (Tokyo: NIER, 1987). pp. 50-52.

Shahul Hamid bin Ahmad Kabir and Ramli bin Awanq, "Computer Education in Malaysian Schools", paper presented at the C o m ~ u t e r s in Education Project Seminar (RECSAM, Malaysia, 24-27 November 1986).

Siti Hawa Ahmad, "Country Report: Malaysia", read in Reqional Traininq Workshop on School Mathematics and Microcomputers in Asia and the Pacific (Tokyo, Japan, 23 June - 13 July, 1987).

85

Preparing ASEAN for the lnformafion Century

M. Zawawi Ismail and K. 5. Low. "State of Microcomputer Use in Physics Instruction and Research in Malaysia". In Microcomputers in Physics Instruction a& Research, edited by Vivien M. Talisayon and Christopher Bernido (Guezon City, Philippines: Asian Physics Education Network, 1987).

86

CHCIPTER VI1 POLICIES AND PROGRCIMMES IN THE PHILIPPINES

Among the ASEAN countries, the Philippines has the shortest secondary schooling, only four years. Primary schooling takes six years, bringing the total length of primary and secondary schooling to ten years. The medium of instruction for science and mathematics at the primary and secondary levels is English.

With a population of over fifty million in 1984 (NEDA 19861, the Philippines' top concerns in 1987 are political stability and economic recovery. In the educational system, a major area of concern is the low salary of primary and secondary school teachers.


Computer Industry

A national information technology plan, the Strategic Program on Information Technology, SPRINT (19861, submitted to President Aquino in 1986 aims to accelerate the use of information technology in business and government, promote a national computer industry, and prepare present and future generations of Filipinos for the computer-mediated 21st century.

The local computer industry is a net importer of computer technology (Romero April 1987). One hundred twenty five computer companies are listed in the 1987 Metro Manila telephone directory, from foreign subsidiaries to local distributors. The companies a r e importers o r traders selling computer hardware, software, media and peripherals. Less than ten companies manufacture hardware components or do computer assembly.

In 1986 about 120 microcomputer models (Table VII-1) are for sale, 70% made in the United States, 17% Japanese, and the rest from Hong Kong, Taiwan and European countries (Science Education Development Plan 1986). Prices of floppy-disk-based microcomputers ranged from USB 1,995 to US$ 5,495. Popular models are IBM-PC compatible machines.

An Apple compatible microcomputer, named, "Chico", after a local fruit, was produced in 1984 by Chico Computer Research. An IBM-compatible computer w a s introduced in 1985 by International Office Automation.

Suppliers like Computer Engineering and Software Breakthroughs have designed and marketed computer peripherals and intelligent hardware devices. A few firms like Meco Enterprises do computer assembly on a limited scale, usually in the final stage, using 10-20% local

87


components. A number of companies like the Institute of Advanced Technology, I/ACT, g o into software development, consultancy and data encoding services. The country exports about US’S10 million worth of software products and services yearly, mostly to the United States.

In turn, the United States i s the leading supplier of software used in the country, such a s spreadsheets, word processor, communication software, integrated applications, and graphics software. In 1984, the United States supplied 64% (US$3 million worth) of the local software market.

The industry decries the lack of a national EDP policy and urges government support in the areas of software and computer services, component hardware manufacturing, and development of basic institutional infrastructure.

General Computer Use

A recent report of the local computer industry to the Department of Trade and Industry cites the head start of the Philippines in computer use in the 1970’s relative to neighbouring countries (Romero Qpril 1987). However, the Philippines fell behind in the 1980’s with the devaluation of the peso and the slump of the economy.

A study of the Philippine Computer Society submitted to the Trade and Industry Department showed the peaking of mainframe and minicomputer installations in 1982 and declining thereafter. Reasons given are the import restrictions of the Philippine Central Bank in 1983-1984 and the availability of the microcomputer, seen a s a cost-effective productivity tool.

At the end of 1982, the total number of computers used by the government, business and industry was estimated at 1508 units: 603 (40%) mainframes, 254 (17%) minicomputers and 651 (43%) microcomputers (Torres 1986). The total number of microcomputers including those for personal use at home and office was estimated at 6000- 7000 units.

The number of microcomputers installed in the country increased by 178% in 1981 and 165% in 1983. From 1987 to 1990, the number of computer installations, mostly microcomputers, is estimated to increase by an average of 15-20% a year (Romero, Qpril 1987).

A 1986 EDP survey of government installations conducted by the National Computing Center (1987) showed a total of 667 computer systems in 105 agencies in twenty departments. This number represents an annual growth rate of 168% to the 83 government computers in 1982 of the SGV study. The microcomputers constituted 94% (624

88

Policies and Programmes in the Philippines

units), a sharp increase from the 30% (25 units) figure in 1982. The annual growth rate therefore of microcomputer use is 224%, much higher than that of computers in general.

Computer Schools

Eighteen computer schools are listed in the Metro Manila telephone directory. The schools are accredited and supervised by the Department of Education, Culture and Sports and the National Computer Center (Roxas and Teodoro 1983)

A leading training institution, the Institute of Advanced Computer Technology, I/ACT, has a program marketed worldwide, the 18-part Computer Discovery Program for training of five- to 18-year old children (Romero April 1987).

Policy on Computers - in Education

In 1978, Presidential Decree 1480 created the National Computer Center a s the central EDP policy body directly under the Office of the President (Roxas and Teodoro 1983). Among the functions of the Center is the formulation of policies and standards on the acquisition and utilization of computers. The Center coordinates with the Department of Education, Culture and Sports (DECS) in:

1. supervision and regulation of private EDP training institutions

2. setting up of standards for curriculum development

3. formulation of rules and regulations in the operation of existing and future EDP training institutions.

The Center and DECS are also mandated t o implement an accreditation system for training packages and degree programs in computer schools and higher institutions of learning. Accreditation took effect in October 1982.

In 1984, the Marcos administration issued Letter of Instructions No. 1381 (1984) creating an ad hoc Cabinet Sub-committee on Computers to review the role and potential of computers in economic development. One output of the Sub-committee is the Report of the Technical Working Group on the Human Resources Development for Information Technology (1984). The report had a policy recommendation of introducing computers in education, in line with the general objective of education for the individual to attain hi5

89


potential. The Group further recommended the use of computers a s a tool for teaching and learning basic subjects like science and mathematics (Capalad 1985; Marinas 1986). To quote the report:

For the pre-collegiate level (i.e. primary and secondary levels), the opinion is that computers be introduced a s a tool/aid for more efficient teaching and learning of basic subjects (e.g., science, mathematics, language) rather than as a separate nationally mandated course. Teaching of computer knowledge must be adapted to the existing curriculum through previously prepared software programs. therefore, neither the teacher will be pressured by new pedagogical theories; nor the students be burdened by additional school time; and much less, will the administration be pressured for more faculty and inservicing. However, the smooth introduction of computers in school presupposes the following: a ) trained teachers, b) appropriate software, and c ) an economy that will ensure the realization of this program. A comprehensive Science Education Development Plan

(1985) for the country was formulated in consultation with the academe, mass media, industry and professionals. A joint project of the Department of Education, Culture and Sports (DECS), and the Department of Science and Technology (DOST), the Plan has a policy guideline on computer education, a s f o ~ ~ o w s :

Curriculum Policy Guideline 3: The introduction of new information technologies in general education should g o hand in hand with the thrust to develop local industry. Implementing Guidelines: 1. In line with the thrust to introduce

computer education at given educational levels, develop computer related learning materials and train teachers in their use.

2. Prepare guidelines on information technology for schools that can afford to purchase hardware and software. A t the elementary level, educational computing could be introduced in terms of concepts and intellectual skills that will be generally useful for all and will make the pupil more receptive to computing should he have the opportunity. In high school, higher level concepts and skills in computing may be taught; some hands-on

90


experiences should be made possible for students of schools that can afford computers.

3. Support a project t o introduce microcomputers a s a viable teaching tool for the primary and secondary levels.

4. Encourage academic institutions that offer undergraduate or graduate majors in any breeder science/mathematics to provide for the use of computers in the teaching of science and mathematics.

It is noteworthy that the policy guideline while in the context of science education is stated to apply to general education at the primary and secondary levels. Secondly, it recognizes the widespread lack of resources in school by recommending computer use only in schools that can afford it. Nevertheless, it recommends preparing students for a future opportunity to computer use by emphasizing concepts and skills in the curriculum that are also useful in computer education.

In its appended materials, the Plan cites the following concepts and skills which can help develop computer concepts and skills:

1. Communication skills 1.1. Using symbols 1.2. Using precise languaqe

1.2.1. following directions rigidly 1.2.2. formulating instructions clearly

2. Numeracy skills 2.1. Counting, combining, permuting 2.2. Formulating rules for manipulating sequences 2.3. Induction

3.1. Conjunctions, disjunctions, negations 3.2. Logic of relations 3.3. Logical inference 3.4. Iterative, recursive thinking

4. Problem-solving skills Furthermore, the Plan recommends the development of

computer-related materials in existing primary and secondary school subjects a s an aid to instruction. T h e lead agency identified for computer education curriculum development at the elementary and secondary levels i s the University of the Philippines Institute for Science and Mathematics Education Development (UPISMED). T h e curriculum materials should include the following:

3. Logic skills/concepts

Primary Level Basic concepts and skills helpful for learning computer concepts and skills (e.g., language and numeracy skills) Computer awareness (what a computer looks like,

91


what it does, how it helps, what is possible or not possible through computers)

Higher concepts and skills (e.g., logic skills, problem solving) Programming in pseudo-codes Basic microcomputer operations

Secondary Level

These inputs should complement the computer literacy inputs at the tertiary level.

Schools with resources and capability are also encouraged to introduce computing a s a separate subject. Curriculum materials should be developed, too, for this purpose.

The Plan posits that the key to the successful implementation of the policy lies in teacher training. It recommends that teacher-training programmes at the preservice o r in-service levels should aim for:

1. sufficient computer literacy to understand strengths and weaknesses in using a computer discuss issues and make decisions relative to computers in instruction demonstrate conviction that using computers can enhance learning and teaching;

2. sufficient computer fluency to operate a microcomputer, use/manipulate, and software develop/adjust simple software;

3. sufficient teaching proficiency in using computers a s a teaching aid, with awareness of psychological considerations using computers for educational management

The lead agencies in teacher training are the Bureaus of Secondary and Elementary Education, making use of expertise in tertiary level institutions. Teacher training can be implemented through the Secondary Education Development Program, and Program for Decentralized Educational Development (PRODED), which train teachers on the new curriculum at the secondary and primary levels, respectively. Among the training strategies proposed are the training of trainors who will "echo" the training to others and the use of self- learning packages on a tutorial basis.

The policy guideline on computer education involves and plans to develop the local industry. A computer experts' meeting coordinated by the Philippine Council for Industry and Energy Research, PCIERD, recommended the formulation of a government policy that would guarantee an educational market for the domestic manufacture of computer hardware and software. The experts felt that to promote computer literacy at the primary, secondary and tertiary levels of education, the government should support the acquisiti.on of microcomputers by qualified

92


schools. Sales of 1,000 computers per year, considering 20,000 primary and secondary schools, would justify a local production operation.

The Science Education Development Plan, therefore, suggests a programme to facilitate the acquisition of computers by educational institutions. The proposal is to grant loans a t minimal interest rates, payable in 3-5 years, to educational institutions for computer purchase. A revolving fund of about USs3.75 million is suggested through a realignment of the Economic Support Fund.

Other proposed incentives are increased tax deductions and/or tax credits for donations to educational institutions, and tax exemptions for imported hardware used in education. The computer acquisition programme further stipulates the training of technicians for computer maintenance and their accessibility to end- use. PCIERD and DOST are among the agencies mentioned that may conduct the technician training.

In brief, the computer education policy guideline in the Plan provides for a graduated computer literacy programme for primary and secondary levels to include teacher-training programme and an assisted computer acquisition programme for the school system. Figure 7.1 shows how these programmes are interrelated.

In October 1985, the Bureau of Secondary Education (19851, the policy-making body of DECS for secondary education (Mariffas 19871, issued the following guidelines:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Schools may purchase their own microcomputers but the cost should not be borne by students or taken from tuition fees, but from donations, Parents-Teachers Association, o r local school boards. Computer education may be offered from first to fourth of secondary education in increasing sophistication and complexity. The content of computer education may form part of instruction in such areas a s Mathematics, Science, Communication Arts (Language), and Practical Arts. In the case of the latter, computer education may be offered in lieu of Business and Distributive Arts. Computer education may also be offered a s an elective subject or a s a non-credit course in the fourth year preparatory to computer education at the professional or specialist level in college. A tie-up with local business utilizing microcomputers may be made by the school to provide practicum learning. There should be a computer specialist o r a

93


teacher trained in computer science to handle the subject a s an elective or a s non-credit course.

Computer U J in the Schools

In January-February 1984, UPISMED (1987) and a national committee conducted a nationwide survey and testing for the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement Second International Science Study, IEA/SISS. Among the questions asked was on computer use in science teaching.

Ninety two percent of 475 science teachers of Grade 5 (age 11) students from 475 primary schools (75% public) said they had no access to a computer in school for use in science teaching. Similarly, 92 X of the teachers said they never used a computer during science lessons. None of the teachers used the computer frequently, and only 3% used it rarely.

In the same study, 80% of 269 science (Chemistry) teachers of Grade 9 (age 1 5 ) students from 269 secondary schools (63% public) indicated no access to a computer in school for use in science teaching. When asked how often their students use a computer during science lessons, 78% replied, "never"; 8%, "rarely"; J%,"occasionally"; and 0%, "frequently". The results for the two levels indicate more computers and greater computer use in science teaching at the secondary level. UPISMED has an ongoing survey on microcomputer use in primary and secondary schools (Capalad 1987; UPISMED 1987). Thirty nine primary schools (15% public) and 122 secondary schools (37% public) from all over the country responded to the questionnaire as of January 1987. Some interesting findings are:

1. Primary schools with microcomputers account for 20% of the respondent schools, while 36% of the secondary schools have computers. The 1987 survey results corroborate the 1984 finding of greater percentage of secondary schools having microcomputers. The percentages of schools with computers seem to have increased in 1987 compared to the survey in 1984. However, the percentage of public schools in the 1987 survey is much less. The percentages of public schools in the country in 1984-1985 (NEDA 1986) are: 96% of 32,791 primary schools and 63% of 5,388 secondary schools.

2. At the primary or secondary level, more private schools have microcamputers than public schools. The ratio is 7:l for primary

94


schools and about 3:l for secondary schools. 3. Of the 51 primary and secondary schools with

microcomputers --- 3.1. The number of microcomputers ranged from

1-3 units (23x1, 4-12 units (44x1, and more than 12 units (33%).

3.2. The dominant use of microcomputers is in separate computer course (81%). Other uses are as: co-curricular activity, e.g., clubs (36x1, topic integrated in mathematics, science and other subjects (31x1, and a s a teaching aid (23%).

The situation seems slightly different in the national capital region. In 1986, the Curriculum Development Division of the Bureau of Secondary Education administered a questionnaire to secondary schools mostly in the National Capital Region (Marihas 1987). Sixty three percent of the 57 respondent schools had microcomputers. The other findings for the schools with microcomputers are:

1. Fifty eight percent were private schools and 38% were city high schools.

2. The number of computer units is: 5 o r less (46%), 6-10 (21x1, more than 1 0 (33%).

3. Seventy two percent of the units were purchased from school funds or by school organizations. The rest were donated or leased by a computer firm.

4. Computer courses were offered as: elective (677.1, co-curricular (17x1, short-term course (16%) in the following year levels--- IV only (54x1, I-IV (22%), III-IV (17x1, and I 1 1 only (17%).

5. Computer courses were offered a s an elective in Mathematics (54%) or Practical Arts (25%).

6. Seventy o n e percent started computer classes in 1984 and the rest, earlier.

7. Sixty two percent charge students additional fees for maintenance of the microcomputers.

8. Student to computer ratio ranged from 3 to 20 students per computer. Forty two percent had a ratio of 5:l. Sixty two percent had hands-on sessions 50% of computer class time.

That private schools are more likely to have microcomputers than public schools was also borne out in a survey of twelve computer dealers in Metro Manila in 1986 (Marinas et al. 1986). Eighty seven percent of the schools purchasing computers were private schools. Of these, colleges and universities (68%) were the leading purchasers, followed by high schools (22%) and only 10% primary schools.

95


The computer course offered as an elective in secondary school normally covers topics like understanding a computer system, problem solving algorithms, making flowcharts, BASIC programming, writing and running simple computer programs (Marinas 1987).

Secondary and tertiary schools equipped with computers usually conduct in-house computer training for their staff and teachers. These schools frequently offer short-term computer courses during summer and occasionally during the year to outside students, ages 5- 20, for a fee.

To dramatically increase computer use at the secondary o r primary levels, a former president of the Philippine Computer Society (Lagman 1986) proposed a government-supported acquisition of locally manufactured microcomputers for the schools. This does not only extensively promote computer education in the school system, but it will also help the local computer industry.

A computer market of 5,388 secondary schools and 32,791 primary schools a s of school year 1984-1985 (National Economic Development Authority 1986) makes Lagman's proposal a viable one. Lagman further suggests negotiations by the government to allow the sale of computer parts locally manufactured by some 50 semi- conductor companies to local computer manufacturers for Philippines schools.

foreign-owned, are all exported and banned from the local market. Limited local sale will drastically reduce the price of the microcomputer and make it affordable for the government to buy or subsidize for the thousands of sc hoo 1 s.

Products of these companies, half of which are


A computer classroom, called the U.P.-IBM Model Classroom (UP-IBM 19861, was established in the College of Education, University of the Philippines in September 1985, with the donation of IBM Philippines of the JANET (Just Another Network) microcomputer network. The- network consists of an IBM-PC-XT a s controller and fifteen IBM-PCs a s workstations.

Seven professors of the College offer the following non-credit short-term courses for the faculty members and students of the university and for teachers of other institutions: ' Awareness Sessions (4 hours), Word Processing (9 hours), Programming in BASIC (15 hours). The following 3-unit elective courses are also offered to undergraduate and graduate education students of the university: Computers in Education (Basic concepts,

96


principles and application of programming) and Data Analysis (Use of computers in educational research and evaluation).

Teacher-training programmes in the form of seminars and workshops are also conducted by universities like the De L a Salle University and Technological University of the Philippines Integrated Research and Training Center (Marinas et al. 1986). Such programmes usually include appreciation and familiarization courses, use of application packages and programming concepts.

ComPuters Science a& Mathematics Education

Programme at the Primary Level

PRODED commissioned UPISMED in December 1984 to undertake the development of materials for learning computer concepts (Capalad 1986; Marinas et a A ) . T h e first phase was a survey on computer use in primary and secondary schools in the country. The survey results were presented earlier in this chapter.

The second phase was analysis of computer concepts that can be learned at different levels. Science and mathematics concepts/skills at grades 5 and 6 related t o computer concepts/skills were identified in a workshop in November 1985. Science and mathematics educators having computer knowledge o r teaching/coordinating computer courses participated in the workshop. Tables VII-1 and VII-2 show the computer-related mathematics and science concepts/skills, respectively.

The third phase of the project, begun in 1986, was the integration of computer concepts in learning materials. Computer-related materials were written based on Tables VII-1 and VII-2. The mathematics modules were:

1. Please Tell M e How! (following and giving of

2. An Introduction to Flowcharts (following

3. Loops and Loops ( looping) 4. What are Symbols and Signs For? (using symbols) 5. If-Then Reasoning (if-then reasoning or logical

6. Where Is It? (using coordinates)

directions/instructions)

directions)

inference)

The materials were tried out in one school in Metro Manila and in another school in the Visayas Islands. Only the last two modules were not found suitable to Grades 5 and 6 pupils.

The science materials for grades 5 and 6 were six sets each of science-based exercises designed to:

1. orient the student in some intellectual skills required t o utilize a computer

97


Table VII-1. Computer-related Mathematics

Concepts and Skills for Grades 5 and 6

Mathematics Gncept/Skill Computer Cancept/Skill

Use worded solution to problem 1, 5 Transform worded solutions into number

Make an illustration following a set of

Locate an object following a set of

sentences using variables or symbols

instructions, using protractor and ruler 1, 7

North, South, East or West 1, 6

to produce a specific figure 1, 4, 8

7

instructions using the primary directions,

Interpret and execute a set of descriptions

Given a piece of material and dimensions of a figure to be produced a) decide ways of cutting the material

to get maximum number of such figures with the least material wasted

b) prepare written account of process used Given a set of conditions and characteristics

particular to each condition, determine the best action to do

Generate a number sequence Solving a problem with series of operations Given a problem, determine the operation

and information needed or recognize unnecessary information

Wltiplication as repeated addition, division as repeated subtraction, divisibility tests, comnon factors

Overestimate or underestimate Visualize output given a set of activities .

Determine plausibility of answer to an operation

Legend : 1. Fol lowing directions 8.

rigidly usually in 9. an ordered sequence

or instructions 2. Giving clear directions 10.

3. Looping 11. 4. If-then reasoning 12. 5. king precise language 13. 6. Using coordinates 14. 7. king symbols

3, 9, 10, 11 8

4, 10, 11 3, 7, 12, 13 1, 7

9

3, 7 9, 10 9, 12

4

h t l ining Determining

relationships Putting a1 tematives/

prioritizing Decision making Recursive thinking Pattern generating Reducing/simplifying

Source: Capalad 1987

98


Table VII-3. Computer-related Science Concepts/Skills

for Grades 5 and 6

Science Concept/Ski11 Computer Concept/Skill

Grade 5

Identifying features that make up the reproductive system

Tracing how the reproductive process works

Tracing life cycles of a mosquito and frog

Measurement Classifying plants Mapping and plotting Making generalization

Grade b

I d m t i f y ing features that make up the respiratory system

Oxygen cycle, carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle

Measurement C1 assi f ication Mapping and plotting Making generalization

13

1

3

7, 9 4, 13, 7 6, 7 4, 5, 10, 11, 13, 14

Source: University of the Philippines Institute for Science and Mathematics Developnmt (UPISPED)

Legend: same as in Table VII-2

99


2. prepare him/her in dealing with computer-

The science and mathematics computer-related learning materials are to be used without the benefit of a microcomputer. The project recognizes the lack of resources of the great majority of primary schools and the inability of the government to provide the needed computer hardware and software to thousands of public primary schools.

Perhaps the logical next phase of the project is to determine if the materials, in fact, enhance computer readiness of the pupils.

oriented problem solving.

Programme at the Secondary Level

UPISMED is extending the computer-related concepts and skills in science and mathematics project to the secondary level. A few of the computer programs developed at the Institute are suitable for secondary science and mathematics. Software development for the secondary level is also in progress.

The 1989 Secondary Physics Curriculum of the Ministry of Education includes an electronics section. Ongoing textbook writing for this curriculum may include discussion, exercises and experiments on the electronics of a microcomputer.


In-service Traininq. UPISMED conducts short-term courses on the use of computers a s a teaching tool in science and mathematics and integrates computer use in its other teacher-training programmes. In 1986-1987, the Institute offered the following 18-hour courses for teachers: Microcomputers in Mathematics Teaching, Microcomputers in Chemistry Teaching, and Microcomputers in Physics Teaching (Capalad 1986).

The same courses will be offered in 1987-1988. In addition, the following 18-hour courses will be conducted : Microcomputers in Biology Teaching, Microcomputers in Environmental Science Teaching, Development of Mic rocompu ter-Based Lessons, and Development of Microcomputer-Based Chemistry Lessons (UPISMED 1987a). The physics course includes an introduction to the physics and mathematics of the computer hardware.

In summer 1986, the Institute oriented 150 science and mathematics supervisors from all over the country on use of computers in science and mathematics teaching. Computer uses and programs in science/mathematics are usually integrated in the regular short-term courses

100


offered by the Institute and degree-program courses taught by the staff.

Software Development. The Computer Workgroup of the Institute develops software for teacher education in mathematics and science. Examples of physics software developed at the Institute are on velocity and acceleration, projectile motion, superposition of waves, optical image formation and ray tracing in lens systems (Talisayon and Bentillo 1986). Among the mathematics computer programs developed are on the stretching and shrinking of the sine curve, linear function, and the product of two binomials , with accompanying student's notes and teacher's notes. Other computer programs are on acids for chemistry and transpiration for biology (UPISMED 1987a).

Pre-service P roqrammes. Undergraduate education students in the University of the Philippines, majoring in science and mathematics take an elective course on Computers in Education. Students of the Master of Arts in Teaching Programme, science or mathematics major, and of the Ph.D. Science Education Programmes take the elective computer course, Data Analysis.

In the Philippine Normal College, a government teacher-training institution, undergraduate physics majors take a 3-unit computer science course. Students in the mathematics teaching degree programme take six units of computer science. Prospective elementary science and mathematics teachers have no computer course. The institution has two FM-7, one NEC and one IBM-PC computers. The computers are not used or demonstrated a s teaching aids in science and mathematics;

The proposed Bachelor of Secondary Education programme (MECS-NSTA 1987) includes a 3-unit elective computer course for mathematics and physics majors. The electives are, respectively, Introduction to Computers and Computational Physics. The Certificate in Science programme for holders of the Bachelor of Elementary Education degree requires a 3-unit course on Fundamentals of Computer.

Teacher Survey. In the ongoing computer survey of primary and secondary schools by UPISMED, only 30% of the respondent teachers claimed to have computer literacy. The respondents also indicated use of prepared proqrams (24%), knowledge of programming (26%), and experience in teaching introductory computinq (19%). The teachers generally showed favorable attitudes towards computer education. Some reservations were expressed in statements like, "To use computers, one has t o know programming ... Many teachers will lose their jobs once computers are used in schools... Computers are beyond the understanding of ordinary persons.'' (Marinas et 1986;

101


UPISMED 1987a).


Assistance of Computer Industry

IBM Philippines has a joint pilot project (Romero January 1987) with the Regional Centre for Educational Innovation and Technology (INNOTECH) of the Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization at the Pinyahan Elementary School in Quezon City. The computer company provided ten personal computers with speech capability and educational materials organized into learning stations in the school for grade one (age 7) pupils. The project aims to help develop the pupils' writing and reading skills.

One set each of "model classroom" microcomputer units was also donated by IBM Philippines to the University of the Philippines College of Education and to Ateneo University.

Other computer companies have donated or leased microcomputer units to a few primary and secondary schools usually in the urban areas. For example, Computerlinks, a computer company, established tie-ups with some secondary schools by offering computer classes in lieu of the Business and Distributive Arts component of Practical Arts, or a s elective subjects. Some schools decided to have the computer courses offered by Computerlinks a s non-credit subjects (Bureau of Secondary Education 1985).

Foreign Assistance

In 1985 the Japanese government thru its Japanese Assistance for International Cooperation (JICA) donated 30 Fujitsu FM-7 microcomputers thru the National Science and Technology Authority to four government institutions and one private university. The recipient institutions formed a Microcomputer Network for Mathematics and Science Education to strengthen mathematics and science teaching by using computers. Among the activities intended for 1986-1989 were teacher training, computer literacy among high school students, teaching of programming, and computer-aided instruction (Capalad 1987). The network did not function a s envisioned. The institutions, however, individually utilized the computers in their programmes.

Unesco and the Asian Physics Education Network , in collaboration with the University of the Philippines sponsored the first regional conference in physics in the Philippines in 1986, namely, the Regional Conference on

102


Microcomputers in Physics Instruction and Research. The education component focused on the state of the art in microcomputer use in physics teaching at the university and teacher education levels.

Linkages with Associations

The Bureau of Secondary Education (1985) reported the assistance of Parents-Teachers Associations and Mathematics Clubs in the purchase of microcomputers in some government schools and subsequent offering of computer courses a s elective subjects.

The report also cited the teacher- training conducted by the Mathematics Teachers Association of the Philippines in 1984-1985. Six groups of 22-25 primary and secondary school teachers in Metro Manila received training on computer programming.

The Philippine 6ssociation of Physics Teachers and the Philippine Association of Physics Instructors conducted annual conventions with hands-on sessions in 1984 on computers in physics teaching and physics of computer hardware. The Biology Teachers Association included one hands-on computer session in its annual convention, using biology software and educational research software, in 1985 and 1987, respectively? T h e Chemical Society of the Philippines (Kapisanan ng mga Kimiko s a Pilipinas, KKP) conducted in 1986 a one-day workshop on computer applications (hardware/software) in chemistry. The Philippine Institute for Pure and Applied Chemistry, Ateneo University includes high school teachers in its training programs on computers in c hem i s t r y.3

The Philippine Computer Society which sponsors computer exhibits, trade shows, monthly technical session and computer conferences, assists the schools thru DECS

Other in curriculum design and teacher training. professional computer groups occasionally lending assistance to the schools are the Philippine Association of Computer Educators, composed of heads of private computer schools, and the Philippine Computer Educationists Society, consisting of instructors of computer courses (Marinas et 1986).

Hiqhliqhts of the Philippine Situation

The country is a net importer of computer technology, although it exports software services and products. A national information technology plan calls for the development of the local computer industry and the preparation of present and future generations for the information age.

103


A policy on computers in education is embodied in the 1985 Science Education Development Plan of the Department of Education, Culture and Sports and the Department of Science and Technology. Encouraged are: computer education at all levels, teacher training, development of materials, project on computers as teaching aid in primary and secondary levels, and computer use in science and mathematics teaching.

Computer purchase is a school initiative and only few schools have funds for computer hardware. The computer policy, therefore, urges computer education even without computers, that is, training on computer-related concepts and skills, particularly in science and mathematics, to prepare students for future exposure to computers.

UPISMED is a leading government institution promoting use of computers in science and mathematics education. At the primary level, the Institute has identified computer-related science and mathematics concepts and skills and developed corresponding instructional materials that do not require computers. The Institute conducts short-term courses for secondary school teachers on microcomputers in science and mathematics teaching and integrates the topic in its other teacher-training programmes.

The government’s priority of attaining political stability and economic recovery may delay full-scale implementation of the computers-in-education policy.

Notes

lPersonal communication with Salandanan, Gloria. Mathematics and Science Department, Philippine Normal College, 9 September 1987.

21nterview with Reyes, Vicenta. President, Biology Teachers Association of the Philippines. Quezon City, Philippines, 6 October 15’87.

3Personal communication with Magno, Marcelita, Chairman, Chemistry Workgroup, Institute for Science and Mathematics Education Development, University of the Philippines, 9 October 1987.

References

Bureau of Secondary Education. Information Regarding Computer Education at the Secondary Level. Memorandum to the Office of the Deputy Minister of

104


Education, Culture and Sports. Manila, 22 October 1985.

Capalad, Lanniene S. "Impact of Microcomputers in Science and Mathematics Training in the Philippines." Paper presented at the Sub-Regional Workshop on Microcom- puters in Science and Mathematics Teaching, SEFIMEO- RECSAM, Penang, Malaysia, 18-22 November 1985.

. "Microcomputers in Science and Mathematics Teaching." Proceedinqs of the Workshop 02 the Use of Microcomputers Science Teachinq. Hong Kong, 24-27 June 1986.

. "Development of Learning Materials for Computer Readiness in Primary Schools." Proceedinqs of the Fourth Southeast Asian Conference 02 Mathematical Education. Singapore, 1-3 June 1987.

Lagman, August0 C. "Microcomputers in Secondary Educa- tion: A Formula for Developing Countries." Proceed- inqs of Reqional Conference 02 Microcomputers - Secondary Education 3, Tokyo, Japan, 18-22 august 1986.

Marihas, Bella 0. "Utilization of Microcomputers in Secondary Schools. " Proceedinqs 03 the Reqional Conference 02 Microcomputers in Secondary Education '86, Tokyo, Japan, 18-22 August 1986.

. "School Mathematics and Microcompu- ters." Paper presented at the Regional Training Workshop on School Mathematics and Microcomputers in Asia and the Pacific, Tokyo, Japan, 23 June-13 July 1987.

, Rosine Rivera and Perla Roxas. "Computers in Education Project." Country Report presented at the Computers in Education Project Seminar, RECSAM, Penang, Malaysia, 24-27 November 1986.

Letter of Instructions No. 1381. Relative to the Promo- tion, Development and Growth of Computer Technology in the Philippines. Office of the President, Malaca- Prang, Manila, 20 February 1984.

National Computer Center. 1986 EDP Survey of Government _______- Installations. Quezon City, Philippines: National Computer Center, 1987.

1 0 5


National Economic Development Authority (NEDA). 1986 Philippine Statistical Yearbook. Metro Manila, Philippines: Na tiona 1 Economic Deve 1 opmen t Authority, 1986.

Report of the Technical Workinq Group 02 Human Resources Development for Information Technoloqy. 4 December 1984.

Romero, Helen. "Philippines Bows Computer Aided Teaching Project". Computerworld, 22 January 1987.

. "Wanted: A National EDP Policy." Computer- world, 21 April 1987.

Science Education Development Plan (SEDP), Volume 1 1 , Plan of Action. Quezon City, Philippines: Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports and National Science and Technology Authority, 1985.

Strategic Program on Information Technology (SPRINT) for the Philippines. Plan submitted to the Office of the President, August 1986.

Sycip, Gorres, Velayo and Company. Study of the Philip- pine Computer Market. Makati: Sycip, Gorres, Velayo and Company, 1983.

Talisayon, Vivien and Eulalia Bentillo. " Simple Programs in Mechanics and Optics for Instruction." In Micro- computers Physics Instruction and Research, eds. V. Talisayon and C. Bernido. Quezon City, Philippines: Asian Physics Education Network, 1987.

UP-IBM Model Classroom Announcement, College of Educa- tion, University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines, 1986.

University of the Philippines Institute far Science and Mathematics and Education Development (UPISMED) Records and Data:

Microcomputing Workgroup Survey and Programs,

IEA/SISS Computer Data, 1987b. 1987a;

106

CHAPTER VI11 POLICIES CIND PROGRAMMES IN SINGAPORE

Introduction

Singapore is the trade entrepot in southeast Asia. Among ASEAN member countries, Singapore is recognized a 5 having the most developed information industries and telecommunication infrastructures. From the 1950s to 15’70s information-related workers in the country constituted an increasing fraction of its economically active population -- matching those of France, West Germany and Austria, and surpassing that of Japan and Finland (Kuo and Huey-tsyh 15’87).

The unique resource profile of the country makes human resources development and information technologies two of the most important cornerstones in the government‘s development policy. The role of computers in the total educational system is therefore important.

The educational system in Singapore is patterned after that of the United Kingdom. It starts with 6-8 years at the primary level followed by 4-5 years of secondary level. After high school, students can proceed to either a 2-year junior college o r a 3-year pre- university> The examination system has been designed to be compatible to that in the United Kingdom.

Educational policy of Singapore is hinged on the central fact that human resources constitute the country’s main resource. The government heavily subsidizes primary and secondary education. Primary education is free while school fee for secondary education is nominal at S69.50 per month. In 1986, an average of 561528 was spent per primary pupil and SS2121 per secondary student (Chen 1987). A recent policy leans towards more independent schools, and towards encouraging greater initiative and innovation at the school level (Tan 1987).


National Information Technology Plan

The Singapore government established in 1980 the Committee for National Computerization -- a recognition by its planners of the strategic role of information technology (IT) in the economic future of the country. Starting in 1986, a seven-part National IT Plan was implemented. The Plan coordinates a number of institutions, infrastructures and programmes towards the

107


goal of increasing productivity and making Singapore internationally competitive in IT (NCB 1987),2

The National Computer Board, established in 1981, is given the responsibility of overseeing the implementation of the plan. A network of educational, training and R&D institutions has already been established o r strengthened during the last few years towards this goal (NCB 1986; Chid 1987).

The R&D and tertiary-level manpower development component of this network includes the Institute of Systems Science and Department of Computer Science at the National University of Singapore, the Centre for Computer Studies based at Ngee Ann Polytechnic, the Information Technology Institute (ITI) and the Japan-Singapore Institute of Software Technology (Shaw 1986; NCB 1986, December 1986, 1987). In 1987, the Knowledge Engineering Resource Centre under IT1 was created to undertake R&D on artificial intelligence?

About five local computer companies manufacture or assemble microcomputers (Lua 1987). About 160 firms deal with computer products and services in 1987. Singapore has twenty one private computer/data processing schools in 1987 (Telecoms 1987).

General Computer Use

Computer awareness courses for adults and the general public are part of activities of three organizations: People’s Association, National Trades Union Congress, and Singapore Armed Forces Reservist Association (APEID 1985).

The public telecommunication system, already the best in the region, is undergoing further improvements. Several island-wide data exchanges/networks are in place

set u p by government and private firms: NETS, an electronic fund transfer system, MEDINET among h o s p i t a l ~ f , ~

Public Office Automation System covering all government operations: pooling of several banks’ automatic teller machine (ATM) networks, a shipping and cargo clearing system for the Port of Singapore A ~ t h o r i t y ? , ~ linkage of the National University of Singapore to BITNET (international network of

SHINE (School and Home Interactive Network Exchange),8 and School Link, an educational MIS network linking

TRADENET?

universities and research centresb 7

108

Policies and Programmes in Singapore

all schools and the Ministry of Education costing S817 million (Lim et al. 1986; Chen 1987)

Computer ownership is among the highest in CSsia. In 1986, an estimated 100,000 microcomputers a r e distributed among a population of 2.6 million (Lua 1987) or about one microcomputer for every five families. In a 1986 survey conducted by International Data Corporation (Asia) Ltd.9, Singapore is next to Japan with 1010 computer installations per million people (Ye0 1987).

Policies on Computers in Education

The Ministry of Education does not incorporate computer education in the formal secondary level curriculum, but instead encourages and supports the formation of Computer Appreciation Clubs. Computer education is largely regarded as a co-curricular o r parallel activity. The Computer Science Resource Centre of the Curriculum Development Institute of Singapore (CDIS) under the Ministry of Education has been acting as resource centre for the clubs and issuing a monthly newsletter since 1982.

The Ministry provided each school with three microcomputers starting 1981. Requests were great for more units so that in 1984 the government launched a subsidy scheme whereby it matches dollar-for-dollar any amount spent by a computer club for purchase of microcomputer systems+O

The government aims to install more than 1200 microcomputers in the secondary schools, o r an additional nine microcomputers for each school. The government will provide additional microcomputers to all junior colleges so that each can have at least twenty five units each (Loh and Low 1986; Chen 1987),2 Purchase of microcomputers for schools i 5 centralized through CDIS, which adopts an open tender system.

The Ministry issued guidelines for computer clubs in 1983. Revised in 1985, the guidelines set a minimum ratio of one microcomputer per twenty five students. In order to give the most number of students especially school leavers opportunities for exposure to computers, the Ministry advised a two-year turnover of membership, recruitment at Secondary 1 and 3 levels, and a minimum of twelve club hours per week. Computer games are not permitted, except those with educational value and only after a student had completed required assignments (CDIS 1985).

109



Computer Appreciation Clubs

The first reported computer appreciation course was conducted by Japanese experts in 1974, using a minicomputer donated by the Japanese government. In the same year, a computer training centre was opened in Monk's Hill Secondary School (Takasawa and Kobayashi 1977). By 1980, 100 teachers and 3000 students had some hands-on experience in BASIC programming (Loh and Low 1986).

Widespread computer use started after the introduction of microcomputers in the market. Use in secondary schools was largely through Computer Appreciation Clubs. The first club was formed in 1981.

Initially only one unit was given to each secondary school, and the Computer Appreciation Course was given only to upper secondary students. Interest shown by lower secondary students led to extension of the clubs to this level and provision of additional two units to schools. In 1983 all 134 secondary schools had a computer club and an average of three microcomputers per school (CDIS 1985; Lim et a&. 1986; Loh and Low 1986).

In 1986 a survey revealed that the average had gone up to about eight microcomputers per secondary school. Computer club membership reached around 22 000 or 13.6% of secondary school population. Eighteen schools had set u p computer laboratories with about 20-24 microcomputers each (Lim e t al. 1986; Loh and Low 1986).

Because CDIS guidelines on computer clubs stressed computer programming, specifically using LOGO and BASIC languages, the tendency was to develop primarily mathematical and logical skills among students. The recent trend is away from programming and towards application programmes (Lim et &. 1986).

Student skills were encouraged through software competitions, programming quizzes in the Computer Appreciation Club Newsletter, and computer problem solving contests. The quarterly Newsletter is published by the Computer Education Section of CDIS.

Two national software competitions were held in 1986 and 1987. The first competition was in preparation for the 1986 Computer Contest in the United States where the Singaporean team won a close second place. The contest employed a timed problem- solving format1l9l2 (using BASIC a s the programming language) and an open format whereby contestants were free to submit any kind of useful and creative software (National Software Competition '87).

110


Computer Studies

In junior colleges (equivalent to Form 6 or senior high school), Computer Science has been offered since 1980. The Cambridge GCE (General Certificate of Education) A-level syllabus is employed. It covers topics designed to prepare students who will continue to study Computer Science at the university level or take up careers in the computerldata processing industries, such a 5 processor operation, machine and Assembly languages, operating systems, and programming languages. A l l eleven junior colleges have either multi-terminal minicomputers or microcomputer networks. A high pass rate of around 90% had been attained in examinations over 1981-1985 (Lim et &. 1986)>3


Traininq a& the Institute of Education. Pre-service teacher education is the responsibility mainly of the Institute of Education (IE), the only tertiary teacher- training institution in Singapore: Observers from IE noted a worldwide pattern in computer teacher education:

"The beginning approach to computer teacher education in the West wa5 fractured and fragmented. Basically, this is the situation

fragmented and haphazard approach to computer education." (Harper and Chen 1986)

By end 1986, IE had adopted a comprehensive plan for computer education covering six major areas:curriculum development and delivery of courses, research on computers in education, library applications of computers, facilities and hardware, software and courseware, and educational laboratory. An Information Systems Steering Committee oversees the planning process.

For both Diploma and Certificate in Education curricula, a course on Introduction to Computers in Education will be added. The course for the Diploma in Education had been started. In five years, the plan. calls for training at least 3000 pre-service student teachers in the various programmes of computer education studies (Harper and Chen 1986).

IE will give inservice training to "computer leaders" o r teacher-trainors from secondary and primary schools using a grant from IBM Singapore of a 20-unit computer laboratory. Three courses are planned: "Computer Applications in the Secondary School", "Computers and Learning Practice", and "The Computer Leader as an Implementor of Change". (Harper and Chen 1986 )

that Singapore now finds itself in, a

111


Traininq a t CDIS . The Ministry of Education, through the Computer Education Section, Department of Educational Technology of CDIS, conducts a 100-hour Computer Appreciation Course for teachers as well as many shorter courses on specific application softwares such as DBASE 1 1 and Wordstarel4.

CDIS introduced this course a s early a s 1981 (Loh and Low 1986). The 100-hour course is heavy in BASIC and LOGO (58 out of 100 hours) and in DBASE 1 1 , a n application programme useful for classroom data/records management (24 hours). Only four hours of CAI demonstration are included (CDIS 1984). About 1000 teachers had been trained by end-1986 (or 7.5 teachers per school), plus 342 teachers in short courses on special application programmes (Lim e t a&. 1986; Loh and Low 1986).

Traininq a 2 the National University of SinqaDore . Sixty nine junior college (senior high school) teachers had been trained at the National University of Singapore by end-1986 through a one-year full time intensive Diploma Course in Computer Science (Lim e> d. 1986).

Computers for School Management

A Computer Services Branch within the Ministry of Education i s active in short-term training sessions on administrative and research uses of computers. The Branch puts out a quarterly newsletter, C B Communications.

One task of the Computer Services Branch i s to prepare for the establishment of the School Link, which began a s a pilot project in 1982. Under this project, the Ministry plans to develop a network linking school computers with a central computer at the Ministry.

The network will perform basically educational MIS (management information system) functions covering pupil management system, financial system, office automation system, question bank system, scheduling system, library system and inventory system. By end 1986 the first 45 secondary schools were in the network. In 1987 the Pupil management system is fully operational in 125 secondary schools and eight primary schools. Completion is targeted for 1990. (Lim &. 1986).15

Computers jj. Science and Mathematics. Education

Programmes at the Primary Level

Compu-ttr. essisted Instruction. At the primary level, the first step taken by the government is pilot testing of computer-assisted instruction (CAI) in o n e primary school. A fact-finding team visited developed countries

112


in 1982 to study CAI programmes. It found that CAI i s still at the experimental stages and recommended that a pilot study be undertaken before planninq any extensive use of CAI (Low and Low 1986).

Planning started in 1983, and in 1985 the government launched the first CAI pilot project at the primary level (Grades 3-5) with the following objectives: ( 1 ) t o determine the effectiveness of CAI in the teaching and learning of mathematics, and ( 2 ) to study the feasibility of the CAI team developing courseware locally (CDIS 1987).

Mathematics was chosen because positive results in that subject were achieved in other countries, and mathematics is universal and therefore mathematics courseware available from abroad is easily applicable t o Singapore. CAI modalities undertaken are enrichment, reinforcement and remediation.

The experimental project uses the WICAT system (World Institute for Computer-Assisted Teaching). T h e system consists of a minicomputer, twenty four student terminals, a master console and a printer. T h e courseware is basically individualized drill-and-practice in mathematics. The system has computer-managed instruction facilities.

Part of the WICAT system i s WISE, an authoring programme, which was used to develop more CAI courseware. The CAI project team has produced thirteen one-hour mathematics modules on problem-solving and mixed drills to complement the WICAT courseware (Lim e t al. 1986; CDIS 1987 ) lo.

More than 1300 primary pupils have participated in the project. Each pupil spends one hour with a computer per week. Thirty teachers are involved in the project, receiving two-day training before the project started and a half-day t o one-day training every three months from CDIS staffL6

Formal evaluation of the project, involving 500 pupils was done in 1986. CAI was found to be as effective as, and at times, more effective than traditional instruction. Pupils’ interest in mathematics also improved. Attitudes of teachers and pupils towards CAI were favourable. The CDIS-developed courseware was well- received by the teachers and pupils. The CAI team decided to continue the project for a few more years to determine the long-term effects (CDIS 1987),16

Computer-Assisted Remediation. An experimental study on computer-assisted remediation (CAR) was also done in one primary school with CDIS assistance in July- October 1986. The programme covered three core topics of the Primary Four Mathematics curriculum, namely, whole numbers, fractions and decimals. The sample consisted of thirteen Primary Four pupils needing remediation based on

113


a series of Mathematics tests (Gay and Leong 15'87). A computer diagnostic test was administered to locate

areas of weaknesses of each pupil. The test results formed the basis for the subsequent step, remediation. CAR modalities employed included drill-and-practice, instructional games, problem-solving and computer assisted testing (CDIS 1987).

Each pupil had an hour of CAR per week outside class hours. The pupils worked individually for the drill-and-practice sessions, and in pairs and small groups for the instructional games. Each child was given pretest and posttest on achievement and attitude towards mathematics and towards CAR (Gay and Leong 1987).

The gains in achievement were significant for four of the five tests, that is, computation skills for whole numbers and fractions, and basic concepts for fractions and decimals. Gay and Leong (1987) report that "the pupils showed less anxiety towards Mathematics and more enjoyment of the subject". About 85% of the pupils found the lessons interesting and would like to continue using the computer to learn Mathematics. Seventy seven percent indicated that they would like to have CAR lessons for other subjects.

Results of the CAR study on positive attitudes of teachers and students towards lessons using computers and on effectiveness of computers for remediation corroborate the findings of Parry et al. (1986) who made a survey of several researches. The effectiveness of drills for slow learners also supports Hasselbring's (1986) conclusion.


A programme, started in 1986 in one secondary sc hoo 1 , used a system of twenty two networked microcomputers. The objectives of the programme were: ( 1 ) to evaluate the implementation of various modes of CAL (computer-assisted learning) such a s tutorial, simulation and problem-solving; and ( 2 ) to test the efficiency of the network a s a CAL delivery system.

CAL modalities employed were reinforcement of learning and enrichment. Biology, chemistry and later earth sciences were the subjects covered by the tutorials. About 400 lower secondary students worked in pairs to foster cooperative learning. During the CAL sessions, the teacher assumed the role of manager of the learning process rather than deliverer of instruction (CDIS 1987).

Studies on upper secondary Singaporean children belonging to the upper 10 percentile showed that CAI is better than traditional expository instruction in terms of achievement and retention tests. The subject matter

114


was on linear equations (Onq and Tan 1986). There are no microcomputer-based science

laboratories at the primary or secondary levels, except those found in university physics courses (Ong Phee Poh 1987).

Using computers to teach science and mathematics outside the classroom is done by the Singapore Science Centre, a statutory institution under the Ministry of Education:’ Established in 1977, the Centre has over 500 exhibits in science and mathematics for children and adults. The Centre has a computer corner with fifteen NEC microcomputers for learning about computers. Integrated with the exhibits are more than ten IBM-PC microcomputers running programs in science and mathematics for secondary students and adults. Examples of programs are mathematics problems and exercises, energy quiz, energy management simulation, and life cycle of a frog.


The objectives of the Institute of Education’s Computer Education Plan cover preservice and inservice training and curriculum considerations. The Plan indicates the need for teachers to know the software useful in the classroom and to be sufficiently knowledgeable to make computers an integral part of the classroom situation, a tool in every classroom. Computers are recommended for science experiments and mathematical calculations in the teacher-training curricula (Harper and Yen 1986).

Science majors in the Diploma course at the Institute have about 10-15 hours exposure to computers in science teaching. The computer training includes writing of simple programs in BASIC for teaching science, use of commercial science software, and programs to evaluate students‘ performance. Interfacing of the computer with experiments is not done; this may be feasible in the next five years;

The Department of Mathematics and Computer Studies has five staff members who integrate computers in teaching mathematics. They teach computer applications in mathematics to mathematics majors. The department has produced less than fifty programs in mathematics Among the microcomputer-based topics taught in the department are unconventional problem-solving through the microcomputer, employing systematic trial-and-error strategies, and mathematical investigation through LOGO programming (Ong Sit-Tui 1987b, 1987a).

115


Support OL the. Private Sector The Singapore Computer Society, the Singapore

Federation of the Computer Industry and the National Computer Board jointly organized a National Software Competition in 1986 and 1987 among secondary, junior and pre-university students. The organizing committee included the CDIS, the Science Teachers Association of Singapore and the Singapore Science Centre (Chia 1987 )L2

IBM Singapore donated a model classroom t o the Institute of Education to train teachers and administrators for a comprehensive computer education programme in the schools. Another IBM model classroom was donated to CDIS, which was installed at Raffles InstitutioniO One objective of the latter installation was to evaluate computer-aided courses.

An IBM model computer classroom consists of 20 or more microcomputers linked together by JANET ("Just Another Network"), a network software for educational purposes developed at Waterloo University, Canaddie Two private companies provided financial assistance to enable students to participate in software competitions abroad. Perkin-Elmer Far East Pte. Ltd. sponsored two junior college students in a competition in Australia in 1983. Touche Ross Foundation for the Advancement of Computer Education supported four junior college students and one secondary student to compete in Detroit, United States in May 1986!J

Hiqhliqhts of the Sinqaporean Situation

The computer environment in the country, with the implementation of the National Information Technology Plan, widespread use of computers, and the rapidly developing computer industry, augurs well for a policy on computers in education.

Government financial support has spurred microcomputer use in the schools at the secondary level. However, computer use is mainly for the Computer Appreciation Clubs, an extra-curricular activity for interested students in secondary schools, and for Computer Studies in junior colleges. Whether o r not the financial support will extend to the greater number of primary schools remains to be seen.

The Education Ministry has taken a cautious stand on the use of microcomputers as teaching and learning tools. Pilot studies have been conducted in mathematics in one primary school and in selected sciences in one secondary sc hoo 1 . The results of the studies may determine the extent of computer use in teaching science,mathematics

116


and other subject areas at the primary, secondary and teacher education levels in the future.

Notes

lInterview with Toh Kok Aun, Chairman, Department of Science Education, Institute of Education. Singapore, 8 May 1987.

211The National IT Plan -- The IT Blueprint for Singapore", in U Focus V_:1 (December 1986).

3"Govt Draws Up Blueprint for Computer Industry", Straits Times, 5 May 1987, p. 10.

4"Sinqapore May Get a National Off ice Automation System", Straits Times, 27 August 1987, p. 1.

5"Islandwide Medical Link-up in 3 Years", Straits Times, 9 September 1987, p. 16.

6"Expert System for PSA", ITI Innovator, November 1986.

7'1Plugging Into a Worldwide Communication Network", Campus News, December 1986, pp. 1,3.

8s1St Andrew's Is First School to go On-line with Shine", Straits Times, 23 August 1987, p. 18.

?persona 1 communication from International Data Corporation (Asia) Ltd., Hong Kong. 28 October 1987.

l01nterview with Kan Sou Tin, Deputy Director, Science and Special Programmes, Curriculum Development Institute of Singapore. Singapore, 7 May 1987.

ll'lSingapore First National Software Competition", IT Focus, volume 5 (December 19861, p. 8.

1211National Software Competition '86" and "Editor's Note", C A Newsletter, March 1987, p. 2.

131nterview with Loh Kon, Director, Computer Literacy Project, Curriculum Development Institute of Singapore; Faculty, Department of Mathemaics and Computer Studies, Institute of Education, Singapore. 16 June and 1 July 1987.

l4 "Fed ture : Curriculum Development Institute of

117


Singapore", Wavelenqth (An MOE In-House Newsletter), Issue no. 11, September 1985, p. 30.

I5CSB Communications, February, March and August 1987 issues.

l6Interview with Leong Yoke-Gen, Director, Computer- Assisted Instruction Project, Curriculum Development Institute of Singapore. Singapore, 7 July 1987.

I7Annual Report, Singapore Science Centre (1?85/86).

181'IBM Donates Model Classrooms for Computer Education", in Focus v:1 (October 19861, p. 5.

References

Asia and the Pacific Programme of Educational Innovation for Development (APEID). "Providing Computer Services: Singapore", Computers in Education: & Outline of Country Experiences. UNESCO Regional Office for Education in Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, 1985. pp. 63-71.

Chen Meifang. "Grooming the Human Resource", in Mirror 2J(7):1-2 ( 1 April 1987).

Chid, Christopher, Deputy Director, IT Manpower Department, National Computer Board. Interview with author. Singapore, 3 July 1987.

Curriculum Development Institute of Singapore (CDIS), "Secondary Teachers Computer Appreciation Course", June 1984.

, "Guidelines for Computer Appreciation Clubs in Secondary Schools", January 1985.

9 " Computer- Ass is ted I n s t ruc t ion in Singapore Schools", 1987.

Gay, Alice and Leong Yoke-Gen. "Using Microcomputers for Diagnosis and Remedial Teaching in Primary Mathematics". Proceedinss of the Fourth Southeast Asian Conference on Mathematical Education, Singapore, 1-3 June 1987.

Harper, Dennis and Chen A i Yen, "Computer Education at the Institute of Education", paper presented at the EdTech '86 Conference, Perth, Australia, December

118


1986.

Hasselbring, Ted S. "Research on the Effectiveness of Computer-Based Instruction: A Review". Inter. Rev. Educ. 32(3):313-324 (1986).

Kuo, Eddie C. Y. and Huey-tsyh Chen, "Toward an Information Society: Changing Occupational Structure in Singapore", in Asian Survey, XXVII(3):355-370 (March 1987).

Lim Yoke Seng, Wong Khoon Yoong and Low Khah Gek, "The Use of Computers in Singapore Schools". Paper presented at the Computers in Education Project Seminar-, Regional Centre for Education in Science and Mathematics, Penang, Malaysia, 24-27 November 1986.

and Low Koon Wai, "Computer Education in Singapore Schools", in Proceedinqs of Reqional Conferexe- prn- Microcomputers in Secondary Education '86, eds. S. Moriguti, S. Ohtsuki and T. Furugori (Tokyo, Japan, 18-22 August 19861, pp. 39-44.

Lua, K. T., "Our Role in the PC Market", Straits Times, 8 February 1987, p. 10.

National Computer Board (NCB), Year Book F Y 1985/ 1986 (Singapore: NCB, 1986).

9 National - IT Plan ~ - - - (brochure; Singapore: NEB, 1987).

National Software Competition '87 Brochure.

Ong Phee Poh, "The State of Microcomputer Use in Physics Instruction and Research in Singapore". In Microcomputers- Physics Instruction and Research. edited by Vivien M. Talisayon and Christopher Bernido. Quezon City, Philippines: Asian Physics Education Network, 1987.

Ong Sit-Tui, "Ma thema t ica 1 Investigation Through Microcomputers". P1oceedin-1 of the Fourth Southeast A-s-i-ac Confere_n_c_e_ on Mathematical Education, Singapore. 1-3 June 1987. Singapore: Institute of Education, 1987a.

-- __ and Tan Puay K , "The Effects of Computer- Assisted Instruction on the Attitudes and Achievement in Mathematics of Secondary School


Students, Singapore", in Proceedinqs of Reqional Conference 01 Microcomputers in Secondary Education '86, eds. S. Moriguti, S. Ohtsuki and T. Furuqori (Tokyo, Japan, 18-22 August 19861, pp. 239-244.

Parry, James D., Ron J. Thorkildsen, Thomas M. Biery and Christine A. Macfarlane. "Computer-Based Instruction (CBI): The Transition from Research Thinking to Teaching Strategies".Educ. Res. Quarterly =(1):30- 39 (1985-1986).

Shaw, Rodney, "The Centre for Computer Studies, Singa- pore", in Information Technoloqv for Development, - 1(1):45-58 (1986).

Sinqapore Phone Book (Singapore: Telecoms, July 1987)

Takasawa, Yoshimitsu and Mituo Kobayashi. "A Computer Appreciation Course for Secondary School Teachers -- A Case Study in Singapore". Proc. International Conference o n Computer Applications in Developinq Countries, Bangkok, 22-25 August 1977. pp. 1385- 1393.

Tan,

Yeo

Tony, Education Minister. Speech before Schools' Council, Straits Times, 14 January 1987, p. 16-17.

Ning Hong. Communications and Information Minister. Opening Talk in Informatics '87 Week. Straits Times, 27 August 1987.

120

CHAPTER I X POLICIES CIND PROGRAMMES IN THAILAND

Thailand is the only ASEAN country which was not colonized by Western powers. Buddhism is the religion of about 90% of the people. Religious and ethno-linguistic differences are not serious sources of political and educational problems. The King is head of state while a Prime Minister acts a s head of government, running the daily affairs of the nation.

The Thai school system consists of six years of primary education, followed by three years of lower secondary education, and three years of upper secondary education. Differentiation into science, non-science and vocational streams starts at the upper secondary level. The Thai language i s the medium of instruction.


Computer education started in Thailand soon after the arrival of it5 first two computers in 1964 (RECSAM 1985): an IBM 1620 to Chulalongkorn University and an IBM 1410 to the National Statistical Office. Initially, computer education covered user-training by computer vendors and computer science courses at universities.

By 1973, the first two computers were still in normal operation and more than 15 mainframes were in use. Ten of the fourteen state universities have at least a minicomputer system and two more are planning to acquire theirs soon. In 1980, the Department of Physics of Chulalongkorn University had purchased microcomputers (Wijit 1987). Chulalongkorn University adopted a policy requiring its faculty and staff above a certain rank to have computer literacy within five years (Srisakdi 1985).

A 1985 multi-sectoral survey of 140 computer-using organizations showed that only 11% had been using computers for ten or more years (Tang and Cabrera 1986). In 1985, Thailand had 3556 minicomputers and mainframes, and 23,470 microcomputers (RECSAM 1985). In 1986, the number of computer installations per million people was twenty four2

Growth has been rapid in the last five years. The availability of microcomputers and the general trend of increasing price-to-performance ratios of computers were cited as major reasons.

Public support for, and awareness of importance of, computer literacy is indicated by a recent decision of the government to reduce import duties on computers. CI National Computer Committee headed by a Minister of the Prime Minister's Office monitors the use of computers as

121

Preparing ASEAN for the lnformarion Century

well a s plan computer technology projects for the country:

Thailand is among the first developing countries to implement a local area network among universities' computer systems -- Chulalongkorn University, Asian Institute o f Technology, Kasetsart University and Thammasat University in the Bangkok area -- and a telecommunication satellite linkage with research databases outside the country -- Asian Institute of Technology with U.S.A. and Australia?

One hundred twenty five computer firms are listed in Bangkok's telephone directory in 1987. These companies sell a broad range of computer products and services. The Ministry of Science, Technology and Energy and the National Electronics and Computer Centre announced in 1987 a plan to develop software locally -- a response to pressure from the United States to extend protection to its software exports by amending Thailand's 1978 Copyright Ac tf

The private sector has taken initiatives in computer education. Nineteen private computer training schools are listed in Bangkok's telephone directory in 1987. The growth of these schools was described a s a "big boom" (APEID 1985). The active Computer Association of Thailand, looks into government incentives to boost local production of high-technology goods and stronger linkages between the academic and computer industry sectors? Thailand has four computer magazines. Two popular ones are the monthly Computer Review and Computers printed in Thai6. Private computer clubs were spontaneously organized, independent of the Ministry of Education o r other government agencies.

Most computers sold in Thailand have Thai translation built into the hardware, including the keyboard. Much software has been adapted for use with Thai script, for example, Thai word processing, DBase and Lotus$

Policy 02 Computers in Education

After passing the pilot study stage Thailand started nationwide implementation of computer in education in 1985 in the form of two elective computer courses for the upper secondary level mathematics courses. However, the Ministry has n o budget support for purchase of microcomputers in schools (RECSAM 1985). The schools have to obtain equipment through their own means.

The Ministry laid down three criteria for schools to be allowed to offer computer courses. A school must have at least (Nongnuch 1986; DCID 1987):

1. o n e microcomputer per three students, with at least

122

Policies and Programmes in Thailand

4 8 k of memory, keyboard and monitor, and sufficient number of disk drives and printers

2. one trained teacher 3. ten students enrolled in each computer course.

To qualify, a computer teacher must be a graduate of a Bachelor's Degree with 3 to 5 courses or 9 credits in data processing, computer programming, file processing, computer organization, data structure and algorithms (Thavisakdi and Narong 1986).

The Department of General Education oversees computer courses taught at upper secondary schools. Other departments of the Ministry of Education are responsible for computer instruction at other levels: the Department of Vocational Education over technical courses in business education and diploma courses in business administration, and the Department of Vocational and Technology Colleges over higher vocational courses involving computer courses (Thavisakdi and Narong 1986).

The development of computer use for administrative and management purposes, or educational management information system (MIS), has been started. Three government agencies cooperate in this effort: Ministry of Education, Ministry of University Affairs, and National Education Commission. This mode of use is different from computer-managed instruction (CMI) wherein teachers, not school administrators, use the computer for classroom planning, test making, mark records keeping, and the like (APEID 1985; Thavisakdi and Narong 1986).

The Ministry of Education established an Educational MIS Centre to implement a nationwide monitorinq and planning system that covers all education levels. Under the Thai educational MIS system, school personnel are trained in M I S concepts/procedures and an MIS coordinator is appointed in each school. Starting with secondary schools with more than 1200 students, it is Ministry policy that they acquire a microcomputer for MIS. Among the data to be monitored and used for planning and school administration are: personnel, finance, building o r physical plant, equipment, instruction, rules and regulations, and school population.


A nationwide survey conducted in 1983 as part of the International Association for the Evaluation of Educat iona 1 Achievement Second Internationa 1 Science Study, IEA/SISS, showed that 96% of ninety six teachers of Grade 9 (age 15) lower secondary students had n o access to a computer in school for use in science teaching. The same percentage of teachers said that they or their students never used a computer during science

123

Preparing ASEAN for the lnfomation Century

lessons. Qbout 2% of the teachers reported occasional o r rare computer use in science lessons. In the Grade 9 student survey, 2.7% of 3,775 students indicated access to a computer in school. Almost all the students (99.6% of 3,772 students) said they never used a computer in science lessons7

As of 1985, 60 out of 1672 schools have microcomputers (RECSAM 1985). A 1986 survey showed that 92 out of 734 government upper secondary schools have a total of 688 microcomputers (Nongnuch et a&. 1986; Tang and Cabrera 1986; Wijit 1987). Of the 92 schools, 37 have only one microcomputer each. Schools with less than three microcomputers use them mainly for administrative, management and record-keeping purposes.

At the lower secondary level, where computer use is not prescribed in the curriculum, some schools took the initiative to set up non-credit computer courses. Many private schools have received Ministry approval to implement computer courses. Computer use was reported mainly for teaching about computers, rather than learning with computers (APEID 1985; Nongnuch 1986; DCID 1987).

More schools have computers for administrative uses than for instructional uses (NIER 1987). Thus, computer use in Thai schools is of two kinds: management information system and instruction (APEID 1985; Thavisakdi and Narong 19861,

Some reservations expressed about computers a s teaching tools pertain to possible misuse of the computer in the classroom, for example, a teacher allowing the computer to do all the teaching. Another is the need to develop among Thai students the ability to communicate verbally. Computer use may diminish oral communication?

Computers in Science a d Mathematics Education


Computer Courses in Mathematics. The Institute for the Promotion of Teaching Science and Technology (IPST) of the Ministry of Education has played the lead role in the introduction of computers in upper secondary school curriculum. The IPST Computer Education Project Team developed the syllabi and curriculum materials for the two elective computer courses for the upper secondary mathematics curriculum.

The team wrote the students’ texts for the computer courses, entitled, “Fln Introduction to Computer Concepts” and ”An Introduction to Programming in BASIC Language”. A few mathematics examples were included in the materials. The materials, including a teacher’s manual were test-

124


piloted in three Bangkok secondary schools. The IPST team also developed a set o f transparencies and five videotapes for the computer courses (Nongnuch 1’986)p

Each computer course takes 2.5 hours per week. The courses aim to develop in students (APEID 1’985; Nongnuch 1986; Thavisakdi and Narong 1986):

1. basic understanding of a computer system; 2. perceptions of appropriate uses of computers; 3. ability to apply algorithms in problem solving

4. knowledge of programming and the ability to write

5. ability to run simple computer programmes; and 6. logical and systematic thinking, carefulness, and

The first course covers computer awareness, organization of a computer system, data and data processing, languages and social impact of computers. The first course is a prerequisite to the second course which is a programming course. The programming langua e used is BASIC in English script. One computer expert9 believes that computer education at the school level should focus on computer literacy and appreciation, rather than on learning programming skills.

Software Development. In 1987, the IPST computer team started a pilot project on software development for upper secondary mathematics and physics. The team met with nine mathematics teachers and ten physics teachers and selected nine topics in mathematics and physics, respectively, where computer use is appropriate. 6

The selected mathematics topics are: algebraic functions, ellipse, graph of trigonometric functions, straight-line graph and slope, circle, parabola, hyperbola, algebraic functions in trigonometry, and inverse functions. The physics topics focus on atomic and nuclear physics such as photoelectric effect, Thomson’s experiment, Rutherford’s alpha scattering experiment, and hydrogen energy levels!

The IPST computer team will develop interactive computer programs o n three chosen topics each in mathematics and physics. Three team members have a mathematics background and the rest are trained in physics; all members can d o programming in BASIC, Pascal and Fortran. The computer programs will be tried out in one-to-two schools$

The physics team of IPST has developed computer programs for high school physics, interfacing the computer with laboratory setup (Chaiyan 1986). On e such experiment verifies the inverse square law of light intensity, using a light dependent resistor interfaced with a microcomputer. Another i s a photo-timer for

using computers;

simple programmes;

creativity.

125


velocity measurements, using a phototransistor interfaced with a microcomputer. As for teaching the physics of a microcomputer, IPST is incorporating technology into the secondary physics curriculum, but electronics is not one of the topics?

In one leading secondary school in Bangkok, Triam Udom Suksa School, where three mathematics teachers and one physics teacher handle the computer courses, students write simple software on mathematics topics. The physics teacher has developed software on physics topics like interference and Doppler Effect which he uses in his physics teachingJO


In-service T-raininq ._ IPST started computer education as early as March 1985 as part of the development and testing phase of the teaching materials for the two computer courses. IPST has one NEC microcomputer, one IBM-PC, two IBM-PC compatible units (on order), and six APPLE I 1 compatible units (Nongnuch 1987 ) .

In 1986, the Institute organized a workshop for teacher-trainors from universities and teacher colleges (NIER 1987). The Institute collaborates with six teacher training colleges under the Department of Teacher Education of the Ministry of Education on in-service training programmes.

In addition, IPST conducted related training workshops in 1986 and 1987 for teachers (Nongnuch 1986: NIER 1987). Exchange and dissemination of computer programmes in mathematics and physics were included in these workshops/seminars. In September 15’86, IPST held a two-day seminar for teachers with interest and experience in educational software. At least twenty five computer programs in science and mathematics written by about half of the sixty six participating teachers were presented (Table IX-1). IPST plans to be an exchange centre for software in science and mathematics education$

Pre-service Traininq. The Department of Teacher Education oversees pre-service programmes. Ten of the 36 teacher-training colleges under the Department began in 1985 to offer a two-year associate degree (leading to a Diploma in Computer Profession) in computer teaching (Nongnuch 15’86. Thavisakdi and Narong 1986). The first batch of 360 students enrolled in this programme in 1985 (APEID 1985).

Computer science can be a major, minor or elective in the four-year Bachelor of Education programmes also offered in these ten colleges (DCID 1987). For the bachelor degree, computer courses are offered under five

126


Table IX-1. Teacher-Written Software for Secondary Science and Mathematics in Thailand

Mathematics

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.

Graph,of Absolute Functions Making Graphs Introduction to the Binary System Introduction to Trigonometry Trigonometry Lessons Adding and Subtracting Integers Comparing Areas of Circles Geometry Figures Logic Problem Solving on Ratio and Inverse Proportion Matrix Solving Determinants by Matrix Finding Differences between Set5 Venn Diagrams Limits Linear Regression

Physics

17. Simple Harmonic Motion 18. Projectile Motion 19. Ohm's Law and Resistance 20. Finding Resultant of Vectors 21. Concave Lenses and Mirrors 22. Momentum 23. Wave Demonstration

Chemistry

24. Ideal Gas

Astronomy

25. Solar System

Source: Nongnuch 1987

127


conditions: 1. a s core subject; 2. a s major subject for those who intend

computer teachers or to use computers work ;

to become in their

3. a s minor subject for students majoring in related

4. a s elective subjects for any interested student;

5. a s compulsory subjects for some majors. Computer science courses are also offered in

vocational and technical colleges, from which graduates may eventually g o into teaching in secondary schools (DCID 1987). These courses are offered in two branches: Business Administration (major in Business Computer), and Industrial Technology and Engineering (major in Electronics, and minor in Computer).

areas;

and


Private support for computers in education has come mainly from Parents-Teachers Associations, alumni associations and other non-profit agencies which donate microcomputers to schools (DCID 1987). One top secondary school in Bangkok, the Triam Udom Suksa School, has twenty four computers donated by the Parents-Teachers ~ssociationlO,ll.

Assistance of computer companies and associations, usually in the form of training, is on a case-to-case basis, at the request of schools and groups of teachers. In 1986, IBM Thailand donated some equipment to a teacher-training institution. On the whole, linkage between companies and schools is minimal, mostly a business relationship6.

Hiqhliqhts of the Thai Situation

Computer education in the school system is in the form of two elective computer courses in the upper secondary mathematics curriculum. Secondary schools with more than three computers normally offer these courses. Computer purchase is at the initiative of the schools, supported by Parents-Teachers Associations and alumni groups.

The lead agency in promoting computers in the school curriculum is IPST which developed the syllabi, curriculum materials and teaching aids for the computer courses. The courses are on learning about computers, rather than on learning with computers.

Besides conducting in-service teacher training for the computer courses, IPST has embarked on software

128


development for high school mathematics and physics. Its physics software includes interfacing the microcomputer with laboratory devices.

Whether or not computers will be used extensively a s teaching/learning tools in the schools depends on policy guide1 ines or encouragement of the Ministry of Education. Current computer concerns of the Ministry are for educational management and for the elective computer courses.

Notes

1 Personal communication from International Data Corporation (Asia) Ltd., Hong Kong. 28 October 1987.

21nterview with Somchai Thayarnyong, Director, Computer Service Center, Chulalongkorn University and Member, National Computer Committee. Bangkok, Thailand, 1 9 May 1987.

31nterview with Rut Boonyakiat, Chief, Metropolitan Telecommunication Area 4. Telephone Organization of Thailand. 28 May 1987.

4"Thailand to Produce Own Software", Computimes (a weekly supplement of N e w Straits Times;), 20 August 1987, p. 14.

S B a n ~ k o k Post Post Database Supplement page 2, 27 May 1987.

61nterview with Nongnuch Wattanawaha, Senior Specialist, Computer Education Project, Institute for the Promotion of Teaching Science and Technology. Bangkok, Thailand, 27 May 1987.

7Personal communication with Pisarn Soydhurum, National Coordinator for Thailand, IEA Second International Science Study, and Chief, Office of the Director, Institute for the Promotion of Teaching Science and Technology. 1 9 August 1987.

81nterview with Wijit Senghaphan. Physics Department, Chulalongkorn University. Bangkok, Thailand, 29 May 1987b.

91nterview with Chumpon Pattanasuwan, Head, Physics Design Team, Institute for the Promotion of Teaching Science and Technology. Bangkok, Thailand, 27 May 1987.

129

Preparing ASEAN for fhe Information Century

lOInterview with Nirun Charoenkool, Computer Course Teacher, Triam Udom Suksa School. Bangkok, Thailand, 29 May 1987.

IlInterview with Pranee Senghaphan, Chemistry Teacher, Triam Udom Suksa School. Bangkok, Thailand, 29 May 1987.

References

Asia and the Pacific Programme of Educational Innovation for Development (APEID). I' Thailand", Computers in Education: A n Outline of Country Experiences. UNESCO Regional Office for Education in Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, 1985. pp. 55-60.

Chaiyan Sirichote. 'I Inverse Square Law of Light Intensity" and "Photo-Timer". In Proceedinas of a_ Workshop o_n_ the Use of Microcomputers in Science Teachina, University of Hong Kong, 24-27 June 1986.

Department of Curriculum and Instruction Development (DCID), Ministry of Education, Thailand. "Computers in Education in Thailand". Country report presented at the UNESCO Reqional Seminar 01 T A Evaluation of Computers in Education, 24-29 May 1987, Melbourne, Australia.

IPST Brochure. The Institute for the Promotion of Teaching Science and Technology, Ministry of Education, 1987.

National Institute for Educational Research (NIER). "Thailand", Country Report for the Reqional Traininq Workshop on School Mathematics and MicroComputers Asia and the Pacific. Tokyo: National Institute for Educational Research of Japan, 23 June - 13 July 1987.

Nongnuch Wattanawaha, Chaweewan Sawetamalya and Somchai Shinatrakool. "Computer Education in Schools in Thailand". Country report presented at the Computers - in Education Project Seminar, Regional Centre for Education in Science and Mathematics, Penang, Malaysia, 22-27 November 1986. Science and Technology, November 1986.

RECSAM (SEAMEO Regional Centre for Education in Science and Mathematics). "Computer Education in Thailand",

130


Sub-Reqional Workshop 02 Microcomputers in Science and Mathematics Teachinq: A_ Report. Penang, Malaysia: RECSAM, 18-22 November 1985. pp. 15-17.

Srisakdi Charmonman. "Microcomputer Policy for Developing Countries", J. Enqineerinq Education in Southeast Clsia, E ( 1 ) : 39-46 (June 1985).

Tang, John C S and Agnes C Cabrera. "Computer Usage in Thailand: 4 Statistical Survey", Science and Public Policy =(6):341-346 (December 1986).

Thavisakdi Thangsuphanic h and Narong Boonme. "Microcomputer in Secondary Education in Thailand, 1986". Proceedinqs of Reqional Conference o n Microcomputers in Secondary Education '86, eds. S. Moriguti, S. Ohtsuki and T. Furugori. Tokyo, Japan, 18-22 Clugust 1986, pp. 455-460.

Wijit Senghaphan. State of Microcomputer Use in Physics Education and Research in Thailand. Microcomputers - in Physics Instruction and Research, V. M. Talisayon and Christopher Bernido, eds. Quezon City, Philippines: Asian Physics Education Network, 1987.

131

CHAPTER X COMPARISONS AND ANALYSES OF POLICIES AND PROGRAMMES

This chapter compares the policies and programmes on computers in science and mathematics education among the ASEAN countries. The W E A N situation is then compared to prevailing conditions in developed countries and in other developing countries. Finally, problems and issues are discussed in an ASEAN context.

Comparisons of countries are difficult to draw given the diversity and complexity of cultural and political factors. This chapter merely attempts to present the author’s perceptions of characteristics o r conditions of policies and programmes which are unique and which promote computer use in science and mathematics education in the ASEAN region. Cultural and political explanatory variables are not addressed.

Intra-ASEAN Comparisons


Indicators of 5 Computer Environment. Among ASEAN countries, Singapore has the computer environment most conducive for a policy on computers in education. One indicator i s the number of computers per million people, where Singapore is next only to Japan witQ 1010 computer installations per million people in 1986. Singapore has about one computer for every five families in 1986 (Lua 1987). Malaysia has 62 computers per million people and Thailand has 24 computers per million people in 1986 (Table X-1).

Singapore has at least five companies capable of assembling/manufacturing units compatible with IBM-PC microcomputers. Malaysia and Philippines have at least one such company. The literature available to the author does not indicate similar activity in Indonesia and Thailand. Brunei, which relies heavily on imported products, does not assemble o r manufacture microcomputer hardware.

Other indicators are the number of computer-related firms and the number of computer schools. Singapore has the highest number of computer schools and computer- related firms relative to its population. Table X-1 lists some indicators of a computer environment in each of the ASEAN countries.

Singapore is implementing an aggressive information technology programme, particularly in research and development, aimed at giving Singapore a compctitivm edge in the Asian and international markets (NCB 1986). The

132

Comparisons and Analysis of Policies and Programmes

Na t iona 1 Computer Board, Information Technology Institute, and Institute of Systems Science are all working to move Singapore into the information age.

Perhaps next to Singapore in terms of government initiatives towards a national computer industry i s Malaysia, the world's largest exporter of computer chips (Zawawi and Low 1987). The Malaysian government

Microelectronics System. The Philippines has formulated a strategic programme on information technology (SPRINT- PHIL 1986) which remains to be implemented by the governmen t.

recently set up the Malaysian Ins ti tute of

Capability for Computers in Education. Perhaps o n e indicator of educational resource capability for computers in education is the ratio of total public expenditure for education to enrollment at primary and secondary levels. The 1982 figures (Table X-2) show Brunei leading, closely followed by Singapore. Indonesia has the least ratio, followed by the Philippines.

A minimum educational goal is 1 i teracy . Appropriation for literacy naturally takes precedence over expenditures for educational technology. Table X-2 shows Indonesia having the lowest literacy rate in 1980 at 69.6%, followed by Malaysia at 75.5%, and the rest having a rate above 80%.

Another possible indicator is the number of television receivers per 1000 primary and secondary

133


Table X-2 Sore Indicators of ASEAN Capability for Computer Use in Education

Indicator Brunei Indonesia Halaysia Philippines Singapore Thailand ................................................................................................... I I I 1 I I I I I I I I

1982 enrollment at primary and secondary levels combined I I I I I I I , I 8 I I

Ratio of total public expenditure: 1276 I 36 I 532 I 56 I 1253 : 140 for education to combined enroll-: I , , I , a I I 1

ment at first two levels (19821, : I I I I I , I I 1 I

in US s per capitaa , I I I I 1 I , I I I I

: 49 380 31 235 181 13 235 217 : 11 665 486 I 465 937 :9 118 681 a I I I I a I I I I I 1 I

I

: 89.5 I I

I 1 I 1 I I I I I I

1980 literacybrate ( I ) , 10 years 80.3 I 69.6 : 75.5 I 82.7 : 84.0 old and above (1981) : :(b years old: I

I , I , I I : and over)

Number of TV receivers per 1000 primary and secondary students in: 638 I 110 : 404 107 I 910 1982' I I 1 I I 1 I I I I

Number of telephones per 1000. : 543 : 21 : 258 54 : 1829

I 6 I I , I a I

I I I I I 1 I 1 I I

I I I I

stud nts at first two levels in I I I , I

1982 E ,

I I I I I I I I I I

1987 starting salary of secondary: 1400 secondary schoo teacher I (BI1400 in SI per ronth

Cost of IB!I PC-IT compatibled : 1900 microcoaputer in 1987, in SS

Cost of IBN PC-XT compatible : 1.4 microcoaputer, in months starting: salary of a sec ndar school : teacher in 1987

a I I I I

:(611900 I I

B y I I

I

150 i lobof 1500) :

J I I I

1200 I 1700

I I

I

297 I I I I

: 63

, : 1850

:(R1 425 000): (HS3000) I (P12 000) :(E23 000)

: 22 I 2.8 I 8 : 1.6 I 7.7 I I I I I , I I I

I I I I I I l a , , I I I I 5 a a , , I I I I I I I I 1 I

Sources of country data: Brunei Statistical Yearbook 1984185. Brunei: Economic Planning Unit, Hinistry of Finance, July

Statistik Indonesia 1985. Jakarta, Indonesia: Biro Pusat Statistik, 1986. Philippine Statistical Yearbook 1986. Hetro lanila, Philippines: National Economic and

Sinsapore Facts and Pictures 1987. Singapore: Hinistry of Communication and Information, 1987. Statistical Handbook of Thailand, 1985. Bangkok, Thailand: National Statistical Office, Office

Other sources:

1986.

Development Authority , August 1986.

of the Prime Hinister, 1986.

a b- - d---

e

fBachelor's degree graduate without honours

Unesco Annual Statistical Yearbook 1986. Belgium: UNESCO, 1986. ASEAN Selected Statistics 1967-1984. Jakarta: ASEAN Secretariat, April 1986. United Nations 1983184 Statistical Yearbook. New York: United Nations, 1986. Based on interviews with and letters to author; price of ricrocorputer with aonochrome monitor and no printer Bachelor's degree graduate

c- -


students. Some microcomputers like Sinclair ZX 81 and Commodore VIC 20 can use an ordinary television for monitor. Singapore has the highest figure in 1982 (Table X-21, followed by Brunei. At the lowest end of the scale is the Philippines, followed by Indonesia.

Table X-2 also shows Singapore a s having the greatest potential for telephone-linked computers-in- education network, based on the number of telephones per 1000 primary and secondary school students. Brunei has the next highest figure. Indonesia has the lowest number, followed by the Philippines.

A comparison of the estimated cost of a microcomputer model, e.g., an IBM-PC-XT compatible unit (without a printer and with a monochrome monitor) vis-a- vis the starting monthly salary of a secondary school teacher in the ASEAN countries in 1987 yields interesting results. Brunei, with the highest teacher salary, has the lowest computer cost per monthly salary, 1.4. Singapore, with the next highest salary, also has the next lowest ratio, 1.6. Indonesia, with the lowest salary, has the highest ratio of 22. Philippines and Thailand come next with ratios, 8 and 7.7, respectively.

In concrete terms, buying a microcomputer in Indonesia roughly corresponds to dispensing with the services of a high school teacher for twenty two months. In the Philippines and Thailand, it is about eight months of a teacher’s service. In contrast, Brunei and Singapore need to exchange only less than two months service of a teacher.

With the foregoing indicators, Brunei and Singapore have the greatest capability for computers in education. Indonesia has the least such capability. It i s interesting to note that Brunei and Singapore have the highest per capita gross national product in the region, (Table X-3) and the smallest school population. On the other hand, Indonesia has the lowest per capita gross national product and the largest school population. Should the ASEAN countries formulate and implement a nationwide computers-in-education policy at the secondary and primary levels, Brunei and Singapore are likely to be ahead. Indonesia may have the greatest difficulty for a similar policy implementation.

Policy on Computers in Education

In ASEAN, Singapore is the earliest and the only country to provide funds for computer hardware purchase for all its secondary schools. T h e 134 secondary schools in Singapore have an average of eight microcomputers (Lim et al. 1986). All upper secondary schools in Brunei each have at least four microcomputers. Malaysia has an

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experimental project where the Ministry of Education supplied twenty secondary schools with five microcomputers each. Table X-4 lists the percentages of schools in M E A N with at least one microcomputer, inferred from surveys in each country. The figures for Singapore, Brunei and Malaysia consider the total number of schools, whereas the figures for the other countries are based only on samples of schools.

The Ministries of Education in Thailand, Indonesia, and the Philippines have not provided their schools with computers and perhaps find it difficult to d o so. It should be noted that Brunei and Singapore have the smallest number of primary and secondary school enrollment in the region, consistent with their having the smallest population (Tables X-2 and X-3). The disparity in school population size in the region i s great; Indonesia, the most populated, has a school population about 600 times greater than that of Brunei, the least populated.

In terms of clearly enunciating a policy on computers in education, the Philippines' policy is well- expressed in the Science Education Development Plan (1985) of the Department of Education, Culture and Sports and Department of Science and Technology, where support is expressed for introducing microcomputers a s a "viable teaching tool for the primary and secondary levels". Policy implementation of the hardware component, rather than policy formulation, is the difficulty in the Philippines with its resource constraints.

Inadequate resources o r other educational priorities seem to hinder the formulation of a formal, nationwide

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Table X-4 Percentage of Schools in ASEAN With at Least One Microcomputer

I I Primary Secondary I

I

I I : Brunei 1 n.d. I lower: n.d. I I

I

I I : upper: 100% 618 schools, : I I I I I 1987) I I I I I I 1

I : Indonesia : n.d. I lower: n.d. I I I

I b : I (Jakarta, 1987) : upper: less than 9%

I I I I I I I

I I I I

I I I I

I Malaysia about ?% 38% (1986)' I I ( 1986 1 I I

I 1 d 11% (1984Ie d ' I Philippines: 5% (l984le : I : 21% (1987) : 36% (1987) d

I I I I

n.d. = no data available to the author Maawiah 1986

bNIER 1987 Siti 1987

dUPISMED 1987b (samples with 25% private primary

e UPISMED 1987a (samples with 85% private primary

Marinas 1987

a

C

schools and 37% private high schools)

schools and 63% private high schools)

'Loh and Low 1986

policy on computers in education in Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, and Brunei. The resource requirement for computers in education in Indonesia is huge for its millions of students and thousands of teachers. Moreover, among ASEAN countries, Indonesia has the lowest literacy rate (Table X-2). A maj r school problem in Malaysia is shortage of buildings. Large capital requirement for computers is also a deterrent in Thailand. Brunei has the resources, but its present educgtional priorities are university and technical education.

8

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Uncertainty about the effectiveness of teaching with computers a t the primary and secondary levels, and apprehensions of teachers’ reactions and preparation perhaps contribute to the limited use of computers in the school system in Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, and Brunei. Singapore, Malaysia and Brunei have computers in education a s an extra-curricular activity via school computer clubs. Indonesia and Thailand have attached computer courses to mathematics as an elective in the upper secondary level. Philippines allows schools to form computer clubs and offer computer courses a s electives. In all cases, the focus i s learning about computers: basic operations, uses in society, use of commercial software and programming. In all cases, computers in education are for interested students and teachers.

In Malaysia, the same trend a s that observed in many countries outside the region was observed: earlier initiatives by private groups compared t o the education

result, policy formulation appears to proceed partly under pressure from interested private groups or individuals: parents, enthusiastic teachers, private computer clubs, and computer vendors.

bureaucracy with the advent of microcomputers. 4s a

Programmes at the Primary Level

Greater expenditure, in view of larger student populations, i s a difficult obstacle to any contemplated policy on computer use at the primary level. Furthermore, compared with tertiary level education, the primary level i s most remote from manpower demands of d computer industry. Perhaps for both reasons, the general trend is greater and earlier use of computers in secondary education compared to primary level.

Programmes undertaken by some FISEFIN governments at the primary level are experimental, such a s those in Singapore and the Philippines. Singapore is testing the effectiveness of computer-assisted instruction in primary mathematics (CDIS 1987).

The Philippine project, begun in 1984 (Capalad 19871, is an example of computer education in science and mathematics even without using computers. The project identified computer-related mathematics and science skills and concepts and developed appropriate mathematics modules and science exercises. The modules and exercises are in line with the policy that ” a t the elementary level, educational computing could be introduced in terms of concepts and intellectual skills that will be generally useful for all and will make the pupil more receptive to computing should he have the opportunity” (SEDP 1985).

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The use of microcomputers in teaching secondary science and mathematics in ASEAN countries is a t the initiative of teachers in schools equipped with microcomputers. Locally available commercial software in mathematics and science may be used by the teachers. A fewer number of science and mathematics teachers in the ASEAN countries have the time o r skills to develop software for the subjects they teach. A notable example is a group of upper secondary mathematics teachers in Jakarta, Indonesia meeting regularly on their own to demonstr te and discuss mathematics software they have writ ten.

A seminar held by the Institute for the Promotion of the Teaching of Science and Technology (IPST) in Thailand in 1986 showed thirty seven computer programmes, mostly in mathematics and physics for the upper secondary level, developed by teachers. Other local software in science and mathematics at the secondary level is written by students, perhaps some under the guidance of their science and mathematics teachers, o r computer club advisers. Software competitions for computer club members in Singapore and Malaysia have stimulated students to write software on selected topics in their curriculum.

IPST started a pilot project in 1987 to start integrating computers in teac ing mathematics and physics at the upper secondary level. Topics in mathematics and physics were identified on which computer software will be written. The Institute has developed a number of computer programs in mathematics and physics. its physics programs include interfacing with experimental setups.

The author has not come across reports in the literature or from interviews, of secondary school teachers in ASEAN countries teaching the mathematical and scientific principles of the microcomputer, o r interfacing the microcomputer with experimental setups in science classes.

g

9. .


Most teacher-training programmes on computers in ASEAN countries are on learning o r teaching about computers, rather than teaching with computers o r computer applications in education.

In some computer courses in pre-service programmes in ASEAN countries, science and mathematics majors receive training on software development in science and mathematics when they are assigned to write computer

139


programs in their major field. The Institute for Science and Mathematics Education

Development, University of the Philippines (UPISMED 1987a) offered short-term courses on microcomputers in teaching mathematics, physics and chemistry in 1986-87. These courses are offered again in 1987-88, with additional courses on microcomputers in teaching biology and environmental science, courses on microcomputer-based chemistry and mathematics lessons, and a course on computer programming and mathematics. The physics course includes an introduction to the mathematics and physics principles of the microcomputer hardware. Future plans include experiments interfacing the microcomputer with physics laboratory equipment.

UPISMED uses some commercial American computer programs in its teacher-training courses. The Institute has developed more than twenty computer programs in BASIC in mathematics, physics, chemistry, and biology for teacher education.

A teacher-training programme model worth emulating for computers in education is the PKG inservice-onservice scheme. The PKG scheme closely monitors and follows through the inservice training of the teacher. When back to their schools, the teachers receive assistance from trainors and fellow trainees in implementing an innovation in the classroom.


Outstanding examples of support of the private sector in the ASEAN region for computers in education are those of the oil industry in Brunei and private companies in Malaysia. Brunei Shell initiated formal computer awareness in the Brunei school system by donating four sets of microcomputers each to eighteen secondary sc hoo 1 s.

In Malaysia, the newspaper, N e w Straits Times has considerably assisted computer clubs and the formation of a teachers group for computing, besides publishing a weekly supplement on computers. Companies like ESSO Production Malaysia and NEC company have donated computers to schools.

IBM Singapore and IBM Philippines donated model classroom computer network to schools and teacher- training institutions. Computer societies and companies, by and large, have given assistance in the form of training on request by schools and groups of teachers on a case-to-case basis.

Parents-Teachers Associations have spearheaded the introduction of computers in the school system in ASEAN countries where the government i s unable to provide

140


financial assistance on a wide scale, in the case of Malaysia, and even on a limited scale, as in the Philippines, Indonesia, and Thailand.

ASEAN and Other Countries

As in other countries, developed or developing, microcomputer use in all sectors of ASEAN society has grown rapidly in the eighties. Likewise, in this decade, computer use in the ASEAN educational system has been extended from the tertiary level to the secondary level and, to a lesser extent, to the primary level. As in the United States, computers in the school system in ASEAN are generally a hesitant response to the prevalent computer use in society and pressure of parent groups.

Policies on computers in education take the form of state legislation (e.g., United States), government appropriation (e.g., United Kingdom, Japan, France, Australia, and India), establishment of centres (e.g., China and Japan), pilot projects (e.g., India), and recommendations (e.g., New Zealand, U.S.A.). Similarly, policies on computers in the ASEAN school systems take several forms.

The Philippines has clear policy guidelines on computers at all educational levels. The policies of Singapore and Brunei are partly in the form of funding for computer clubs. Malaysia and Singapore have issued guidelines for computer clubs. These two countries and the Philippines also have pilot projects and studies on computers in education. The policy of Thailand and Indonesia is expressed in an elective computer course attached to upper secondary mathematics. Singapore, Brunei and the Philippines have elective computer courses,too, in secondary or pre-tertiary curriculum.

Comparable figures for several countries such a s those found in Unesco Statistical Yearbooks a r e not available for number of computers in the school system and for the total population. Computer surveys in selected countries cited in Chapter I 1 1 and in some ASEAN countries indicate some trends.

Singapore at the secondary level and Brunei at the upper secondary level are in step with developed countries like United Kingdom in having microcomputers in every school. Singapore provided financial assistance to secondary schools for computer purchase beginning in 1981, about the same time that the British Micros-in Schools Programme started.

Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand and Malaysia appear far behind developed countries like United States, United Kingdom, France, Japan and Australia in number of secondary schools with computers. Like many other

141


developing countries the governments of these ASEAN countries are unable to finance computer purchase for the schools. Malaysia has given financial support on a limited scale, providing computers only to twenty schools.

In contrast, the governments of Japan, United Kingdom, France, Soviet Union, Australia and India have allocated huge sums of money for computers in the school system. In some countries like France and United Kingdom, government aid for computers in education include the primary schools. For instance, the British Microelectronics Programme, begun in 1980, is intended for primary and secondary schools.

At the primary level, computers in ASEAN schools are at the initiative of the private sector, notably the Parents-Teachers Associations. Thus, percentages of primary schools with microcomputers are perhaps about the same a s in other developing countries and much less than in developed countries like the United States, United Kingdom, and Japan.

Teacher training invariably accompanies computer purchase for the school system. Hence, the extent of ASEAN teacher training parallels the situation of computer installations in the schools.

Computers a s Teaching Aids

The New Zealand's Consultative Committee on Computers in Schools recommended computers a s a teaching tool in all subjects (Werry 1987). Several articles in journals and publications dedicated to computers in education present advantages, instances, courseware, and studies on computers a s teaching or learning aids at the secondary and primary level. At least six of these journals are published in the United States and four in the United Kingdom.

Computers a s powerful teaching aids are underused in ASEAN school systems. Only the Philippines formally recommends support for projects on computers as "viable teaching tool" in subjects like science and mathematics. Singapore has pilot projects on computer-assisted instruction. In most ASEAN countries, use of computers a s a teaching aid in science, mathematics or any other subject at the primary, secondary and teacher education levels i s teacher-initiated.

Compared to countries like the United States and the United Kingdom, the ASEAN countries lag further behind in using computers a s teaching aids by means of available or commercial software for the different subjects. While CDIS of Singapore, UPISMED of the Philippines, and IPST of Thailand have started software development in science

142


and mathematics, the lag is greater in the development of computer-based lessons and even much greater for computer-based laboratory work for students. Unlike in the United Kingdom, for example, teaching the scientific and mathematical principles of computers in the ASEAN schools is practically nil.

ASEAN Issues a n d Problems

Limiting Factors to Computer Use

The single most important deterrent to computers in the ASEAN school systems i s the hardware cost. Albeit rapidly declining, the cost of a microcomputer is still prohibitive to many secondary and primary schools in the region. While a number of teacher training institutions have acquired computers, the non-availability of computers in the schools influences the nature and extent of computer use in teacher education programmes. T h e lack of funds, e.g., in Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand for computers in all schools i s compounded by the large number of secondary and primary schools, particularly in Indonesia.

Another problem cited by decision-makers in the sc hoo 1 ayqtem is the rapidly changing computer hardware. ’ This poses a problem a s to the model t o use in the schools, a model that is not quickly outmoded, considering the high capital outlay. Some may argue that change may be the only constant in technology development. A long wait for stable models may mean a big educational gap in relation to developed countries with computers-in-education programmes.

A commonly expressed major constraint to computers a s teaching aids is lack of appropriate software for the different subjects, including science and mathematics. For instance, much commercial software in m t matics i s said to be of the drill-and-practice type. 9 , B IBM and Apple I 1 and BBC computer distributors have other types of software in science, mathematics and other subjects, including software for computer-based laboratory. However, many schools in the region cannot afford the software cost.

A software-related problem i s language. For schools in Thailand, Indonesia and Malaysia, computer programs for the different subjects need to be translated to the national language to be understood by the students.

Other educational priorities, as well a s other concerns of governments, are limiting factors to computers in education in ASEAN. Malaysia is concerned with the shortage of school buildings and the upgrading

143


of rural education. Brunei's current priorities in education are university and technical education. Indonesia is saddled with the lowest literacy rate in ASEAN and preoccupied with a nationwide teacher training programme , PKG. The top concerns of the Philippine government are political stability and economic recovery.

The teacher factor is critical in introducing any technology or innovation in the classroom. Untrained teachers or lack of teacher training is often cited a s a major reason for not using computers in the ASEAN school systems. Use of computers in teaching requires technical and attitudinal teacher training. As Atchison (1985) aptly puts it, students will not derive benefits from computer-based lessons if the teacher i s not highly motivated to use them.

Introducing a computer course into the curriculum, integrating computer topics into regular subjects, o r using computers a s teaching aids requires the full support of the teachers who will implement the changes. The most common modalities of computers in the ASEAN school systems are a s an extra-curricular activity or a s an elective course. These modalities, particularly the extra-curricular activity, are likely to meet less resistance from the teachers , since only interested, qualified teachers need to be involved. Such modalities can be considered quick interim measures a s more teachers are prepared and more funds sought for wider use of computers in the classroom.

The course content offered in computer clubs in Brunei, Singapore and Malaysia is similar to that offered in private computer schools. Strictly speaking, the school environment is not needed for such types of courses which can be learned in offices, companies, community centres and at home. The school environment can be fully utilised in computer literacy courses in schools at the primary and secondary levels by including applications of computers in the different subjects, including laboratory work.

Moreover, such applications enable students to see the relevance of computers to what they learn in school, and not view computer education as necessarily an independent or additional area of study. Furthermore, computer literacy in the schools should include the teaching of basic scientific and mathematical principles of a pervasive technology that is the product of science and mathematics. Elective computer courses not only for software development but also for hardware training have a place in the secondary curriculum to prepare interested students for computer science or computer engineering at the tertiary level.

Reservations of decision-makers about the

144


effectiveness of computers as teaching aids limit the use of computers in many ASEAN schools. Reviews of numerous studies (Kulik et al. 1983; NTFET 1986; Parry et al. 1986; Niemiec and Walberg 1987) conducted in the past two decades point to effectiveness of computers as teaching aids, in terms o r increasing student achievement, reducing instructional time, and fostering a positive attitude towards computers and the subject taught. Training for appreciation of the significance and effectiveness of computers in the classroom should be extended to school administrators to encourage teachers to use computers in teaching.

Economic and Social Issues

The essential problem of ASEAN and other developing countries is that they have to cope with present developmental problems like poverty, poor health, and literacy while at the same time prepare for the coming information era. Yet, neglecting the latter may mean another step backward into underdevelopment. Computers in education are long-term preparatory moves towards computer literacy and specialised manpower development for the information age.

Some nationalists may perceive promotion of computer technology a s increasing the dependence of developing countries on Western and Japanese technology. Such perceptions may be justified if local hardware and software development is not undertaken. For instance, copyright laws recently enacted in ASEAN countries will spur local software development in view of expensive imported software. The usual counter argument to local development i s the superfluous need to "reinvent the wheel". But perhaps, so-called reinvention a s a first step will help the country to acquire experience and confidence a s it moves on to redesign and improve existing technology.

The issue of "robotisation of education" underlies some reservations of teachers and school administrators in ASEAN in using computers in the classroom. Some of these reservations are the perceived threat of the computer replacing the teacher and resulting job losses and misuse or abuse of computers in the classroom. Examples of misuse o r abuse are: a teacher relegating all the teaching to the computer, using a computer for discussions o r explanations better done by a teacher,and computer simulations instead of students doing the experiments themselves. Other fears expressed a r e the lessening of interaction between teacher and students and among students.

Technology replacing people and misuse or abuse o f

145


technology are perhaps associated with most technologies in the industrial age. However, man's experience with industrialisation points to modified roles 0.f personnel whose tasks have been taken over by machines. Misuse or abuse of a technology clearly depends on man's decision o r judgment and does not necessarily mean a rejection of the technology.

In a similar manner, computers in the classroom need not or should not replace the vital role of the teacher in guiding students' learning. Computers should be seen a s powerful tools, among the repertoire of teaching aids at the disposal of the teacher to enhance teaching and learning. Misuse, abuse, or overuse of computers in teaching can be avoided by teacher training on judicious computer use that exploits the unique advantages of computers in teaching concepts and skills to students.

Peer interaction in the classroom can be facilitated by pairwise student use of the computer. Studies reviewed by Shade et al. (1986) and Lieberman (1985) show heightened classroom social interaction in terms of mutual consultation, peer tutoring, increase in helping and assisting behaviour among students using a computer in pairs. Computers in the classroom need the teacher's faci 1 i tating , guiding, and tutoring role. In Hasselbring's review of studies (19861, computer-assisted instruction with teacher mediation is more effective than that wi thou t teacher intervention.

Another sensitive issue in computers in education in ASEAN, e.g., Malaysia, i s the equity of access to computers of rich and poor students and of all races. In countries where the dominant use of computers is in computer clubs, computer use is limited to interested students. In cases where computer clubs require membership fees and home ownership of computers for practice sessions, access to computers is definitely limited to students who can afford the fees and buy a computer for home use.

While computer specialisation is limited to a few, the information era will require computer literacy for all in the populace. In the classroom, one way of widening access to computers i s to use them a s teaching aids. For example, a teacher using a computer to demonstrate simulations, animation o r graphics related to the subject matter exposes all the students in the class to the computer. Hands-on sessions for enrichment or remedial lessons for students on rotation basis during or outside class hours i s another way of giving equal opportunity to students.

Computers in education often conjure up images of computers in the principal's office o r computers installed in a room. The recommended ratio of two

146


students to one computer and the school's ability to purchase only a few computers have led to the limited use of computers, as in computer clubs or elective computer courses. Using computers in the classroom as teaching aids need not imply having computers half the class size or half the school population. Microcomputers can be mobile teaching aids, alongside slide projectors or overhead prylectors that are brought into the classroom when needed . Microcomputers dominating the classroom throughout the schoolyear may be counter-productive once

Most the novelty effect has worn off among students. educationist5 will agree that effective, motivational teaching requires a variety of teaching approaches.

Notes

'Personal communication from International Data Corporation (Asia) Ltd., Hong Kong, 28-29 October 1987.

'Telephone Directories of ASEAN Capitals, 3Personal communication with Pisarn Soydhurum,

1987. National

Coordinator for Thailand, IEA Second International Science Study, and Chief, Office of the Director, Institute for the Promotion of Teaching Science and Technology, 19 August 1987.

41nterview with Ibrahim bin Md. Noh, Principal and Assistant Director, Science and Mathematics Unit, Schools Division, Ministry of Education, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 20 May 1987.

ECA Section, Ministry of Education. Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei, 25 August 1987.

'Interview with Helmi Amin, Mathematics key Teacher, SMA 6 Jakarta Selatan, Jakarta, Indonesia, 18 May 1987.

71nterview with Nongnuch, Wattanawaha, Leader, Computer Education Team, Institute for the Promotion of the Teaching of Science and Technology, Bangkok, Thailand, 27 May 1987.

'Interview with Suprapto, B. Director of Secondary General Education, Jakarta, Indonesia, 15 May 1987.

'Interview with Kan Sou Tin, Deputy Director, Science and Special Programmes, Curriculum Development Institute of Singapore, Singapore, 7 May 1987.

"Interview with Khoo Phon Sai, Head, Department of Mathematics and Science Education, Faculty of Education, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 22 May 1987.

"Interview with Ong Sit-Tui, Department of Mathematics and Computer Studies, Institute of Education, Singapore, 16 June 1987.

'Interview with Badar bin Haji Ali, Head, AKLI Unit,

147


References

ASEAN Selected Statistics 1967-1984. Jakarta, Indonesia: ASEAN Secretariat, April 1'386.

Atchison, William F. "The Development of Computer Science Education", Advances in Computers, volume 24 (Mar- shall c. Yovits, ed.).New York: Academic Press, 1985.

Capalad, Lanniene S. "Development of Learning Materials for Computer Readiness in Primary Schools." Proceedinqs of the Fourth Southeast Asian Conference 02 Mathematical Education. Singapore, 1-3 June 1987.

Curriculum Development Institute of Singapore (CDIS). "Computer-Assisted Instruct ion in Singapore Schools", 1987.

Kulik, J., R. Bangert and G. Williams. "Effects of Computer-Based Teaching on Secondary Sc hoo 1 Students", J. Educ. Psycholoqv =( 1) : 19-26 (1'383).

Lee Kuan Yew. "Present Trends, Future Consequences, An Asian Perspective to the Year 2000". Paper presented a t the International Herald Tribune Centennial Conference -- Pacific 2000: Global Challenge. Singapore: 11-13 November 1987. Speech published in Straits Times, 12 November 1987, p. 14.

Lim Yoke Seng, Wong Khoon Yoong and Low Khah Gek. "The Use of Computers in Singapore Schools". Paper presented a t the Computers in Education Project Seminar, Regional Centre for Education in Science and Mathematics, Penang, Malaysia, 24-27 November 1986.

Loh Kon and Low Koon Wai. "Computer Education in Singapore Schools", in Proceedinqs of Reqional Conference 02 Microcomputers in Secondary Education '86, eds. S. Moriguti, S. Ohtsuki and T. Furugori (Tokyo, Japan, 18-22 August 19861, pp. 39-44.

Lua, K. T. "Our Role in the PC Market". Straits Times. 8 February 1987, p. X.

Maawiah bin Haji 4bdullah. Computers in Education Project Annual Report. Ministry of Education, November 1986.

MariPras, Bella 0. "School Mathematics and Microcompu- ters. " Paper presented at the Regional Training Workshop on School Mathematics and Microcomputers in Asia and the Pacific, Tokyo, Japan, 23 June-13 July 1987.

National Computer Board (NCB). National - IT Plan (brochure; Singapore: NCB, 1987).

National Institute for Educational Research (NIER). School Mathematics: New Ideas with Computers. Tokyo,

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Japan: NIER, 1987, pp. 46-47. National Task Force on Educational Technology (NTFET).

"Transforming American Education: Reducing the Risk to the Nation", a Report to the Secretary of Education, United States Department of Education. T. H. EL Journal, volume 14 number 1 (August 19861, pp. 58-67.

Niemiec, Richard and Herbert J. Wal berg. "Comparative

Synthesis of Reviews", J. Educ. Computinq Research - 3(1):19-37 (1987).

Parry, James D., Ron J. Thorkildsen, Thomas M. Biery and Christine A. Mac f ar lane. " Com pu t e r- -Based Instruction (CBI): The Transition from Research Findings to Teaching Strategies", Educ. Res. Quarterly 10(1):30-39 (1985-1986).

Philippine Statistical Yearbook 1986. Metro Manila, Philippines: National Economic and Development Authority, August 1986.


Sinqapore Facts and Pictures 1987. Singapore: Ministry of Communication and Information, 1987.

Siti Hawa Ahmad. "Country Report: Malaysia", read in Reqional Traininq Workshop 02 School Mathematics a& Microcomputers Asia and the Pacific (Tokyo, Japan, 23 June - 13 July, 1987).

Statistical Handbook of Thailand, 1985. Bangkok, Thailand: National Statistical Office, Office of the Prime Minister, 1986

Statistik Indonesia 1985. Jakarta, Indonesia: Bur0 Pusat Statistik, 1986.

for the Philippines (SPRINT-PHIL). Report submitted to the Office of the President, Manila, Philippines, April 1986.

Unesco Annual Statistical Yearbook 1986. Belgium: Unesco, 1986.

United Nations 1983184 Statistical Yearbook. New York: United Nations, 1986.

University of the Philippines Institute for Science and Mathematics and Education Development (UPISMED). Records and Data:

Microcomputing Workgroup Survey and Short-Term

IEAISISS Computer Data, 1987b.


Strategic Proqram on Information Technoloqv --

Courses, 1987a.

Werry, Bevan. "Country Report: New Zealand", UNESCO Reqional Seminar 01 the Evaluation of Computers in Education. Melbourne, Australia, 24-29 May 1987.

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M. Zawawi Ismail and K. S. Low. “State of Microcomputer Use in Physics Instruction and Research in Malaysia”. In Microcomputers in Physics Instruction +I-& Research, edited by Vivien M. Talisayon and Christopher Bernido (Quezon City, Philippines: Asian Physics Education Network, 1987).

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CHAPTER X I PROPOSED AREAS OF REGIONAL CO-OPERATION

The computer, a product of science, is a pervasive technology in a world entering the information age. The rapid decline of the cost of a computer from the sixties to the present has made it available from developed t o developing countries, from tertiary t o secondary and primary levels, from the business world to the home environment.

The educational system is the acknowledged long-term human resource development base for literacy and specialized manpower development. Preparation for t h e coming "information century" is two-pronged: for computer literacy and appreciation (general education) and for training of computer scientists and engineers (specialist training). Computer literacy may well proceed from the primary level, even pre-primary stage up to tertiary level and beyond. Preparation for computer specialists has been done starting at the secondary level the world over.

Advantages of the microcomputer for instruction have been reviewed in Chapter 1 1 , such a s the capability of the computer for immediate interactive learning for o n e or more students, animation and simulation of abstract concepts and phenomena, tedious calculations that may distract from learning of concepts, and infinite patience in dealing with slow learners. Some educators have shown that using microcomputers can enrich the content and processes taught by demonstrating events, processes, calculations heretofore difficult o r impossible to d o in a classroom without the aid of a computer.

Review of experiences of ASEAN countries have shown that they are at different stages of utilizing t h e microcomputer in science and mathematics education for various reasons, such a s resource constraints, other educational priorities, reservations about effectiveness of computers a s teaching tools on the part of teachers and education officials, lack of appropriate software, untrained teachers, and rapidly changing computer hardware.

In most countries of the region, computer education has been introduced mainly at the secondary level as a separate discipline, either a s an extra-curricular activity o r as an elective, rather than being integrated into the school curriculum and illustrating the applications of computers to school subjects. T h e relevance of computers to the subjects learned by students has not been adequately shown to them. T h e capability of the computer in the physics, chemistry o r

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biology laboratory is not demonstrated in most schools in the region. Since the computer has become and increasingly will be everyday technology, mathematical and scientific principles behind its operation have not been illustrated or discussed in science and mathematics classes a t the secondary or primary level, a s part of computer literacy and appreciation or preparation for computer special isation.

Given two premises --- the effectiveness of computer a s a learning or teaching tool and the need for learning and appreciating the mathematical and scientific principles of a computer --- this chapter proposes some possible areas of cooperation for ASEAN countries. Recommendations are offered on regional-level cooperation rather than on national-level policy or programme, a s the latter is best done by the countries themselves. The region-wide proposals consider the problems of resources, lack of appropriate software, and inadequate training of teachers.

Hardware Development

The single biggest obstacle to computers in the classroom in many schools in the region is the inability of the school to purchase a microcomputer. The relatively low-cost microcomputer is still expensive for many schools in developing countries. Table X I - 1 (taken from Table X-2) lists the ratio of local cost of an IBM- PC-XT compatible computer to the starting salary of a secondary school teacher in ASEAN countries.

Gauging from experiences in Brunei and Singapore, which are in the best financial position to support widespread computer use in schools, if microcomputers cost 1-2 months teacher salary, all secondary schools can afford a few computers. At this ratio, governments of ASEAN countries with school populations much greater than those of Brunei and Singapore may still be unwilling to spend for even one microcomputer per school. In other words, microcomputer cost (for barest or minimum configuration of hardware) must be brought down to about o n e month teacher salary or lower before widespread computer use in ASEAN schools could begin to be feasible. At 1987 prices and wage costs around ASEAN, this i s approximately S$lOO.

The decreasing trend in the cost of the computer, from the mainframe to the minicomputer and then to the microcomputer has greatly increased its use. Further decreasing the cost may enable many schools a t the secondary and primary levels in the region to have microcomputers. Low-cost microcomputers if available t o many schools can be used for various purposes, such as

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Proposed Areas of Regional Co-operation

Table XI-1 Cost of Microcomputer Relative to Teacher Salary

Brunei Ma 1 aysia Singapore Indon-ia Phi 1 ippines Thai land ...................................................................

Local cost of IB M 1900 1140 2400 1200 1700 1850 PC XT-compatible micro in 1987, S8

Starting salary of secmdary school 1400 76 872 150 loo0 240 teacher, S$/manth

Cost of micro in m t h s of teacher 1.4 15 2.8 8 1.7 7.7 sa 1 ary

learning with and about computers, classroom and school management.

Suprapto' estimates that a computer costing about S8200 (one-fifth of current local microcomputer cost) is affordable by Indonesian schools. Lagman ( 1986 1 estimates US850 or SBlOO a 5 the affordable price for Philippine schools. A t current technology and prices, this price range is closest and somewhat below that of microcomputers with the hardware configuration of Zinclair ZX81 from U.K. and Commodore VIC 20 from U.S.A.

Costs can be reduced by local manufacture of t h e computer and having an assured large market (Lagman 1986; SEDP 1985). Doing such a venture a t the regional level will further dramatically increase the market and pool regional computer manufacturing expertise. For countries like Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, and Malaysia which have to cope with thousands of students and hundreds of schools at the primary and secondary levels, the regional production of a cheap microcomputer may be a solution. Singapore and Brunei can also benefit by enabling them to aim for higher computer-to-student ratios and to bring microcomputers down to the primary level.

Besides, Singapore's computer industry can play a lead role in such a regional venture. Singapore, and to some extent Malaysia and the Philippines, have demonstrated capabilities for local design, assembly and/or manufacture of microcomputers. Local manufacture at high volumes will undoubtedly stimulate local computer industries (Lagman 1986; SEDP 1985).

Costs can be further reduced if the computer i s o f d

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simple make, similar to early types of microcomputers. Perhaps, a formal Agreement among ASEAN Ministers of

Education towards formulating proposals and mechanisms for an ASEAN cooperative project on computers in education can be reached, starting with regional manufacture of a common microcomputer hardware under the ASEAN Industrial Joint Venture (AIJV) scheme.

Such an Agreement would require three elements: 1. a mechanism to enable ASEAN Ministers of

Education, after joint study and consultation, to identify minimum hardware specifications and capabilities that would answer their respective curricular requirements for the next several years;

2. a commitment from ASEAN governments to buy a specified number of microcomputer units over a specified period of time; and

3. a mechanism, perhaps by regionwide competitive bidding or tenders, of identifying the cooperating firms from within the region which can produce the microcomputers and spare parts at 1 owes t cost .

I f the new rules proposed to govern AIJVs would be agreed upon, ASEAN firms that qualify under the scheme can export their products to ASEAN countries under a full or liberal tariff reduction arrangement.

An inexpensive and flexible basic hardware configuration, and a set of minimum specifirations, must first be agreed upon by ASEAN Ministries of Education. This task is not easy for a number of reasons.

1. Anticipation of new developments, and future technical improvements and costs is educated guesswork.

2. Despite the rapid rate of obsolescence in the computer hardware industry, the ASEAN Ministries of Education must commit themselves to buy the hardware over an agreed period of years to make its unit cost of production low and yet make it profitable for the joint venture participants.

3. ASEAN school systems have different curricular philosophies and objectives. A common hardware must be specified that will fulfill the least common denominator among these curricular requirements. Fortunately this least common denominator is easier to find in the case of hardware, coinpared to software which is highly cul ture-bound.

In 1975, Norway experimented with microcomputer use in selected secondary schools. The experiment included design and special manufacture of a microcomputer because

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none were commercially available then. De5ign criteria adapted were: low cost, simplicity, transportability, n o special environmental requirements, and sufficient capacity to serve a class of 20-30 students. A mark sense card reader was also incorporated a s an input device. Not all students knew typing. The card enabled students t o work on a problem at the same time (Huslende and Wibe 1977).

Similar criteria could be adopted. Other requirements to suit ASEAN conditions could be:

1. Commonly available appliances can be optionally employed a s peripheral devices, such a s audio tape recorder for storage and ordinary monochrome television for monitor, to reduce cost of the basic hardware.

2. DC option can allow use in remote areas without electricity.

3. A self-assembled kit option (for which companion lessons on microelectronics can be developed later) can further reduce manufacturing costs and also allow students at the secondary or vocational levels to learn computer hardware while assembling the microcomputer. The first commercially available microcomputers in 1974 were in kit form for use by undergraduates and hobbyists (Yaohan 1977).

4. Operating system ROM (and BASIC ROM if education ministries will decide to adopt BASIC a s a common programming language) and keyboard template could be made interchangeable to suit different ASEAN languages, e.g. Thai, Bahasa, etc. Hardware design must facilitate repair, study of various parts, and expansion/modification to suit a wide range of classroom and laboratory uses.

A possible additional benefit in case such an Agreement is forged and the microcomputer system is built within the region, is that the units are easily exportable to millions of users in other Third World schools. This can help bring down unit production costs even further.

Rapid rate of obsolescence and changes in costs may make it unwise to produce a regional microcomputer following a fixed specification over a period longer than about five years. The proposed CISEAN Agreement could therefore include a provision that hardware specification be revised after an agreed period of time. This period must be long enough to ensure economic viability for joint venture participants, but not too long a s to commit

5.

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ASEAN schools to use much outdated equipment near the end of the Agreement period.

A similar regional project on a smaller scale can be undertaken for low-cost equipment or kits for microelectronic experiments and exercises to introduce students to the mathematics and physics concepts and principles of the microcomputer for computer literacy. These experiments and exercises can be designed to suit students at the primary and secondary levels. An example of microelectronics experiments for nationwide use are those under the Microelectronics Programme of the United Kingdom.

Software Develoament

Lack of appropriate software is commonly cited a s a hindrance in using computers to teach science and mathematics at the primary and secondary levels in schools equipped with microcomputers. In addition, cost of imported science and mathematics software is prohibitive to some schools. Popular computer models like IBM-PC compatibles have relatively less educational software than the earlier models, APPLE I 1 and EEC microcomputers.

Computer software firms generally tend to cater more to needs of the business sector because of greater market for higher-priced softwares. However, if a large educational market is assured, with the proposed regional hardware development venture, software development by private firms is likely to follow suit. It is important for software companies to involve teacher-trainors, teachers and students in the development process to tailor the software to the ability level, interest, needs, and knowledge background of students, and to provide materials to motivate teachers to use the software in the classroom.

Most ASEAN countries have educational institutions that develop curriculum materials in science and mathematics like the IPST of Thailand, UPISMED of the Philippines, CDC of Malaysia, CDIS of Singapore, and the PKG project team of Indonesia. IPST, UPISMED and CDIS have developed some software in mathematics and science. The curriculum development centres, if they so decide, can continue or embark on software development in science and mathematics, independently or in collaboration with private software companies.

From the viewpoint of educational psychology, software development is culture-bound and therefore better done at the national level. Intra-WEAN differences in educational systems and philosophy, curriculum requirements, and medium of instruction will

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make local software development advisable. For instance, Table X I - 2 shows differences in length of primary and secondary schooling among ASEAN countries. Scope and emphases of school curricula also widely differ among the countries.

However, regional projects can be undertaken to develop and put together exemplar computer programs from ASEAN countries in science and mathematics for the primary and secondary levels to serve as models for local institutions, companies, and teachers developing science and mathematics software.

I f a common hardware and programming language would be agreed upon, certain software components or subroutines which are relatively independent of cultural o r linguistic differences, can be very easily shared among ASEAN schools. Examples are subroutines used for microcomputer data acquisition and control in physics laboratory experiments, some statistical subroutines, and drill-and-practice programs in arithmetic. A common hardware and programming language could also facilitate establishment and operation of intra-ASEAN school networks, should ASEAN leaders so decide in the future.

Table XI-2. National Education Systems of FISEAN Countries

Source: M S C O 1986 Statistical Yearkook, 1986. P - Primary; S - Secondary; y - years S1 - Lower Secondary; S2 - Upper Secondary

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Reqional Teacher-Traininq Proarammes

An Agreement to employ common hardware will greatly facilitate subsequent exchange of expertise, technical experience and softwares. This has implications for cooperation in teacher-training programmes.

A regional teacher-training institution exists, the Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organisation Regional Centre for Education in Science and Mathematics (SEAMEO-RECSAM), Penang, Malaysia. Training of primary and secondary science and mathematics teachers in ASEFIN countries at the regional level has been done at RECSAM for more than a decade. Courses are on various aspects and issues of science and mathematics education. Several courses have a three-month duration.

The Centre held regional seminars on computers in education in 1985 and 1986. The Centre could include three-month courses on computers in science and mathematics teaching, such as:

Computers in primary school mathematics Computers in secondary school mathematics Computers in primary school science Computers in secondary school science Computers in biology teaching (secondary level) Computers in chemistry teaching (secondary level) Computers in physics teaching (secondary level)

The Centre has microcomputer facilities for such training courses. The Centre can tap various experts in the ASEAN countries to conduct the teacher-training programmes.

Another SECIMEO institution that can train teachers and school administrators for computers in education, including science and mathematics, is the Regional Centre for Educational Innovation and Technology (INNOTECH), based in the Philippines. The Centre could conduct training courses on computers in education for the different uses: for school management, classroom management, learning about and with computers.

Co-operative Research Projects

RECSAM is conducting a survey on computers in education involving the ASEAN countries (RECSAM News 1986). Continuing or periodical surveys are needed for state-of-the-art assessment and baseline data far decision-making.

Other research and development projects can be undertaken by regional bodies like RECSAM and INNOTECH on computers in education. Examples are experimental studies on optimum extent of use of computers as teaching aids; effectiveness of different modalities of computer use in the classroom, a s sole teaching aids or in

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combination with other teaching aids and approaches; and effects of computer-to-student ratio on achievement, social interaction, verbal expression, and attitudes in the Asian context.

Regional bodies, in co-operation with national institutions, can spearhead research and development on innovative courseware or other kinds of software for u5e in school and class management, a s well a s in teaching the different subjects, including science and mathematics. Research and development should also extend to teacher-training programmes, exploring different models or types of teacher training, using the computers t o train teachers, and training the teachers themselves to d o simple researcli projects on computers in education.

Note

'Interview with Suprapto, B. , Director of Secondary General Education, Indonesia. 15 May 1987.

References

Huslende, Ragnar and Jan Wibe. "Developing Electronic Data Processing Equipment for Use in Secondary Schools." Proc. International Conference o n Computer Applica- -- tions in Developinq Countries, Bangkok, 22-25 August 1977. pp. 1197-1208.

Lagman, August0 C. "Microcomputers in Secondary Educa- tion: A Formula for Developing Countries." Proceed- inqs of Reqional Conference on Microcomputers in Secondary Education '86, Tokyo, Japan, 18-22 August 1986.

"SEAMEO-RECSAM Computers in Education Project". RECSAM News, October-December 1986, pp. 3-4.


Unesco 1986 Statistical Yearbook. Belgium: Unesco, 1986. Yaohan Chu. "Microprocessors and Computer Education."

Proc. International Conference on Computer Applications in Developinq Countries, Bangkok, 22-25 August 1977. pp. 1171-1182.

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CHAPTER X I 1 SUMMfiRY AND CONCLUSIONS

The study sought t o describe and compare policies and programmes on computers in science and mathematics education at the primary, secondary and teacher education levels in the six ASEAN countries. The policies were discussed unavoidably in the context of computers in education and in the broader context of the country's computer environment. Discussion was limited to the computer uses in education of learning with and about computers. Comparisons were made not only among ASEAN countries but also in relation to other countries.

A review of 169 studies conducted since the sixties indicates the effectiveness of computers a s learning and teaching tools (NTFET 1986). Other reviews reveal the effectiveness is in terms of gains in student achievement (Kulik et al. 1983; Niemiec and Walberg 19871, reduced instruction time (Kulik e t 6 1983; Parry et 6 1985-19861, and increased positive attitude of students and teachers towards computers (Parry e t al. 1985-1986; Kulik et 1983). Contrary to common belief of computers lessening teacher-student and peer interaction, studies where more than one student work with a computer, show heightened social interaction, manifested in mutual consultation, peer tutoring, and helping behaviour (Shade et al. 1986; Lieberman 1985). In Hasselbring's (1986) review of studies, teacher- mediated computer-assisted instruction is more effective than that without teacher intervention.

The ASEhN Situation

T h e fundamental questions asked in the study are: Are there policies and programmes in the ASEAN countries at the primary, secondary and teacher education levels supporting the use of computers as teaching aids in science and mathematics? Do these policies and programmes include the teaching of the scientific and mathematical principles of the computer? I f so, how are computers used a s tools o r objects of teaching science and mathematics? If not, why not?

Among ASEAN countries, using computers tu teach science and mathematics i s minimal. Teaching the scientific and mathematical principles of a computer is practically nil. Only the Philippines has a formal policy supporting projects on computers a s viable teaching tools in the curriculum. The prevalent use of computers in ~ c h o o l s , discounting use for classroom and school management, i s learning about computers, through computer

160

Summary and Conclusions

clubs as an extra-curricular activity, mostly at the secondary level, and elective computer courses at the pre-tertiary or secondary level.

In Singapore, Brunei and Malaysia, computer clubs are quite common, especially at the secondary level. ASEAN countries offer elective computer courses at pre- university (Singapore), upper secondary (Thailand and Indonesia) or secondary level (Philippines). Learning about computers in computer clubs is geared towards computer literacy and appreciation, while elective computer courses serve as preparation for computer specialisation. Courses in computer clubs generally deal with familiarisation with computer keyboard operations, general parts of the computer and functions, computers in society, use of common commercial software, and in some cases, simple programming. Elective computer studies emphasise the development of programming skills. Both courses hardly deal with hardware basic principles either for literacy or for specialisation.

Computer clubs are generally for interested students, and in some cases, for students who can afford membership fees. The limited membership raises the issue of equity of student access to computers, an issue well- recognized in Malaysia. The issue is more significant in countries where usually the better schools or schools with we1 1-funded Parents-Teachers Associations have computers or computer clubs.

Furthermore, the course content in computer clubs is such that computing appears to be an area of study separate from or independent of subjects learned in school. Moreover, the course content is similar to that in private computer schools, orientation courses offered by companies, or commercial tutorial handbooks. SUC h similarity makes the school simply another venue for the usual computer education for the general public.

Computer literacy for student5 can utilise the school environment to the full and need not be an isolated area of study. The relevance of computing to the school curriculum can be brought to the fore if computers are used in teaching the various subjects. In addition, for a school with computers, using them as teaching aids exposes all students in a class, not only the interested ones, to computers. In an information era, computer literacy is desirable for the entire c i t i z en r y .

Introducing computer literacy via computer clubs or electlve computer courses is easier to implement in terms of teacher acceptance than computer literacy course as a required subject or computers as teaching aids. Many ASEAN teachers are still not trained, technically and attitudinally, for computers in the classroom. Some


administrators express fears of misuse, abuse, or overuse of computers in the classroom in the hands of untrained teachers. For untrained teachers, replacement by computers can pose a threat. As in many innovations, the prospect of undergoing training, learning new skills, and the long training period is faced with reluctance by teachers, especially those not open to or convinced of the benefits of computers in education. But sometimes, appreciation comes only after the training, after being exposed to computers.

The nature of use of computers in schools seems to depend on the number of microcomputers available. The trend of use in ASEAN appears to bs for school management for one to two computers, and for computer clubs and classroom management for more than two computers. It seems that some schools wait. to have more than ten or twenty computers before contemplating their use as teaching aids. Yet microcomputers have been used, one per class for classroom demonstrations and on rotation basis for pairs of students. Microcomputers can also be used as mobile teaching aids that can be brought into the classroom when needed.

Small-scale government programmes on computers as teaching aids are exemplified by the pilot projects on computer-assisted instruction of CDIS of Singapore, the software development in physics and mathematics of IPST of Thailand, and the teacher-training courses on computers in science and mathematics of UPISMED of the Philippines. Government initiatives on microcomputers in schools started in the eighties with the phenomenal growth of microcomputer use in all sectors of society.

In ASEAN, only Singapore, through the Ministry of Education, was able to provide funding for computer purchase in secondary schools as early as 1981. By 1983, all secondary schools in Singapore have computers. Brunei is the only other ASEAN country wliere all its upper secondary schools have computers, provided by a semi-private company. The governments in the other ASEAN countries are unable to provide computer funding for all schools (in the case of Malaysia) or even a few schools because of other educational priorities and government concerns,and inadequate funds for the thousands of schools in the system.

The ASEAN experience shows that government funding and substantive private support can make computer use extensive in the school system. In countries where the government has not been able to provide funds, the private sector, in particular, the Parents-Teachers Assoc ia tions , has initiated computer purchase. Assistance of private firms other than computer companies has been considerable in the case of Brunei and Malaysia.

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However, limited private support has benefited only a few schools. Extensive private support, public funding, o r a combination thereof i s needed for computers to be a reality in every school in ASEAN.

ASEAN countries a s a whole lag behind developed countries in computers in the school system. In the United States, United Kingdom, France, Soviet Union, Australia, and Japan, microcomputer u s e in the schools dramatically increased in the eighties. Computers as teaching aids have been an ongoing concern in the United States since the sixties. United Kingdom has a Microelectronics Programme for primary and secondary schools, the Micros-in-Schools and Sof tware-iii-Schools Programmes, all funded by the government. Public funding for computers in schools is substantial in France, Soviet Union, Japan, and Australia.

Towards ASEAN Cooperation

Despite the rapid decline of computer cost since the sixties, the cost of a microcomputer is still high for many ASEAN schools. Reducing the computer cost by a factor of ten to twenty may make computer use widespread in the ASEAN school systems. Buying a computer in Indonesia, Philippines and Thailand roughly corresponds to foregoing the services of a secondary school teacher for at least eight months. Computer purchase begins to be feasible if computer cost i s less than two months of a teacher salary, judging from the situation in Singapore and Brunei.

A possible scheme to drastically reduce computer costs i s to design the cheapest computer model for primary and secondary schools for teaching the rudiments of computing and show its applications i n the various subjects, and to market the model in the ASEAN region. Perhaps this is an area of regional cooperation that can be looked into by the Ministers of Education in t h e region, with the cooperation of Ministers of Trade and Industry and the private computer companies, under t h e ASEAN Industrial Joint Venture. Computers manufactured and marketed in this joint venture can be used for various purposes in the schools.

Software development being culture-dependent i s best done at the national level o r even a t the teacher level, given the differences in medium of instruction, school curricula, and educational systems of the ASEAN countries. However, regional seminars can be conducted t o exchange experiences and expertise on programming techniques and procedures.

Teacher training at the regional level can make u s e of existing regional training centres of the Southeast

163


Asian Ministers of Education Organisation, namely, the Regional Centre for Education in Science and Mathematics in Penang, Malaysia and the Regional Centre for Educational Innovation and Technology in Quezon City, Philippines. Outputs of such courses can be software developed by participants suited to the interests and abilities of their students in their respective countries.

Finally, co-operative research projects can be jointly undertaken by national institutions, o r by regional bodies in cooperation with national institutions on software development, on problems and issues relating to computers in the teaching-learning situation and in teacher education.

ASEAN educational planners need to seriously consider and plan for the coming information century. The school system can provide the long-term manpower development for computer literacy and specialisation. A s Brown (1986) says, "we will be cheating our children if we only give them the skills to handle yesterday's society".

A 1971 United Nations Report on the Application of Computer Technology for Development (Bogod 1979) states that "education and training for the application of computers to accelerate the process of economic development must receive first priority". Unnecessary delays may further widen the economic gap between ASEAN and the developed world.

References

Bogod, Julian. The Role of Comoutinq in Developinq Coun- tries, The British Computer Society Lecture Series No. 2. London: British Computer Society, 1979.

Brown, Doug. "History of Educational Computing 1965- 1995". MUSE Report No. 2, August 1986.

Hasselbring, Ted S. "Research on the Effectiveness of Computer-Based Instruction: A Review", Inter. Rev. Educ. 32(3):313-324 (1986).

Kulik, J., R. Bangert and G. Williams. "Effects of Computer-Based Teaching on Secondary Sc hoo 1 Students", J. Educ. Psvcholoqy =( 1 ) : 19-26 (1983).

The National Task Force on Educational Technology (NTFET). "Transforming American Education: Reducing the Risk to the Nation", a Report to the Secretary of Education, United States Department of Education. T. H. E. Journal, volume 14 number 1 (August 19861, pp. 58-67.

Lieberman, Debra. "Research on Children and Microcomputers: A Review of Utilization and Effects

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Studies", Children and Microcomputers: Research on - the Newest Medium, eds. Milton Chen and William Paisley. London: Sage Publications, 1985.

Niemiec, Richard and Herbert J. Walberg. "Comparative

Synthesis of Reviews", J. Educ. Computinq Research J_(1):19-37 (1987).

Parry, James D., Ron J. Thorkildsen, Thomas M. Biery and Christine A. Mac far lane. I' Com pu t e r - B a sed Instruction (CBI): The Transition from Research Findings to Teaching Strategies", Educ. Res. Quarterly =(1):30-39 (1985-1986).

Shade, Daniel D., Robert E. Nida, Judith M. Lipinski and J. Allen Watson. "Microcomputers and Preschoolers: Working Together in a Classroom Setting", Computers -- in the Schools 3(2):53-61 (Summer 1986).


165

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Algorithm - a series of steps designed to efficiently attain a mathematical or logical outcome.

Artificial Intelligence - the ability of a computer to respond or behave in a way which, if it were the behaviour of a person, would be regarded a s intelligent. See: Expert System.

Au thorinq BAS IC

Bulletin

Chip -

Computer

System - see: Courseware. (or Beginners‘ All-Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) - a computer language with its own rules of syntax but using common words from the English language (its own set of words plus words that may be introduced by the user). A special programme, called the BASIC Inter- preter, converts BASIC statements and instructions (written by a human programmer) into its equivalent set of usually more numerous elementary instructions that can be understood by the computer.

Board System - one-way transmission of electronic messages (such as news, announcements, advertisements, general purpose information, etc.) from a source(s1 to participating receivers/subscribers. See: Electronic Mail. (The Computinq Teacher 1987)

a single and self-contained, usually small physical package that contains an Integrated Circuit; also referred to a s an Integrated Circuit. See: Integrated Circuit.

- a machine that electronically interprets and executes a set of electronically encoded instructions (called a Programme). Through combinations of elementary instructions the computer can be made to (1) accept, manipulate (e.g. arithmetically or logically), store in memory, and send out data, and ( 2 ) alter its internal states. The Programme itself is also stored in the computer’s memory. It is normally not permanent part of the computer’s hardware: it can be erased o r altered at will. Programmes are therefore also called Softwhres. See: Microcomputer.

Courseware - software for use by teachers in constructing

166

Glossary of Terms

CAI software, tests and other teaching tools; also called Authoring System (Hebenstreit 1985).

Electronic Mail - two-way transmission of messages encoded in electronic signals through telecommunication channels. See: Bulletin Board System. (The Computinq Teacher 1987)

Expert System - a program or set of programs designed to approximate the thinking and decision-making processes of a human expert in a specific field of inquiry. See: Artificial Intelligence.

Generations of Computers. The first generation of computers are those which used valves or vacuum tubes. The second generation used individual transistors. The third generation used integrated circuits (ICs), o r many transistors and circuit elements manufactured in one chip. The fourth generation use microprocessor chips and other large-scale integrated circuits (LSIs;) consisting of hundreds of transistors in o n e chip. The fifth generation of computers are those which can display the property of Artifi- cial Intelligence. See: Artificial Intelli- gence, Expert System.

Informatics - the discipline that studies the information phenomenon, the system of information and processing, transfer and utilisation of information, mainly with computers and telecommunications systems a s its tools. (Inter-Governmental Bureau of Informatics, quoted by Oed 1977). See : Information Technology.

Information Technology (IT) - device and/or process for encoding, storing/retrieving, organizing, manipulating, transferring and presenting information. Examples are: computer, telephone, duplicating machine, etc. See: Informatics.

Integrated Circuit (IC) - an electronic circuit contain- ing several to thousands of circuit elements (transistors, resistors and capacitors) manufactured a s a single physical package called a Chip. Integrated circuit can be large-scale (LSI) or very large-scale (VLSI). The circuit elements are made of semiconducting materials, hence ICs and Chips are often loosely refered

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to a s "semiconductors". See: Chip.

Intelligent CCII - a CAI programme which approximates the behaviour of an expert tutor. See: Artificial Intelligence, Expert System.

LOGO - a computer language using commands that can be combined together into "macro" commands, especially on where and how a "turtle" on the screen should move, designed t o be simple and easily understandable even to young children. LOGO puts the user in command over the computer (computer becomes the "tutee"), teaches rudimentary programming and geometric concepts through concrete and manipulable forms, and allows for great flexibility and creativity o n the part of the user.

Microelectronics - the study, design and manufacture of Integrated Circuits, Microprocessors and other small-scale circuits such a s those commonly used in computers.

Microcomputer - a computer using a Microprocessor. Declining cost and increasing performance made microcomputers increasingly affordable to personal and home users; microcomputers became known also a s Personal Computers. See : Microprocessor.

Microprocessor - a large-scale to very large-scale integrated circuit (LSI to VLSI) which can perform the core functions of a computer: retrieving, interpreting and executing elementary instructions including arithmetic/logical operations and data storage/retrieval. See: Microcomputer.

Monitor

Ne twor-k

Optical

- a cathode-ray tube (CRT) similar to a television screen, used to communicate textual, graphic and other forms of information from the computer to the human user. Some microcomputers are designed to use an ordinary television a s monitor.

- a system including computers which are set u p to be able to communicate with each other through telecommunication channels.

Disc - a disk-shaped storage medium wherein digital information is physically encoded and can be read using a laser beam. See :

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Glossary of Terms

Videodisc.

Peripherals - devices attached to a Computer which enables communication between the Computer and a human user, o r between two Computers. Examples of peripheral devices are: Monitor, keyboard, printer, mouse o r digitizer, x-y plotter, joystick, light pen, modem, tone gene- rator, etc.

Personal Computer (PC) - synonymous with Microcomputer. Programme - either a Computer programme o r a curricular

o r school programme, depending on the context of use. See: Computer.

Software - see Computer.

System - any set of interrelated elements within a physical o r conceptual boundary, which together i s designed to achieve a specific objective(s1.

Telecommunication - two-way transmission of messages over long distances via telephone lines/cables, microwave, optical cables and/or satellites. (The Computinq Teacher 1987)

Tertiary Level - college and university levels o f an educational system.

Videodisc - an Optical Disc for storing video information. See: Optical Disc.

References

"Telecommunications Glossary". The Computinq Teacher 14(7): 6 (April 1987)

J Hebenstreit, "Computers in Education -- The Next Step", Education and Computina, 1985, No. 1, pp. 37-43.

Gordon V. Oed. "Curriculum Development for Computer Users: The Role and Responsibility of Tertiary Educational Institutions." Proc. International Conference o n Computer Applications in Developina

1359. Countries, Bangkok, 22-25 August 1977. pp. 1345-

169

The Asia Programme of Educational Innovation for Development (APEID) has as its primary goal to contribute to the building of national capabilities for undertaking educational innovations linked to the problems of national development, thereby improving the quality of the people the Member States.

All projects andactivities within the framework of APEID are designed, developed and implemented co-operatively by the participating Member States through nearby 200 national centres which they have associated for this purpose with APEID.

The29 Member States participating in APEID are Afghanistan, Australia, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Fiji, India, Indonesia, Iran, Japan, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Malaysia, Maldives, Mongolia, Myanmar, Nepal, New Zealand, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Republic of Korea, Samoa, Socialist Republic of Viet Nam, Sri Lanka, Samoa,Thailand, Tonga, Turkey andunion ofSoviet Socialist Republics.

Each country has set up a National Development Group (NDG) to identify and support educational innovations for development within the country and facilitate exchange between countries.

The Asian Centre of Educational Innovation for Development (ACEID), an integral part of the UNESCO Principal Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific in Bangkok, co-ordinates the activities under APEID and assist the Associated Centres (AC) in carrying them out.

In the fourth cycle of APEID (1987- 199 l), seven programme areas have been selected for the purpose of concentration. These are:

1.

2.

3. 4. 5. 6.

7.

Universalization of primary education; Continuing education; Education and the world of work; Reconstructuring secondary education; Educational technology and information technology; Training of personnel including professional support services and distance education; Science and technology education including science for all.