Ppt on Problem Identification and Hypothesis (1)

PRESENTATION ON

IDENTIFICATION OF PROBLEM AND

FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS

SUBMITTED TO :- SUBMITTED BY:- DR. KARMPAL SIR PRAMOD LEGA SONU SAINI RUCHIKA RAJPAL ROHTASH AJIT KUSUM LATA PINKY

Meaning

Research is an endeavour to discover answers to intellectual and practical problems through the application of scientific method.

“Research is a systematized effort to gain new knowledge”. -Redman and Mory.

Research is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing information (data) in order to increase our understanding of the phenomenon about which we are concerned or interested.

Objectives of Research

The purpose of research is to discover answers through the application of

scientific procedures.

The objectives are:

To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it – Exploratory or Formulative Research.To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group – Descriptive Research.To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else – Diagnostic Research.To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables – Hypothesis-Testing Research.

RESEARCH PROCESSRESEARCH PROCESS

Define ResearchProblem

Review Concepts

And theories

Review PreviousResearchfindings

Formulatehypothesis

DesignResearch

(IncludingSampleDesign)

CollectData

(Execution)

AnalyseData(Test

Hypothesisif any)

Interpretand

report

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III IV V VI VII

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Feed Back

Feed Forward

Review the literature

DEFINITION DEFINITION OF THE OF THE

RESEARCH PROBLEMRESEARCH PROBLEM

RESEARCH PROBLEMRESEARCH PROBLEM

What is a research problem?What is a research problem?

The term ‘problem’ means a question or issue to be The term ‘problem’ means a question or issue to be examined.examined.

Research Problem refers to some difficulty /need Research Problem refers to some difficulty /need which a researcher experiences in the context of either which a researcher experiences in the context of either theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same.solution for the same.

HOW DO WE KNOW WE HAVE A HOW DO WE KNOW WE HAVE A RESEARCH PROBLEM?RESEARCH PROBLEM?

Customer complaintsCustomer complaints Conversation with company employeesConversation with company employees Observation of inappropriate behaviour or Observation of inappropriate behaviour or

conditions conditions in the firmin the firm Deviation from the business planDeviation from the business plan Success of the firm’s competitor’sSuccess of the firm’s competitor’s Relevant reading of published material (trends, Relevant reading of published material (trends,

regulations)regulations) Company records and reportsCompany records and reports..

The first step in the research process – The first step in the research process – definition definition of the problemof the problem involves two activities: involves two activities:

Identification / Selection of the ProblemIdentification / Selection of the Problem

Formulation of the ProblemFormulation of the Problem

IDENTIFICATION / SELECTION OF THE IDENTIFICATION / SELECTION OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEMRESEARCH PROBLEM

This step involves identification of a few This step involves identification of a few problems and selection of one out of them, after problems and selection of one out of them, after evaluating the alternatives against certain selection evaluating the alternatives against certain selection criteria.criteria.

SOURCES OF PROBLEMSSOURCES OF PROBLEMS

ReadingReading Academic ExperienceAcademic Experience Daily ExperienceDaily Experience Exposure to Field SituationsExposure to Field Situations ConsultationsConsultations BrainstormingBrainstorming ResearchResearch IntuitionIntuition

CRITERIA OF SELECTIONCRITERIA OF SELECTION

The selection of one appropriate researchable The selection of one appropriate researchable problem out of the identified problems requires problem out of the identified problems requires evaluation of those alternatives against certain evaluation of those alternatives against certain criteria. They are:criteria. They are:

Internal / Personal criteriaInternal / Personal criteria – Researcher’s Interest, – Researcher’s Interest, Researcher’s Competence, Researcher’s own Researcher’s Competence, Researcher’s own Resource: finance and time.Resource: finance and time.

External Criteria or FactorsExternal Criteria or Factors – Researchability of the – Researchability of the problem, Importance and Urgency, Novelty of the problem, Importance and Urgency, Novelty of the Problem, Feasibility, Facilities, Usefulness and Social Problem, Feasibility, Facilities, Usefulness and Social Relevance, Research Personnel. Relevance, Research Personnel.

DEFINITION / FORMULATION OF THE DEFINITION / FORMULATION OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEMRESEARCH PROBLEM

Formulation is the process of refining the research Formulation is the process of refining the research ideas into research questions and objectives.ideas into research questions and objectives.

Formulation means translating and transforming the Formulation means translating and transforming the selected research problem/topic/idea into a selected research problem/topic/idea into a scientifically researchable question. It is concerned scientifically researchable question. It is concerned with specifying exactly what the research problem is.with specifying exactly what the research problem is.

Problem definition or Problem statement is a clear, Problem definition or Problem statement is a clear, precise and succinct statement of the question or issue precise and succinct statement of the question or issue that is to be investigated with the goal of finding an that is to be investigated with the goal of finding an answer or solution.answer or solution.

There are two ways of stating a problem:There are two ways of stating a problem:

1)1) Posting question / questionsPosting question / questions

2)2) Making declarative statement / statementsMaking declarative statement / statements

PROCESS INVOLVED IN DEFINING THE PROCESS INVOLVED IN DEFINING THE PROBLEMPROBLEM

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM IN A STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM IN A GENERAL WAY.GENERAL WAY.

UNDERSTANDING THE NATURE Of UNDERSTANDING THE NATURE Of PROBLEMPROBLEM

SURVEYING THE AVAILABLE SURVEYING THE AVAILABLE LITERATURELITERATURE

DEVELOPING IDEAS THROUGH DEVELOPING IDEAS THROUGH DISCUSSIONSDISCUSSIONS

REPHRASING THE RESEARCH PROBLEMREPHRASING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

CRITERIA OF A GOOD RESEARCH PROBLEMCRITERIA OF A GOOD RESEARCH PROBLEM

Clear and UnambiguousClear and Unambiguous EmpiricalEmpirical VerifiableVerifiable InterestingInteresting Novel and OriginalNovel and Original Availability of GuidanceAvailability of Guidance

Statement of Research Objectives

Defining Problem, Results inClear Cut Research Objectives..

Analysis of the Situation

Symptom Detection

Problem Definition

FORMULATION FORMULATION OF OF

HYPOTHESISHYPOTHESIS

HYPOTHESISHYPOTHESIS

A hypothesis is an assumption about A hypothesis is an assumption about relations relations between between variables.variables.

Hypothesis can be defined as a logically conjectured Hypothesis can be defined as a logically conjectured relationshiprelationship between two or more between two or more variables variables expressed expressed in the form of a testable statement.in the form of a testable statement.

Relationships are conjectured on the basis of Relationships are conjectured on the basis of the network of associations established in the the network of associations established in the theoretical frameworktheoretical framework formulated for the research formulated for the research study.study.

VARIABLESVARIABLES

Anything that can vary can be considered as a variable.Anything that can vary can be considered as a variable.

A variable is anything that can take on differing or A variable is anything that can take on differing or varying values.varying values.

For example; Age, Production units, Absenteeism, For example; Age, Production units, Absenteeism, Sex, Motivation, Income, Height, Weight etc.Sex, Motivation, Income, Height, Weight etc.

Note:Note: The values can differ at various times for the The values can differ at various times for the same object or person (or) at the same time for different same object or person (or) at the same time for different objects or persons.objects or persons.

Variable / AttributeVariable / Attribute

A variable is a characteristic that takes on two or more A variable is a characteristic that takes on two or more values whereas, an attribute is a specific value on a values whereas, an attribute is a specific value on a variable (qualitative).variable (qualitative).

For example; For example; The variable SEX/GENDER has 2 attributes - Male The variable SEX/GENDER has 2 attributes - Male

and Female.and Female. The variable AGREEMENT has 5 attributes – The variable AGREEMENT has 5 attributes –

Strongly Agree, Agree, Neutral, Disagree, Strongly Strongly Agree, Agree, Neutral, Disagree, Strongly Disagree.Disagree.

Types of VariablesTypes of Variables

Explanatory vs Extraneous VariableExplanatory vs Extraneous VariableThe variables selected for analysis are called explanatory The variables selected for analysis are called explanatory

variables and all other variables that are not related to the purpose variables and all other variables that are not related to the purpose of the study but may affect the dependant variable are extraneous.of the study but may affect the dependant variable are extraneous.

Dependant vs Independent VariableDependant vs Independent VariableThe variable that changes in relationship to changes in The variable that changes in relationship to changes in

another variable(s) is called another variable(s) is called dependant variabledependant variable..The variable whose change results in the change in another The variable whose change results in the change in another

variable is called an variable is called an independent variableindependent variable.. OROR

An independent variable is the one that influences the An independent variable is the one that influences the dependant variable in either a positive or negative way.dependant variable in either a positive or negative way.

HYPOTHESISHYPOTHESIS

Research Hypothesis is a predictive statement that Research Hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an relates an independent variableindependent variable to a to a dependant dependant variable.variable.

Hypothesis must contain atleast one Hypothesis must contain atleast one independent variable and one dependant variable.independent variable and one dependant variable.

HYPOTHESISHYPOTHESIS

Hypothesis are tentative, intelligent guesses as to the Hypothesis are tentative, intelligent guesses as to the solution of the problem. solution of the problem.

Hypothesis is a specific statement of prediction. It Hypothesis is a specific statement of prediction. It describes in concrete terms what you expect to happen describes in concrete terms what you expect to happen in the study.in the study.

Hypothesis is an assumption about the population of Hypothesis is an assumption about the population of the study.the study.

It delimits the area of research and keeps the It delimits the area of research and keeps the researcher on the right track.researcher on the right track.

PROBLEM (VS) HYPOTHESISPROBLEM (VS) HYPOTHESIS

Hypothesis is an assumption, that can be tested and Hypothesis is an assumption, that can be tested and can be proved to be right or wrong.can be proved to be right or wrong.

A problem is a broad question which cannot be A problem is a broad question which cannot be directly tested. A problem can be scientifically directly tested. A problem can be scientifically investigated after converting it into a form of investigated after converting it into a form of hypothesis. hypothesis.

CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESISCHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESIS

Conceptual ClarityConceptual Clarity - It should be clear and precise. - It should be clear and precise.

SpecificitySpecificity - It should be specific and limited in scope. - It should be specific and limited in scope.

ConsistencyConsistency - It should be consistent with the - It should be consistent with the objectives of research.objectives of research.

TestabilityTestability - It should be capable of being tested. - It should be capable of being tested.

ExpectancyExpectancy - It should state the expected relationships - It should state the expected relationships between variables.between variables.

CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESISCHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESIS

SimplicitySimplicity - It should be stated as far as possible in - It should be stated as far as possible in simple terms.simple terms.

ObjectivityObjectivity - It should not include value judgments, - It should not include value judgments, relative terms or any moral preaching.relative terms or any moral preaching.

Theoretical RelevanceTheoretical Relevance - It should be consistent with a - It should be consistent with a substantial body of established or known facts or existing substantial body of established or known facts or existing theory.theory.

Availability of TechniquesAvailability of Techniques – Statistical methods should – Statistical methods should be available for testing the proposed hypothesis.be available for testing the proposed hypothesis.

Discussions with colleagues and experts about the Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and objectives in seeking a problem, its origin and objectives in seeking a solution.solution.

Examination of data and records for possible trends, Examination of data and records for possible trends, peculiarities.peculiarities.

Review of similar studies.Review of similar studies.

Exploratory personal investigation / Observation.Exploratory personal investigation / Observation.

Logical deduction from the existing theory.Logical deduction from the existing theory.

Continuity of research.Continuity of research.

Intuition and personal experience.Intuition and personal experience.

SOURCES OF HYPOTHESISSOURCES OF HYPOTHESIS

Descriptive HypothesisThese are assumptions that describe the

characteristics (such as size, form or distribution) of a variable. The variable may be an object, person, organisation, situation or event.

Examples: “Public enterprises are more amenable for centralized

planning”.

TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS

Relational Hypothesis [Explanatory Hypothesis]

These are assumptions that describe the relationship between two variables. The relationship suggested may be positive, negative or causal relationship.

Examples: “Families with higher incomes spend more for recreation”.

Causal Hypothesis state that the existence of or change in one variable causes or leads to an effect on another variable. The first variable is called the independent variable and the latter is the dependant variable.

Null Hypothesis

Null hypothesis is the hypothesis which means there is ‘no difference’, ‘no relationship’ hypothesis. ie., It states that, no difference exists between the parameter and statistic being compared to or no relationship exists between the variables being compared.

It is usually represented as H0 .

Example: H0: There is a no-relationship between family’s

income and expenditure on recreation.

Alternate Hypothesis It is the hypothesis that describes the researcher’s

prediction that, there exist a relationship between two variables or it is the opposite of null hypothesis. It is represented as H1.

Example:

H1: There is a definite relationship between family’s

income and expenditure on recreation.

FORMS OFFORMS OF RELATIONSHIPSRELATIONSHIPS

NON-DIRECTIONALNON-DIRECTIONAL

• There IS a relationship There IS a relationship betweenbetween

• X & YX & Y

• X….linked….YX….linked….Y

Vs DIRECTIONALVs DIRECTIONAL

• If X goes up, Y ….If X goes up, Y ….• oror• As X increases, Y…As X increases, Y…• X = IndependentX = Independent• variablevariable• Y = Dependent variableY = Dependent variable

DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESES-DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESES- “X” causes “Y” to change “X” causes “Y” to change

• If X changes If X changes • (increases(increases• decreases)decreases)• thenthen• Y will ______Y will ______• (increase or(increase or• decrease)decrease)• a causal linka causal link

DIRECTION OF RELATIONSHIPDIRECTION OF RELATIONSHIP

• If X increases, Y increasesIf X increases, Y increases

• A A POSITIVEPOSITIVE relationship relationship

• If X increase, Y decreasesIf X increase, Y decreases

• A A NEGATIVE NEGATIVE or or INVERSE INVERSE relationshiprelationship

• As X changes, Y does NOT change...>As X changes, Y does NOT change...>

• No Change...>No Change...>NO RELATIONSHIPNO RELATIONSHIP

Positive correlationPositive correlation

• When the values of When the values of • TWO variablesTWO variables• ““go together”go together”• oror• values on X & Yvalues on X & Y• change in SAMEchange in SAME• DIRECTIONDIRECTION 0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Hrwork

Earnings

CORRELATIONAL RELATIONSHIPCORRELATIONAL RELATIONSHIP

Negative CorrelationNegative Correlation

• When the values of When the values of two variablestwo variables

• CO-VARY CO-VARY • in Opposite directionin Opposite direction

• (as one goes up,(as one goes up,• the other goes down)the other goes down)

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Hrswork

Earnings

FUNCTIONS OR ROLE OF HYPOTHESISFUNCTIONS OR ROLE OF HYPOTHESIS

It gives a definite point to the investigation and provides direction to the study.

It determines the data needs. It specifies the sources of data. It suggests which type of research is likely to be more

appropriate. It determines the most appropriate technique of

analysis. It contributes to the development of theory.

Chi square testChi square test

• Chi square test is a very important test amongst the several test of significance, development by stasticians.

• It is a statistical measures used in context of sampling analysis for testing the significance of a population variance.

• As a non parametric test,it can be used as a test of indpendence attributes.

Types of chi square testTypes of chi square test

• Chi square test as a test for population variance.

• Chi square test as a non parametric test.

Chi square test as a test for Chi square test as a test for population variancepopulation variance

• Chi sqqare test used to test the significance of population variance that is we can use this test to judge if a random sample has been drown from a normal population with mean and with a spcified varance.

Procdure to set up the hypothsisProcdure to set up the hypothsis

1. Set up the null hypothesis: H0 :

2. We copmute by using any one of the following formula _

chi –square= £(X- X)

3. To calculate degree of freedom

v=n-1

4. To check the table value and critical value

Example Example • Random sample of 10 is drawn randomly

from a certain population. the sum of the squared deviation from the mean of the given sample is 50. Test the hypothesis variance of the population is 5.

• Sol. n=10,

• Chi-square = 50/5 = 10• Degree of freedom = 10-1=9• Critical value = 16.92

• Since the calculated value of chi-square is less than the critical value.

• It means we accept the null hypothesis and conclude that the variance of population is 5.

Chi-Square test as a non-Chi-Square test as a non-parametric testparametric test

• As a test of goodness of fit

• As a test of independence attributes.

exampleexample• A dice is thrown 180 times with the following

results.

No. of turn up : 1 2 3 4 5 6 Total

Frequency : 25 35 40 22 32 26 180

Test the hypothesis that die is unbiased

1.We set up the null hypothesis that die is unbiased

2.We calculate the expected frequency = 180/6=30

Applying the Chi-square testApplying the Chi-square test

O E

O – E (O-E)2

(O-E)2/E

25 30

-5

25 0.833

35 30 5 25 0.833

40 30 10 100 3.33

22 30 -8 64 2.133

32 30 2 4 0.133

26 30 -4 16 0.533=7.798

• Degree of freedom – 6-1 = 5

• Critical value is 11.07

• We Calculated value is less than the critical value it mean we accept the null hypothesis and conclude that die is unbiased.

Chi-Square test as an Chi-Square test as an independent attributesindependent attributes

• Exp. A survey among the women was conducted to study the family life. The observation are as follows

Happy Not Happy Total

Educated 70 30 100

Not Educated 60 40 100

Total 130 140 200

• E11 = 100*130/200 = 65

65 35 100

65 35 100

130 70 200

0 E (O-E)2 (O-E)2/E

70 65 25 0.385

60 65 25 0.385

30 35 25 0.714

40 35 25 0.714

=2.198

• Degree of freedom (2-1)(2-1)=1

• The critical value is 3.84.

• The calculated value is less than the critical value so can accept the null hypothesis and conclude that No association between family and life and education

• Alternative formula for finding the value of Chi-square in (2*2)

a B A+b

c D C+d

A+c B+d N

Chi-Square=N*{ad-bc2}/ (a+c)(b+d)(a+b)(c+d)Where n=a+b+c+d

Formula of t-testFormula of t-test

nSX

t

X = Meanµ= population mean

S= Sample Deviation N= Sample Size

SummarySummary

• In this topic restricted to setting up a confidence interval around the sample mean to estimate the population mean, to chi-square tests to test for significance in the analysis of frequency distributions, and to Z-test to test hypotheses about sample proportion when the sample sizes are large,and t-test when sample no is less than 30.. As our discussion of the population proportion suggests, there are other hypothesis tests concerning population parameters estimated from sample statistics.

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