PPL 3 Engine Ops and Flight Instruments

FLYBEST FLIGHT ACADEMYPASSION DRIVES OUR PROFESSION

MODULE 1 / LESSON 3

FLYBEST FLIGHT ACADEMY

PRIVATE PILOT GROUND

Friday, April 21, 2023

Time: 20:12

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Private PilotPrivate Pilot

Jeppesen images in this training program have been reproduced with permission and are copyrighted by

Jeppesen Sanderson, Inc.

Engine and Flight Systems

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Lesson Content

• Engine Systems

• Fuel Systems

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The PowerplantThe Powerplant

• Engine (C-172)– Textron Lycoming– Model # I0-360-M1A– 180 BHP

• Propeller– McCauley Propeller– Diameter 76 inch

• Engine (C-172)– Textron Lycoming– Model # I0-360-M1A– 180 BHP

• Propeller– McCauley Propeller– Diameter 76 inch

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AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS 1AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS 1

ENGINES

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Engines

• Principles of Operation– The Four Stroke Operating Cycle– Abnormal Combustion

• Engine Systems– Engine Controls– Ignition System– Induction System– Fuel Injection and Turbo charging– Oil System– Cooling System

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PRINCIPLES OF PRINCIPLES OF OPERATIONOPERATION

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1. Intake2. Compression3. Power4. Exhaust

1. Intake2. Compression3. Power4. Exhaust

Four Stroke Operating Cycle

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• Detonation– Uncontrolled, explosive ignition of fuel/air mixture.

This causes excessive temperatures and pressures in the cylinder and if not corrected, can lead to failure of piston, cylinder, or valves.

• Pre-ignition– Fuel/Air mixture is ignited in advance of the normal

timed ignition. It is caused by a residual ‘hot spot’ in the cylinder such as a carbon deposit on a spark plug.

• Detonation– Uncontrolled, explosive ignition of fuel/air mixture.

This causes excessive temperatures and pressures in the cylinder and if not corrected, can lead to failure of piston, cylinder, or valves.

• Pre-ignition– Fuel/Air mixture is ignited in advance of the normal

timed ignition. It is caused by a residual ‘hot spot’ in the cylinder such as a carbon deposit on a spark plug.

Abnormal Combustion

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ENGINE SYSTEMS ENGINE SYSTEMS

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Engine Systems

• Engine Controls• Ignition System• Induction System• Fuel Injection and Turbo charging• Oil System• Cooling System

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Engine Controls

Throttle

Mixture

RPM

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• The ignition system provides the spark that ignites the fuel/air mixture in the cylinders.

1.1. MagnetosMagnetos- These supply electrical current to the spark plugs.

Most airplanes have two individual magnetos which are engine driven. Each magneto operates independently to fire one of two spark plugs in each cylinder. This improves combustion of the mixture. If one magneto fails, the other in unaffected.

• The ignition system provides the spark that ignites the fuel/air mixture in the cylinders.

1.1. MagnetosMagnetos- These supply electrical current to the spark plugs.

Most airplanes have two individual magnetos which are engine driven. Each magneto operates independently to fire one of two spark plugs in each cylinder. This improves combustion of the mixture. If one magneto fails, the other in unaffected.

The Ignition System

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The Ignition System

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The Induction System

• The purpose of the induction system is to bring outside air into the engine, mix it with fuel in the proper proportion, and deliver it to the cylinders where combustion occurs.

• The amount of fuel and air that is inducted into the cylinders is controlled by the throttle and the mixture

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Engine Controls

Throttle

Mixture

RPM

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Engine Systems

• Engine ControlsEngine Controls• Ignition SystemIgnition System• Induction SystemInduction System• Fuel Injection and Turbo charging• Oil System• Cooling System

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Fuel Injection

• Fuel injected engines distribute the fuel/air mixture directly into the engine cylinders. There is no need for a carburetor.

• These systems offer lower fuel consumption, increased

horsepower, lower operating temperatures and longer engine life.

• Newer C-172 (R and S models) have fuel injection systems

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Fuel Injection SystemFUEL MANIFOLD VALVE

FUEL DISCHARGE NOZZLE

FUEL CONTROL UNIT

ENGINE-DRIVEN BOOST PUMP

FUEL TANK

ELECTRIC BOOST PUMP

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• Supercharging– Uses an engine-driven pump to compress incoming air.

Uses some engine power to drive the supercharger, therefore decreases the net power increase.

• Turbocharging– Uses a turbine driven by exhaust gases to compress

incoming air (more efficient).

• Supercharging– Uses an engine-driven pump to compress incoming air.

Uses some engine power to drive the supercharger, therefore decreases the net power increase.

• Turbocharging– Uses a turbine driven by exhaust gases to compress

incoming air (more efficient).

Supercharging and Turbocharging

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Turbocharging System

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Oil Systems

Airplane engines depend on circulation of oil for lubrication of internal parts AND engine cooling

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• Wet Sump- Most small aircraft use this system. All the oil is

carried in a sump which is an integral part of the engine.

• Dry Sump- The oil is contained in a separate tank and is

circulated through the engine by pumps.

• Wet Sump- Most small aircraft use this system. All the oil is

carried in a sump which is an integral part of the engine.

• Dry Sump- The oil is contained in a separate tank and is

circulated through the engine by pumps.

Types of Oil System

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Oil System Components

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Engine Systems

• Engine ControlsEngine Controls• Ignition SystemIgnition System• Induction SystemInduction System• Fuel Injection and Turbo chargingFuel Injection and Turbo charging• Oil SystemOil System• Cooling System

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• Air Cooling– Primarily through baffles heat

exchange– Fixed cowl– Cowl flaps

• Other Methods of Cooling– Mixture– Rate of climb/descent– Power setting

• Air Cooling– Primarily through baffles heat

exchange– Fixed cowl– Cowl flaps

• Other Methods of Cooling– Mixture– Rate of climb/descent– Power setting

Engine Cooling

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AIRCRAFT SYSTEMSAIRCRAFT SYSTEMS

FUEL SYSTEMS

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Fuel Systems

• Fuel System Components• Fuel System Types

– Gravity Fed System– Fuel Pump System

• Refueling• Fuel Grades

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Fuel System Components

• Tanks• Gauges • Vents • Fuel Selector • Pumps• Strainer • Primer • Sumps

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Fuel DrainsFuel

Drains

Fuel System Components

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• Gravity Fed System- Fuel flows by gravity from the fuel tanks to the engine.

• Fuel Pump System- Usually in low-wing airplanes, an engine driven pump provides fuel under pressure from the fuel tanks to the engine.

• Gravity Fed System- Fuel flows by gravity from the fuel tanks to the engine.

• Fuel Pump System- Usually in low-wing airplanes, an engine driven pump provides fuel under pressure from the fuel tanks to the engine.

Fuel System Types

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Fuel System Types

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Fuel Systems

• Fuel System ComponentsFuel System Components• Fuel System TypesFuel System Types

– Gravity Fed SystemGravity Fed System– Fuel Pump SystemFuel Pump System

• Refueling• Fuel Grades

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• Refuelling Safety

When re-fueling, it is important that some simple procedures are followed:

- Ensure Master and Ignition switch OFF- Ensure a ground wire is attached from the

aircraft to the fuel truck (or fuel pump) - No one should be in the aircraft- Refuel only in Fueling areas- At least one wing must be tied and chocked

• Refuelling Safety

When re-fueling, it is important that some simple procedures are followed:

- Ensure Master and Ignition switch OFF- Ensure a ground wire is attached from the

aircraft to the fuel truck (or fuel pump) - No one should be in the aircraft- Refuel only in Fueling areas- At least one wing must be tied and chocked

RefuelingRefueling

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Fuel Grades and Colors

• It is important we use the correct grade of fuel

Grade Colour100 LL Blue100/130 Green

• Placards stating which grade of fuel is required are normally placed near fuel tank filler caps.

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AIRPLANESAIRPLANES

PITOT-STATIC INSTRUMENTS

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Pitot-Static Instruments

• Effects of Atmospheric Conditions• The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)• Pitot-Static System• Pitot-Static Instruments

– Airspeed Indicator– Altimeter– Vertical Speed Indicator

• Blockage of the Pitot-Static System

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Effects of Atmospheric Conditions

• Atmospheric Pressure can be defined as the weight of a single column of air.

• Atmospheric pressure conditions have a large effect on an aircrafts pitot-static system.

• As altitude increases, atmospheric pressure steadily decreases.

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Effects of Atmospheric Conditions

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International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)

• The ISA is used to provide a common reference for Temperature and Pressure.

• Standard Pressure?1013 Hpa (Hectopascals) 29.92 In.Hg (In. Mercury)

• Standard Lapse Rate?1 Hpa / 30 ft1 In.Hg / 1000 ft

• Standard Temperature?15º Celsius at sea level

• Standard Temperature Lapse Rate?2º / 1000 ft.

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Pitot-Static SystemPitot-Static System

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Pitot Static System

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• Effects of Atmospheric ConditionsEffects of Atmospheric Conditions• The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)• Pitot-Static SystemPitot-Static System• Pitot-Static Instruments

– Airspeed Indicator– Altimeter– Vertical Speed Indicator


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Pitot Static Instruments

• Airspeed Indicator (ASI)– V-Speeds– Airspeed and Groundspeed Definitions

• Altimeter (ALT)– Altitude Definitions– Altimeter Errors

• Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)

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• The ASI is the only instrument that uses both the pitot tube and the static port(s)

• The speed of the airplane through the air is determined by comparing the ram air pressure (pitot tube) with the static air pressure – the greater the difference, the greater the speed.

• The ASI is the only instrument that uses both the pitot tube and the static port(s)

• The speed of the airplane through the air is determined by comparing the ram air pressure (pitot tube) with the static air pressure – the greater the difference, the greater the speed.

Airspeed Indicator

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Airspeed Indicator

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ASI – V speedsASI – V speeds

– VNE NEVER EXCEED SPEED.

– VNO MAX. STRUCTURAL CRUISING SPEED

– VFE MAX. SPEED WITH FLAPS EXTENDED

– VS1 BASIC STALL SPEED (POWER OFF / FLAPS UP)

– VS0 STALL SPEED IN LANDING CONFIGURATION

– VA MAX. MANEUVERING SPEED

– VNE NEVER EXCEED SPEED.

– VNO MAX. STRUCTURAL CRUISING SPEED

– VFE MAX. SPEED WITH FLAPS EXTENDED

– VS1 BASIC STALL SPEED (POWER OFF / FLAPS UP)

– VS0 STALL SPEED IN LANDING CONFIGURATION

– VA MAX. MANEUVERING SPEED

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ASI – V speeds

Vne

Vno

Vfe

Vs1

Vs0

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ASI – Color CodingASI – Color Coding

• Speed Ranges

• White – Flaps Operating Range

• Green– Normal Operating Range

• Yellow– Caution Range

• Red– Never-exceed Speed

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Va – Maximum Maneuvering Speed

• Va is the speed above which you cannot use full or abrupt control movement.

• Va is not included on the ASI because it will vary with weight. A heavier airplane will have a slightly higher figure for Va.

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Airspeed Definitions

• Indicated Airspeed (IAS):- The reading directly from the ASI

• Calibrated Airspeed (CAS):- IAS corrected for installation and instrument errors

• True Airspeed (TAS):- CAS corrected for altitude and non-standard temperature.- For a given IAS, TAS increases with altitude

• Groundspeed (GS):- The actual speed of airplane over the ground- It is the TAS corrected for wind.

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• Airspeed Indicator (ASI)Airspeed Indicator (ASI)– V-SpeedsV-Speeds– Airspeed and Groundspeed DefinitionsAirspeed and Groundspeed Definitions

• Altimeter (ALT)– Altitude Definitions– Altimeter Errors


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The Altimeter• Determines your altitude by comparing static air pressure

to sea-level pressure.

Kollsman Window(subscale)

10,000 ft

100 ft

1000 ft

Altimeter Setting

Adjustment Knob

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Altimeter

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Altitude Definitions

• Indicated Altitude:- the altitude measured by your altimeter.

• Pressure Altitude:- the height of your aircraft above 1013 Hpa or 29.92 In.Hg

• Density Altitude:- When ambient (outside) temperature is above standard,

density altitude is higher than pressure altitude.

- Density Altitude is important when considering engine performance.

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Altitude Definitions cont.• Calibrated Altitude:

- is Indicated Altitude corrected to compensate for instrument error.

• True Altitude:- is the actual height of an object above Mean Sea Level- It is equal to Pressure Altitude and Indicated Altitude only

when standard atmospheric conditions exist.

• Absolute Altitude (Ht. above ground level, AGL)- is the height of an airplane above the earth’s surface over

which it is flying.

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CURRENT MSL PRESSURE IS 30.00

CURRENT MSL PRESSURE IS 30.00

MEAN SEA LEVELMEAN SEA LEVEL

•WHAT IS OUR :•WHAT IS OUR :

30.10•TRUE ALTITUDE ?•TRUE ALTITUDE ?

•ABSOLUTE ALTITUDE ?•ABSOLUTE ALTITUDE ?

1500 ft1500 ft

Altimeter Problems

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30.10

TRUE ALTITUDE ?TRUE ALTITUDE ?

30.00

30.10

3000 ft3000 ft

100 ft100 ft

2900 ft MSL

2900 ft MSL

Altimeter Problems

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30.10

ABSOLUTE ALTITUDE ?ABSOLUTE ALTITUDE ?

30.00

2900 ft2900 ft

1400 ft AGL

1400 ft AGL

1500 ft1500 ft

Altimeter Problems

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30.10

PRESSURE ALTITUDE ?PRESSURE ALTITUDE ?

30.00

29.92

2900 ft2900 ft

2820 ft2820 ft80 ft80 ft

Altimeter Problems

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Altimeter Errors

• Actual Atmospheric conditions rarely match standard ISA values. Also, pressure values frequently change when you are flying from one area to another.

• The most common altimeter error occurs when you fail to keep the altimeter set to the local altimeter setting.

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Altimeter Settings / Pressure Changes

If you fly from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure without re-setting your altimeter, the altimeter will indicate higher than the actual (true) altitude. If you do not reset your altimeter when flying from low pressure to high pressure, your altimeter will indicate lower than actual (true) altitude.

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Altimeter Settings – Pressure Changes

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Altimeter Settings / Temperature Changes

When atmospheric temperature is higher than standard, pressure levels are raised, and your true altitude is higher than your indicated altitude. When temperature is colder than standard, pressure levels are lowered, and your true altitude is lower than your indicated altitude.

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Altimeter Settings - Temperature Changes

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• Airspeed Indicator (ASI)Airspeed Indicator (ASI)– V-SpeedsV-Speeds– Airspeed and Groundspeed DefinitionsAirspeed and Groundspeed Definitions

• Altimeter (ALT)Altimeter (ALT)– Altitude DefinitionsAltitude Definitions– Altimeter ErrorsAltimeter Errors


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• Trend Information- shows an immediate indication of an increase or decrease in the airplanes rate of climb or descent.

• Rate Information- shows a stabilised rate of change.

• Trend Information- shows an immediate indication of an increase or decrease in the airplanes rate of climb or descent.

• Rate Information- shows a stabilised rate of change.

Vertical Speed Indicator

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Sp

decreases

Sp

decreases

Sp leaks into the casingSp leaks into the casing

Vertical Speed Indicator

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• Effects of Atmospheric ConditionsEffects of Atmospheric Conditions• The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)• Pitot-Static SystemPitot-Static System• Pitot-Static InstrumentsPitot-Static Instruments

– Airspeed IndicatorAirspeed Indicator– AltimeterAltimeter– Vertical Speed IndicatorVertical Speed Indicator


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Pitot-Static System Blockage

• Blockage of the Pitot-Static System can be caused by moisture (including ice), dirt or even insects.

• Blockage of the Pitot tube affects only the ??

• Blockage of the Static System affects ??

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BLOCKAGE

Blockage of the Pitot / Static System

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Blockage of the Static System

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System Blockage Questions• What problems do pitot tube blockages cause?

• How can you fix a pitot tube blockage?

• What problem does static system blockage cause?

• How can you fix a static system blockage?

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Lesson Content• Gyroscopic Instruments

a) Principles of Operationb) Sources of Powerc) Gyroscopic Instruments

• Magnetic Compass- Variation- Deviation- Compass Errors

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AIRCRAFT SYSTEMSAIRCRAFT SYSTEMS

GYROSCOPIC INSTRUMENTS

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Gyroscopic Instruments

• Principles of Operation– Rigidity in Space– Precession

• Sources of Power

• Gyroscopic Instruments– Turn Coordinator– Attitude Indicator– Heading Indicator

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Rigidity in SpacePrecession

Principles of Operation

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Rigidity in Space

• Rigidity in Space refers to the principle that a wheel with a heavily weighted rim, spun rapidly will remain in a fixed position in the plane in which it is spinning

(refer fig. 2-80)

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Precession

• Precession is the tilting or turning of the gyro in response to pressure. A small force is applied to a gyro every time the airplane changes direction.

• The reaction to this force occurs in the direction of rotation, 90º ahead of the point where the force was applied

(refer fig 2-80)

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• Principles of OperationPrinciples of Operation– Rigidity in SpaceRigidity in Space– PrecessionPrecession

• Sources of Power


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Sources of Power

Vacuum (Suction) System (A/H and DI)

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Sources of Power

Electrical source. In case of a suction (vacuum) failure, typically the turn coordinator (TC) will be entirely electrically driven.

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• Principles of OperationPrinciples of Operation– Rigidity in SpaceRigidity in Space– PrecessionPrecession

• Sources of PowerSources of Power


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• Turn Coordinator (TC)

• Attitude Indicator (AI)

• Heading Indicator (DI)

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The Turn Coordinator

• The gyro in the Turn Co-ordinator is electrically driven.

Inclinometer

MiniatureAirplane

The Ball

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STANDARD RATE ONE

TURN

STANDARD RATE ONE

TURN

360°in 2 minutes (120 seconds)360°in 2 minutes (120 seconds)

3°per second 3°per second


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88

Centrifugal forceCentrifugal force

Horizontal component of

lift

Horizontal component of

lift

SLIPPING TURN

SLIPPING TURN

SKIDDING TURN

SKIDDING TURN

Coordination

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• Turn Coordinator or Turn and Slip Indicator

• What arestandard rate turns?

• When should youuse them?

• What is a skid?

• What is a slip?

• Turn Coordinator or Turn and Slip Indicator

• What arestandard rate turns?

• When should youuse them?

• What is a skid?

• What is a slip?

Turn Coordinator Questions

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• Turn Coordinator (TC)Turn Coordinator (TC)

• Attitude Indicator (AI)


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Attitude Indicator

• The A I senses roll and pitch.

• It uses an artificial horizon and miniature airplane to depict the position of the airplane in relation to the true horizon.

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The Attitude Indicator

MiniatureAirplane

Pointer

Artificial

Horizon

Adjustment Knob

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10º 20º

30º

60º

Bank Scale

Pitch 5º Nose Up

Pitch 5º Nose Down

Attitude Indicator

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Attitude Indicator

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• Turn Coordinator (TC)Turn Coordinator (TC)

• Attitude Indicator (AI)Attitude Indicator (AI)


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Heading Indicator

• Also called the “Directional Gyro” or DGI.

•Indicates heading, based on a 360 degree azimuth

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HDG

THE GYRO IS ALIGNED TO A KNOWN COMPASS HEADING

RIGIDITY IN SPACE ALLOWS THE INSTRUMENT TO ‘REMEMBER’ THE HEADING

080

Heading Indicator

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AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS 2AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS 2

THE MAGNETIC COMPASS

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The Magnetic Compass

• The Magnetic Compass

• Variation

• Deviation

• Compass Errors– Magnetic Dip– Acceleration Error– Turning Error

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Magnetic Compass

• The magnetic compass is the only direction seeking instrument in the aircraft.

• It is a self contained unit which does not require electrical or suction power.

• Refer fig.2-89

101

90

150120

0

6030

240210180

300

270330

091

153122

359

062032

240211182

298

271329

The Magnetic CompassLubber Line

Deviation

Card

Compass

Card

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Variation

• Compass Variation is the angular difference between the True Poles and the Magnetic Poles.

• Since most Aviation Charts are orientated to True North and the aircraft compass is orientated to Magnetic North, you must convert a True direction to a Magnetic direction by correcting for the Variation.

• The amount of Variation depends on your position on the Earth’s surface.

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Variation

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•ADD WESTERLY VARIATIONS TO YOUR TRUE COURSE

•SUBTRACT EASTERLY VARIATIONS TO YOUR TRUE COURSE

Variation

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• The Magnetic CompassThe Magnetic Compass

• VariationVariation

• Deviation


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Compass Deviation

Caused by Disturbances from Magnetic Fields

produced by Metals and Electrical accessories

within the Airplane.

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Compass Deviation

• Deviation can not be totally eliminated. However, any remaining errors are normally recorded on a ‘Compass Deviation Card’

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150120

0

6030

240210180

300

270330

091

153122

359

062032

240211182

298

271329

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N 30 60 E 120 150

001 031 060 089 118 149

S 210 240 W 300 330

181 213 242 271 301 330

Compass Deviation

For MH

Steer

For MH

Steer

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DO NOT place metal or magnetic materials near compass

•HEADPHONES

•RADIOS

•CALCULATORS

•BOOKS

•BINDERS

Compass Deviation

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• The Magnetic CompassThe Magnetic Compass

• VariationVariation

• DeviationDeviation


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Compass Errors (Jep. 2-72)

• Magnetic Dip

• Acceleration Error

• Turning Error

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Magnetic Dip

• When the magnet contained in the compass is pulled by the earth’s magnetic field, it tends to point North and somewhat downward.

• The downward pull, called Magnetic Dip, is greatest at the Poles and diminishes as you approach the Equator.

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Magnetic Dip

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Acceleration Error

• If you accelerate an airplane in the Northern Hemisphere the compass will show a turn to the North. If you decelerate, it indicates a turn to the South.

• The error is most pronounced when flying on headings of East or West.

• It will not occur on North / South headings.

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CCELERATE

ORTH

ECELERATE

OUTH

Acceleration Error

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Turning Error

• Turning Error is directly related to the amount of Magnetic Dip.

• It is more pronounced when turning to or from North or South headings.

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NN

EEWW

SS

-30-30+30+30-20-20+20+20-10-10+10+10BACK TO 090 or 270

0 CORRECTION

BACK TO 090 or 270

0 CORRECTION

NDERSHOOT

ORTH

VERSHOOT

OUTH

Turning Error

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Before North

Before North

After SouthAfter South

270270 090090

360360

180180

00

1010

20203030

2020

20202020

1010

10101010

3030

00Wings levelat 270 deg.

Turn right from a heading of 180 to a heading of 270 degrees.Turn right from a heading of 180 to a heading of 270 degrees.

You should level the wings at about ????

Degrees

Compass Turns Exercises

119

Before North

Before North


270270 090090

360360

180180

00

1010

20203030

2020

20202020

1010

10101010

3030

00


Wings levelat 330 deg.


Degrees


120

Before North

Before North


270270 090090

360360

180180

00

1010

20203030

2020

20202020

1010

10101010

3030

00Wings levelat 250 deg.



Degrees


121

•Indicates Known Headings•Indicates Known Headings

•Swings Freely During Taxi turns•Swings Freely During Taxi turns

•Is Full of Fluid•Is Full of Fluid

Operational Check

PPL 3 Engine Ops and Flight Instruments

Documents

engine driven

engine cylinders

engine power

engine cooling

enginedriven pump

fuel injection systems

turbocharging system

longer engine life