PowerPoint Lecture Notes Presentation Chapter 2 Current Paradigms in Psychopathology Abnormal Psychology, Eleventh Edition by Ann M. Kring, Gerald C. Davison, John M. Neale, & Sheri L. Johnson
Jan 02, 2016
PowerPoint Lecture Notes Presentation Chapter 2
Current Paradigms inPsychopathology
Abnormal Psychology, Eleventh Editionby
Ann M. Kring, Gerald C. Davison, John M. Neale, & Sheri L. Johnson
2
Notion of a Paradigm
Goal: Study abnormal behavior scientifically
Science aims for objectivity Paradigm (Thomas Kuhn)
» Perspective or conceptual framework from within which a scientist operates
– We can never be totally objective
No one paradigm sufficient to completely explain psychopathology
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Current Paradigms: Genetic
Heredity plays a role in most behavior Genes
» Carriers of genetic information (DNA)» Impacted by environmental influences
– e.g., stress, relationships, culture
Relationship between genes and environment is bidirectional» Nature via nurture (Ridley, 2003)
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Important Genetic Terms
Gene expression» Proteins influence whether the action of a specific
gene will occur Polygenic transmission
» Multiple gene pairs vs. single gene Heritability
» Extent to which variability in behavior is due to genetic factors
– Heritability estimate ranges from 0.00 to 1.00– Group, rather than, individual indicator
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Environmental Effects
Shared environment» Events and experiences that family
members have in common Nonshared environment
» Events and experiences that are unique to each family member
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Behavior Genetics
Study of the degree to which genes and environmental factors influence behavior
Genotype» Genetic material inherited by an individual» Unobservable
Phenotype» Expressed genetic material » Observable behavior and characteristics» Depends on interaction of genotype and
environment
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Molecular Genetics
Identifies particular genes and their functions» Alleles
– Different forms of the same gene
» Polymorphism– Difference in DNA sequence on a gene occurring in a
population
Knockout studies» Removing specific genes in animals to
observe effect on behavior
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Figure 2.1 DNA/RNA
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Gene-Environment Interaction
Gene-environment interaction» One’s response to a specific environmental event
is influenced by genes. Epigenetics
» Study of how the environment can alter gene expression or function
» Cross-fostering adoptee method– Rats born to mothers with low parenting skills who were
raised by mothers with high parenting skills showed lower levels of stress reactivity (Francis et al., 1999)
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Figure 2.2 Gene-Environment Interaction (Adapted from Caspi et al.,
2003)
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Reciprocal Gene-Environment Interaction
Genes predispose individuals to seek out situations that increase the likelihood of developing a disorder. » Adolescent girls with genetic vulnerability
for depression more likely to experience events that can trigger depression (Silberg et al., 1999)
» Dependent life events influenced by genes (Kendler & Baker, 2007)
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Current Paradigms: Neuroscience
Examines the contribution of brain structure and function to psychopathology» Mental disorders are linked to aberrant
processes in the brain.
Four mechanisms:» Neurons and neurotransmitters» Brain structure and function» Autonomic system» Neuroendocrine system
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Figure 2.3 The NeuronBasic Unit of the Nervous System
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Neurons and Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitter» Chemicals that allow neurons to
send a signal across the synapse (gap) to another neuron.
Receptor sites on postsynaptic neuron absorb neurotransmitter» Excitatory» Inhibitory
Reuptake» Reabsorption of leftover
neurotransmitter by presynaptic neuron
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Neurotransmitters and Psychopathology
Serotonin and dopamine» Depression, mania, and schizophrenia
Norepinephrine» Anxiety and other stress related disorders
Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA)» Anxiety
Possible mechanisms» Excessive or inadequate levels» Insufficient reuptake» Excessive number or sensitivity of postsynaptic receptors
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Figure 2.5 The Process by which a Second Messenger is Released
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Figure 2.6 Brain Structure and Function
Sulci define regions or lobes:» Frontal» Parietal» Temporal» Occipital
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Figure 2.7 Brain Slice through Medial Plan
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Figure 2.8 Subcortical Structures of the Brain
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Figure 2.9 The HPA Axis
HPA axis involved in stress
Hypothalamus triggers release of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRF)
Pituitary gland releases adrenocorticotropic hormone
Adrenal cortex triggers release of cortisol, the stress hormone
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Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
Sympathetic Nervous System» Excitatory» Heartbeat acceleration, pupil dilation,
gastrointestinal inhibition, electrodermal activity increases
Parasympathetic Nervous System» Quiescent» Heartbeat deceleration, pupil constriction,
gastrointestinal activation Involved in anxiety disorders, especially
Panic and PTSD
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Figure 2.10 Autonomic Nervous System
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Neuroscience and Treatment
Psychoactive drugs alter neurotransmitter activity» Antidepressants» Antipsychotics» Benzodiazepenes
A neuroscience view does not preclude psychological interventions
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Evaluating the Neuroscience Paradigm
Reductionism» View that behavior can best be understand
by reducing it to its basic biological components
– Ignores more complex views of behavior
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Current Paradigms: Psychodynamic
Fails to contribute to our empirical understanding of the causes of psychopathology» Greatest contribution are in treatment
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Role of the Unconscious
Contemporary theorists have attempted to study the unconscious scientifically» Pathogenic beliefs
– Beliefs that occur outside of conscious awareness– Trigger maladaptive thoughts and emotions
Implicit memory» Cognitive neuroscience paradigm
– The unconscious may reflect efficient information processing rather than a repository for troubling material
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Importance of Interpersonal Relationships
Object relations theory» Longstanding patterns of relating to others
Attachment theory» Type and style of infant’s attachment to
caregivers can influence later psychological functioning.
Relational self» Individuals will describe themselves differently
depending upon which close relationships are told to think about (Chen et al., 2006)
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Brief Psychodynamic Therapy
Time-limited Active therapist involvement Concrete goals Development of coping skills Current life experiences Transference downplayed Interpersonal Therapy (IPT)
» Unresolved grief» Role transitions» Role disputes» Interpersonal or social deficits
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Evaluating Freud and Psychoanalysis
No formal research Inadequate non-representative samples Continuing impact:
» Personality shaped by early childhood» Behavior influenced by unconscious » Causes of behavior not always apparent or
obvious
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Current Paradigms: Cognitive Behavioral
Roots in learning principles and cognitive science Behavior is reinforced by consequences
» Attention » Escape or avoidance» Sensory stimulation» Access to desirable objects or events
To alter behavior, modify consequences (e.g., time out)
Systematic desensitization» Relaxation plus exposure
– Imaginal or in vivo» Important treatment for anxiety disorders
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Cognitive Science
Behaviorism criticized for ignoring thoughts and emotions
Cognition » A mental process which includes:
– Perceiving, judging, reasoning, conceiving, & recognizing Schema
» Organized network of previously accumulated knowledge
» We actively interpret new information Role of attention in psychopathology
» Anxious individuals more likely to attend to threat or danger
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Beck’s Cognitive Therapy
Initially developed for depression Depression caused by distorted
thoughts» Nothing ever goes right for me!
Help patients recognize and change maladaptive thought patterns
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Ellis’s Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy
Irrational beliefs» Internal, repetitive thoughts that reflect
assumptions about self– In order to be happy, I must be loved!
» Musts or shoulds– Unrealistic demands we place on self, others,
and the world People shouldn’t make mistakes!
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Evaluating the CBT paradigm
Are distorted thoughts the cause or the result of psychopathology?» Causal status unclear
Is cognitive behavior therapy really different from behavior therapy?» Changing behavior can alter thought
patterns.
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Table 2.1 Comparison of Psychoanalysis and CBT
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Factors Common to Paradigms
Emotion» Components
– Expressive– Experiential– Physiological
» Most psychopathology includes disturbances of one or more component
– e.g., flat affect in schizophrenia Cultural factors influence ideal affect (Tsai,
2007)
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Factors Common to Paradigms
Sociocultural Factors» Culture, ethnicity, gender, & social
relationships» May increase vulnerability to psychopathology
– e.g., women more likely to experience depression than men
» May also serve as a buffer– e.g., social support
» Some disorders specific to certain cultures– Hikikomori in Japanese culture
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Table 2.2 Lifetime Prevalence Rates of DSM-IV-TR Disorders among Different
Ethnic Groups
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Diathesis-Stress
Integrative model that incorporates multiple causal factors (Zubin & Spring, 1977)
Diathesis» Underlying predisposition
– May be biological or psychological» Increases one’s risk of developing disorder
Stress» Environmental events
– May occur at any point after conception– Triggering event
Psychopathology unlikely to result from one single factor
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COPYRIGHT
Copyright 2009 by John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY. All rights reserved. No part of the material protected by this copyright may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission of the copyright owner.
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