Pot War Japan

8/3/2019 Pot War Japan

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/pot-war-japan 1/15

Educational Reform and Its Problems in Post-War JapanAuthor(s): Tatsuo MoritoReviewed work(s):Source: International Review of Education / Internationale Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft / Revue Internationale de l'Education, Vol. 1, No. 3 (1955), pp. 338-351Published by: SpringerStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3441564 .

Accessed: 26/11/2011 10:10

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of

content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms

of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

Springer is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to International Review of

Education / Internationale Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft / Revue Internationale de l'Education.

http://www.jstor.org

http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=springer

http://www.jstor.org/stable/3441564?origin=JSTOR-pdf

http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

http://www.jstor.org/stable/3441564?origin=JSTOR-pdf

http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=springer



EDUCATIONAL REFORM AND ITS

PROBLEMS IN POST-WAR JAPAN

by TATSUO ORITO,iroshima

TwoEducational nnovations

Japan has experienced two great changes in its development as a

modem democraticnation. One is the conversionof feudalisticJapan into

a moder state, called the "MeijiRestoration", which took place nearlya century ago (1868). The other is the transformationfrom a state of

totalitariantendency into a democratic one. It began after the defeat ten

years ago (1945). Consideringts fundamentalcharacter,one may call the

former a revolution, while in opposition, the latter may be named areform.

These two national changes both sought their motivating power in

education. In accordancewith the demand,educationalinnovationswere

carried out. As the degree of educational innovation is in proportionto

that of nationalreconstruction,we may regardthe first as an educational

revolutionand the latter as an educationalreform.

My presenttheme will be the educationalreform since the defeat in the

Pacific War.However,in ordertocorrectly

understand ts basic character

and variousproblems,it is desirableto know the characterand processof

the educational revolutionof the early Meijiperiod.

Characteristicsf theEducationalRevolutionof MeijiThe characteristics of the educationalrevolutioncarriedinto effect by

the new government of Meiji,as the spiritual support for building up a

modem state, were chiefly as follows:1. The educational revolution was brought about as a basic national

policy for the constructionof a new Japan.2. Not only was a revolution in the educational system planned, but

many leaders hoped to accomplish cultural changes also. "Civilization

and enlightenment",actually the westernizationof Japaneseculture, was

the goal of this movement.

3. As for the educational system, efforts were made to introduce in

particularthe French and Americanschoolsystems.4. The revolution pointed out direction for the democratization of

education, and strove to make elementaryeducationuniversaland com-

pulsory.5. Concerningthe content of education, importance was placed on

practical learningand scientific instructionrelatedto every-daylife.



EDUCATIONAL REFORM AND ITS PROBLEMS IN POST-WAR JAPAN 339

6. In moral education, individualistic, and sometimes utilitarian

morals were emphasized in place of the feudalistic morals based on

"loyalty and patriotism".As additional explanation to these points, first, it must be noted that

the basic direction of culturein the new Japanwas not decidedin this wayfrom the beginning. Concerningthe basic direction, three groups which

were competing for the leadershipof national culture, exchangedheated

discussions with each other. The groups concerned were (a) the Kyoto

imperialcourt groupthat urgedthe traditionalJapaneseideology, (b)the

scholars of the Shogunate party that promoted the Chineseclassics, es-

pecially the teaching of Confucius which was the learning officially

approved by the Tokugawa Shogunate, and (c) the educational officials

of the new government as well as progressivecivilians, who emphasizedwestern learning. Finally, as a result the groupwhich supportedwestern

learning - the "civilization and enlightenment" group - emerged tri-

umphant.Next, in 1872, the school system established by the new government

was modelledafterwesternsystems, particularly,as mentionedbefore,on

those of Franceand the United States. Thus the three level schoolsystemof elementary,secondaryandhighereducationwas inaugurated,a systemwhich has continued to our

day.The

elementaryschools were

openedto

the general public, and though not completely compulsory,efforts were

aimedalongthis line. This is shownin the proclamationof the governmentissued in the same year. It declared; "henceforththe people in general-

aristocrats,warriors,farmers, craftsmen,merchantsand women - should

resolve to have no illiterate household in a village and no illiterate personin a family", and that "it shall be consideredthe fault of the parents, if

their childrenregardlessof sex do not receive elementaryeducation".

The same proclamationalso emphasized that education must aim at

the teaching of practical knowledge applicable to daily life, declaringasfollows: The purpose of education is to enable people "to gain personalsuccess, to manage their property, to make their business prosper and

thereby to accomplishtheir lives". However, those who profess learning

nowadays "tend to insist, it is for the sake of the nation, and forgettingit

is the foundation for personal success, some end in memorizing phrasesand verses and fall into empty theory or fruitless discussion. Thoughtheir theories seem noble, not a few cannot apply them to their own lives

orcarry

them out in deeds. Thistendency

isnothing

other than the con-

tinuation of the deeprootedevil of ancient customs and is the reasonwhycivilization is not yet universal and also why so many persons do not

developtheirtalents,and sufferpoverty, bankruptcyandlossof property".



Yukichi Fukuzawa, who was one of the most progressive educators

among civilians of the time and who founded Kei6 GijukuUniversity, a

representativeprivate university in Japan today, expoundedexactly the

same thought in the beginningof his famous pamphlet "Encouragementof Learning",which was a best seller in his day.

CriticismandRevisionoftheEducationalRevolutionofMeijiThis fundamental educational innovation was the most vivid sign,

declaringthe changethe new Japan of Meijihad made from a feudal to a

modernstate, yet within a few years there arose severe criticism of this

educationalrevolution.

The chief points of criticism were:

1. This educational revolution lacked an economic basis and, conse-quently, with its suddenenforcement,considerablepressurewas added to

the poverty of the common people, an inevitable result in an under-

developed country. Indeed the opposition in some part of the countrywas so violent that riots aiming at abolition of schools broke out and

destroyedalmost all the schoolsin the district.

2. The one-sided pro-western educational revolution threatened the

traditional orientaland Japanese spiritual values and confusedthe every

daymorals of the

people.This criticism was made

chiefly bythe con-

servative, ultra-nationalisticgroup.3. With the diffusionof the new education, individualisticand materi-

alistic tendencies became increasingly influential and endangeredcom-

munity-consciousnessand public spirit, especially patriotism, necessaryfor the urgent and difficult task of the constructionof a new nation. This

criticism arosemainly from the nationalisticgroup.Of these criticisms, the first was gradually solved as time passed. But

the second and the third were fundamental criticisms of the over-intel-

lectual inclination of moder civilization with its rationalistic keynoteand atomizingindividualistic tendency. Hence they were not of the kind

to be solved in the courseof time. On the contrarythey became strongerthan ever as the domesticand internationalcriseswhich Japanfacedwere

felt, and as a result the people'sconsciousnessof nationalcommunityand

patriotic feelings were aroused. Especially, the leaders of the new Japanwho observed the upheaval of the German nation under Bismarck in

Europe and the deplorable destiny of Asian nations struggling under

colonialbondage, keenly

felt theurgency

of the situation.

Against such a background, n 1889,Meiji Japan promulgatedthe new

constitution and laid its foundation as a moder state. Parallel to this a

revision of education was executed. This revision amplified and firmly

340 TATSUO MORITO




established the progressiveand rationalisticeducationalrevolutionon its

formal side, and on the other hand, it aimed at reconcilingit with the

traditional oriental culture and at meeting the demandof the peoplewho

wished to cope with the urgent international crisis. This educational

revisionduringthe middleperiodof Meiji ormedthe basisof the Japaneseeducationalsystem since that time, and achievedgreat results particular-

ly in the fact that universalcompulsoryeducationwas legally established

in elementary schools. These accomplishments may be considered the

following up of the early Meijieducational revolution. On the contrary,the most significantcharacteristicof this revisionlies in the fact that the

guiding spirit of education was changed. The guiding principlesof edu-

cation changedfromthose of western "civilizationand enlightenment"to

the traditional,orientalmoralprinciples,and from individualisticperson-al success-huntingto nationalism and loyalty. The guiding principles of

this new education were embodied in the "Imperial Rescript on Edu-

cation" which was made public in 1890, the year following the procla-mation of the MeijiConstitution. From that time on until the defeat in

World War II, it becamethe centralguiding spirit of Japanese education.

In this way, the Meiji educational revolution was remodelled into a

form that synthesized progressiverationalismof the west, the morals of

the orient,and modernnationalism. It becamethe foundationofJapaneseeducation since that time, and one may say that the remarkablespiritual

basis of the new Japan can be attributed to it. Oneof the majorcauses of

the victory of Japan in the three great wars, that is, the Sino-JapaneseWar,the Russo-JapaneseWarandWorld War I, can be foundhere.

However, the rapid development of the Japanese national state,confronted with the intensifying international tension and pressure,forced the young modern nation towardsultra-nationalismandmilitarism.

Thus, Japan was driveninto the Manchurian ncident, the ChinaIncident

and finally into the Pacific War.At the same time, the remodelled education of Meijilost its balance,

and later misguided extreme nationalism and militarism became

dominant,undoubtedlyhelpingto stir up the people's pro-warmentality.In this way we actually experiencedby paying a high price the possible

dangerslying within an educationconditionedby a criticalsituation.

EducationalReformafterDefeat

Risingfrom

the ravages of war the Japanese people putan end to the

ultra-nationalism and militarism that had brought about disastrous

defeat, and aspired to construct a democratic, peaceful, welfare and

cultural state. The new constitution which made clear the foundation of



the new state was promulgatedin 1946, and in the belief that such noble

ideals should be "realized basically by the power of education", the

second great educationalreformwas carriedout.

This remarkable educational reform certainly was not a thing that

could have happenedwithout such a drasticevent as defeat. But it shouldnot be thought that it was forcedupon the Japanesenation from outside

by orderof the occupationforces or victor-countries.We are quite readyto admit that this educationalreformowes much to the suggestions and

advice of the two Educational Missionsof the United States in 1946and

1950; also to the cooperation of the Civil Information and Education

Section of General Headquarters, etc. However, the embodiment and

realization of this educational reformwould have been quite impossible

without the positive cooperation of progressive Japanese scholars andeducators. Meetingwith the unprecedentedtragedy of defeat, the Japa-nese people looked back on the past history of the Meiji Restoration a

century before and without doubt keenly felt the necessity of national

reconstruction and an educational innovation to support it. Also, there

existed quite a numberof progressiveeducatorsin our country who were

aimingat the developmentof this educationalreform.Since pre-wartime

they had alreadybeen makingefforts for its realization.But the ideals of

a new educationwhichthey

cherishedand their effortstowardsthem had

been suppressed by those same powersthat had preparedfor and headed

into the war. It is quite natural, therefore, that when such oppressive

powers were eliminated after the termination of the War, the ideals and

plans of these educatorscame to the fore and receivedthe supportof the

people.Furthermore, I wish to add that many points of this educational

reform, especially the further extension of compulsory education which

forms one of the main features, had already been decided by the Council

on Education which had been established before the war (1937). Ofcourse it is a well-knownfact that this Council nfused a clear-cut,ultra-

nationalistic and militaristic spirit into the guiding principles and edu-

cational content. On the other hand, it should be fairly recognizedthat

concerningthe reform of the school system, the Councilpointed towards

progressivetrends that can be linked to the post-wareducationalreform.

Characteristicsnd Contentof the Post-WarEducationalReformWhat

were the characteristicsand content of this second educationalinnovation initiated under such circumstances?The educational reform

(a) was considered as a basic policy to support spiritually the recon-struction of post-warnew Japan, (b)with westernization for the second

342 TATSUO MORITO




time, in this case,had democratizationas its key-note; and it (c)included

not only reform of the educationalsystem but alsochangein the gu iding

principlesof education, (d) and took its model for the reform of various

institutions mainly from the United States, (e) lastly, in the edu-

cational content it emphasized practical knowledge closely related to

everyday life and individualistic morals. In these points it resembles

considerablythe educational revolution of early Meiji.However, as has

already been mentioned, this reformwas not equal to that of the early

Meijiera in its fundamental character.

1. The most fundamentalchange in this reformwhich would not have

been realizedwithout the fact of defeat, was perhapsthe abolition of the

educational guiding principles symbolized in the Imperial Rescript on

Education and the decision not to express such principles again in theform of the emperor'swords. This is quite comprehensible or a nation

that had decided to give up ultra-nationalismand to construct a demo-

cratic, peacefulstate. In as much as the ImperialRescript on Education

embodied together with the Meiji Constitution had been the guiding

principleof Japanese educationfor half a century, the significanceof its

removal is very deep. But this elimination was done not because it was

considered that the virtues prescribed n the Rescript were mistaken but

that the Edict had been misused to infuse ultra-nationalismand milita-

rism, that national religiouscoloringwas strongly impressed upon it, and

lastly that it was not appropriateto express the educationalprinciplesof

the new democraticJapanin the formof an ImperialRescript. In placeof

the Rescript the educational guiding principlesof post-war Japan were

announced by the "FundamentalEducation Law" promulgatedby the

National Diet in 1947.

2. The next important point of the educationalreform was the demo-

cratizationof the educational administrationby its decentralization.That

is to say, the controllingpower of the Ministryof Education which hadhitherto been the strongly centralized power in educational adminis-

tration was remarkablysubdued by the establishment of the Boards of

Education (1948) on the onehand, and on the otherby the increaseof the

autonomy of institutions of higher education, especially universities.

Particularly,the establishment of the Boards of Education modelled on

those of the United States was a completely new reform for the edu-

cational world of Japan.

3. The reform of the school system aimed with thoroughnessat theprinciple of equal opportunity in education. This point may be viewed

rather as a continual development since the educational revolution of

Meijithan as a radical reform. In regardto the so called 6.3.3.4. school



system, which was establishedby the School Education Law (1947), the

unification of the school system and the three years extension of com-

pulsory education are worthy of notice. In addition, the abolishment of

the national peers' school for children of the imperial family and aris-

tocracy, the realization of co-education,the applicationof the compulsoryeducation law for blind and deaf children, part-time schooling for eco-

nomically handicappedpupils, education by correspondence,equality of

state, municipaland private schools,and the expansionof the scholarship

system were importantchangesin post-warJapan.4. Concerning ducationalcontent and method, the uniform,memoriz-

ing type of educationcenteringon text-books was revised in the direction

of an educationby self-activity centeringaroundlife, experienceand the

problemsituation of children. Moraleducationand Japanesehistory wereeither rejected or put under strict surveillance, or politely shunned, at

least in the beginning. Also, it should be mentioned that text-books

changedfrom state text-books to private editions.

5. It is naturalthat reformof teachertraining accompanieseducation-

al reform.The reformabolishedformernormalschoolsas teachertraininginstitutions. From this time on the qualified teachers are limited, as a

rule, to those who have finished four years' education in universities or

colleges (though2

yearsare

recognizedfor the time

being).The reasonfor

this basic qualificationis that we must expect in teachers not vocational-

ists of narrowviews but well-integratedpersonalitieswith wide human-

istic knowledge.6. There are three organizationswhich must not be overlookedin the

promotionof democracy n education. (a)Theorganizationof parentsand

teachersuniting home and school. The P.T.A., establishedafter the U.S.

model, is said to be at present36,000 in numberwith 15,000,000members.

(b)The teachers' union, chiefly composed of teachers in primary and

secondaryeducation. The membersare now about 550,000. The teachersof upper secondaryschools tend to organizeseparatelyandtheindepend-ent union members are said to be about 40,000. It must be noted that

these organizations have the character of labor unions rather than

professionalones. Beside these, there is the University Professors'Associ-

ation with 8,000 members. This is a professionalorganization.(c) Lastly,student organizationsin Japan, called "student self-governmentassoci-

ation,"exist in many institutions of highereducation.These organizationshave

been noted by the general public for theirconnections with leftist

social and political movementsratherthan for self-governingactivities in

the student life intra muros.

7. Finally, under this educational reform, adult education (called

344 TATSUO MORITO




"social education" in Japan) was stressed by the establishment of a

"Social Education Law" (1949). It is chiefly for labourers,youth and

women. Strong emphasis is being attached to educational facilities such

as citizens' public halls, libraries, museums and recently to mass-com-

munication. In this field, we must not overlook Unesco activities aimingat education for internationalunderstandingand cooperationpromoted

by the National Commission or UNESCO.

Evaluationof theEducationalReformThe educationalreformundoubtedlyhad deep significancein founding

the spiritual basis of the reconstructionof post-war Japan. At the same

time it was carried out (a)undera nationalmentality of extreme atrophy

and anxiety resulting from the unprecedented situation for Japan indefeat, (b)under an occupation which considerablylimited the nation's

autonomyandindependence,and(c)in an extremelyshorttime. Moreover,

(d) the pattern came from the United States where the contrast with

Japan is very great in such points as national wealth and standard of

living, historyandculture.Therefore, t did not always apply to the actual

condition and sometimes caused unnecessaryresentment and friction in

the course of its realization. The reformbecame an important issue even

duringthe

occupation.The

personswho took

upthese

problemswerenot

always conservative or reactionary but many were those who trulywereanxious about the futureeducationin this country.

As important problemsfor reinvestigationin the educationalreform,I

should like to point out the following:1. For this broad educational reform, the economic basis was insuf-

ficient. The chief causeof this regrettablecircumstanceagainlies basicallyin the fact that this educational reformof defeated and destitute Japan

adopted its model from the wealthy and prosperouscountry of the

United States. This defect appearedvividly in the equipment of edu-cational facilities, in the guarantee of appropriatesalary for educators,and in the scholarship, welfare and protection services for students.

Deficiency of economicsupportwas particularlyconspicuousin the lower

secondary schools that had been newly started. These schools needed

nearly 60 million dollars for their equipmentbut started with only about

2 million dollars, and as a result it is reported 177 village mayors were

obliged to resign and three committed suicide between April 1948-June

1949.2. An excellent plan of education was started without cautious prepa-ration. As a result there arosethe dangerof many unforeseendeviations

and abuses, some of which now became actual facts. For example, so-



called free education affords sometimes opportunities for easy-going,

irresponsible, aissez-faireeducation as well as the politically tinged one-

sided type of education. Also the freedom of associationfor educatorswas

utilized by their leaders to change their professionalorganizationsinto

class-conscious, fighting labour unions often slanted toward some left-

wing, political ideology. In that way an uneasy situation was broughtabout, in which universal education might be abused as a means for

ideologicalpropagandaand political strife. Further, the self-governmentactivities of students were frequently taken advantage of by politicalextremists, and became the means of disturbing the order of both com-

munity and campus.3. Foreign institutions transplanted to a new climate do not always

attain to the same success as at home, For instance, the system of boardsof education so strongly recommendedby the United States Education

Mission,and in particularthat of the local boards of education with the

excessive subdivision of educational administration,are already causing

many difficulties and criticisms today. There are serious doubts as to

whether in this country the main roadof democratic educationshould be

sought in excessive local subdivisionof the administration.4. In the educational reform, preponderancehas been given to intel-

lectualtraining

and as a result the moral andspiritual

educationofyouthhas been ratherneglected. This fault in the new education, together with

the moral devastation caused by the War, has acceleratedthe egocentricand materialistictendency of the younger generation.This is considered

as the main cause of youth's weakness: lack of loyalty and sense of

responsibilityto the community to which they belong, as well as loss oftheir interest in the cultural and moral traditionsof their native land and"decadenceof youth" so often talked about.

The post-war educational reform,so far as we have seen, seems to be

reproducingalong the same basic line, though in a different level, thefaults as well as the merits of the educationalrevolutionof early Meiji.

Task of Education n IndependentJapanJapan became independent in 1952, shouldering the educational

reform and its problems. Although this independence cannot be called

complete, Japan was able to cultivate her own destiny with autonomyand responsibilityquite different from the occupationperiod. Therefore,the various

problems raised by the educational reformhave

hadto

besolved by her own judgment and responsibility.We must not forget the change of conditionsduringthe past ten years.

First of all the world before us is not a peaceful "one world" as was

346 TATSUO MORITO




thought right after the termination of the war, but is divided into "two

worlds" opposing each other with arms. Small and weak Japan stands

between them as a defenceless nation. Secondly, within the country,instead of headingfor reconstructionas a united nation, it is fearedthat

the country may become a play-groundfor class antagonismand struggleunder the influence of Marxism. Indeed, Japan faces grave crises,both

international and domestic.

Under such serious circumstances, the people are at last recoveringfrom frustration and are endeavoring to regain confidence and pride in

their mother-country,national community, and her culture. Is the edu-

cation conceived on the premises of a secure and peaceful society ap-

propriate for this hard period of crisis? We seem to stand in a similar

situation in regardto the educational reformto that of the-middleof theMeijiperiod when the educational revolution was remodelled.From this

standpoint, I shall discuss the tasks of education in independent Japan.In a periodof crisis, education should foster the sense of responsibility

and duty towards the community as well as the freedomand rightsof the

individual in the community. Instead of ego-centric materialism, it is

necessary to emphasize loyalty and love towards the home land and

national community. Because, in my opinion, the realizationof a demo-

cratic,peaceful,

welfarestate will bepromoted

notby simply wishing

for

high ideals but by loyalty and devotion to the land where such ideals are

to be realized and for the nation chargedwith the great task.

On the other hand, such loyalty and love shouldco-exist and cooperatewith the worldcommunitynow being created.This is the most urgentand

fundamental task of educationin our country, and, at the same time, the

central task of "educationfor internationalunderstanding",which is the

"Keystone" of the programmeof Unesco.2. Educationin a periodof crisisshouldstrengthennationalaccordand

unity in order to promotethe independenceand prosperityof the nationalcommunity aspiring towards a world community. For this reason, too,

publiceducation shouldnot becomethe place forclass struggleorpoliticalconflicts and should not be treated as meansto attain politicalsupremacy.Nevertheless, in this age of crisis, both the party in power and the oppo-sition parties arestrongly tempted to misuse educationand consequentlyteachers and pupils as political tools. This is why the neutral characterof

educationshould be emphasizedand defendedwith might and main.

3. Aperiod

ofcrisis calls for clear and

vividideals, unerring

decision

and well-integrated personality with courage to act. Moder society-characteristicsofwhicharetechnologyanddivisionoflabour,organizationand concentrated power - makes it difficult to develop such well-inte-



grated men of active character.Moreover,the necessity of a moral edu-

cation in the above sense is keenly felt by those who assert the formation

of well-integratedpersonalitieson the basis of universalhumannature in

oppositionto the class ideology of Marxismand the racialone of Fascism.

Yet, the reformededucation which has as yet rationalistic inclinationcan not answer the demand for formation of well-integrated men of

character. It goes without saying that teaching methods and curricula

should be revised accordingly.4. Of course, a good education requires good teachers. With such a

purpose, the educational reform started new institutions for teacher

training. Nevertheless, we are faced with the deplorable fact that the

number of teacher applicants is not enough to satisfy the demand, and

that, generally speaking, their ability is inferior to that of the applicantsin other courses.The causes seem to be chiefly (a) that teachers' salaries

are low, (b)that social prestige and respect for teachers have decreased,and (c)that the teachersthemselves have less prideand sense of callingin

their teaching profession.5. It is especially difficult in a period of crisis to secure a stable eco-

nomic basis for education. We must make compulsory education com-

pletely free and endeavour to raise the minimum amount of expense for

compulsoryeducation

legally guaranteedin the national

budget,as well

as extending it to the fields of upper secondary and higher education.

Next, for teachers of various schools, we should help raise their salaries

appropriate to the dignity and duty of teachers. Furthermore, it is

necessaryto secureequal opportunityin educationfor needy students by

promoting scholarships, part-time schooling, correspondenceeducation

and students' health and welfare services. Though economic support of

educationis most difficult in a devastated country, the task is keenly felt

as an urgent necessity.

The above are the tasks in educationthat have been especiallyaccentu-ated in Japan since its independence. Besides these, we are confronted

with many questions.For example,what can be done to make the Funda-

mental Law of Education that took the place of the ImperialRescript on

Education not a dead letter but a living and inspiringguiding principle;how much flexibility should be given to the too simplifiedand inflexible

6.3.3.4. school system so that it can be applied to the complicated con-

ditions of modernsociety; how should we revise the boards of education

that still seem exotic to ourcountry

and furthermorehavegone

too far in

local sub-division of educational administration? Also there are manyother problemsin the new education, such as the loweringof intellectual

attainmentand scholasticability, difficultyin entranceto universities and

348 TATSUO MORITO



EDUCATIONALREFORMAND ITS PROBLEMS N POST-WARJAPAN 349

the accompanying problem of entrance tests, with its deplorable effect

upon individual students and secondary education in general. But I wish

to limit myself here by only pointing these out as tasks in education that

must be solved by the new independent nation on her own responsibility.

Basic Direction of Remodelling

Concerning the educational reform, the present day, ten years since the

termination of the War, corresponds to the time of reappraisal two

decades after the educational revolution of early Meiji. Looking back,

criticism at that time was focused upon the over-intellectual and in-

dividualistic tendency of the first educational revolution, although the

significance of the progressive innovation aiming at westernization was

not overlooked. At the same time, looking forward, it should have caughta glimpse of the tragic doom of falling into ultra-nationalism and

militarism which deserve equally severe criticism.

The remodelling of the educational reform in independent Japan should

take account of recent history. It seems to urge us strongly to develop a

new aspect through the formation of well-integrated personalities based

on dignity and equality of human beings, without degenerating into

something feudalistic and reactionary, and to cultivate the kind of patriot-ism which will harmonize and

co-operatewith the world

communityin

loyalty and love, never falling into chauvinism and fascism.

I am convinced that such is and should be the basic direction of the

remodelling of the educational reform of post-war Japan.

PROBLEME DER ERZIEHUNGSREFORM IM NACHKRIEGSJAPAN

von TATSUOMORITO,Hiroshima

Japan erlebte wahrend der letzten drei Generationen zwei grole Ereuerungs-

prozesse seines Bildungs- und Erziehungswesens. Der erste folgte auf die politischeRevolution von 1868, der zweite setzte nach dem Zusammenbruch von 1945 ein.

Das Ziel der ersten Bildungsrevolution war die Einbeziehung Japans in den

westlichen Kulturkreis; dieses Ziel bestimmte die Leitideen, das Schulsystem und

die Lehrplane des neuen Bildungswesens.Die 1868 iiberstiirzt eingefiihrten Neuerungen wurden von konservativen und

nationalistischen Kreisen heftig kritisiert, so dab3Japan 2 Jahrzehnte spater das

neu eingefuhrte Bildungssystem anderte. Der nunmehr mal3gebende Bildungsin-halt beruhte auf einer Synthese des westlichen Rationalismus, der sittlichen

Prinzipien des Ostens und des modernen Nationalismus. Die Leitideen dazu gab

der Kaiserliche Erla3 iiber Erziehung und Bildung (Imperial Rescript on Education).Dieses so geanderte Bildungsziel bestimmte von da an das japanische Bildungs- und

Erziehungswesen. Die rasche Entwicklung des japanischen Nationalstaates, der

sich wachsenden internationalen Spannungen gegeniibersah, fuhrte jedoch zum



350 TATSUOMORITO

Ultra-Nationalismus und Militarismus, deren Geist auch das Erziehungswesenbeeinflul3te. So wurde Japan in den Krieg im Pazifik getrieben, der zu seiner

Niederlage fiihrte.Nach dem Krieg schworen die Japaner alien faschistischen Tendenzen ab und

strebten dieErrichtung

eines demokratischen, friedlichen, sozialen und kulturellen

Einfluissen aufgeschlossenen Staates an. Diese zweite Reform der Bildung und

Erziehung war von der tberzeugung getragen, dab ,,so hohe Ideale grundsatzlichdurch die Macht der Erziehung verwirklicht werden sollten". Als eine zweite Orien-

tierung nach Westen tragt die Reform folgende Ziige: Sie schaffte das Imperial

Rescript on Education ab, dezentralisierte das Schulwesen, fiihrte das amerikanische

Schulsystem ein, demokratisierte Inhalt und Methode der Erziehung, verbesserte die

Lehrer-Ausbildung, unterstiitzte die Bildung von Eltern- und Lehrer-Vereini-

gungen, Lehrer-Gewerkschaften und studentischer Selbstverwaltung, und forderte

die Erwachsenenbildung, vor allem fur der Schulpflicht entwachsene Jugendliche,fur Arbeiter und Frauen.

Die Bildungsreform, die in auBerordentlich kurzer Zeit durchgefiihrt wurde und

zwar angesichts der labilen Mentalitat des japanischen Volkes wahrend der Besat-

zungszeit - und die sich daruber hinaus ein Land mit vollig anderen Verhaltnissen

zum Vorbild nahm - entsprach nicht immer den tatsachlichen Gegebenheiten und

hatte oft unnotige Verstimmungen und Reibungen zur Folge. Zu den Problemen

dieser letzten Reform zahlten unter anderem: 1) ungeniigende finanzielle Unter-

stiitzung, 2) Mangel an sorgfaltiger Vorbereitung, 3) Schwierigkeiten bei der

Anpassung iiberommener auslandischer Systeme, und 4) der Vorrang, der der

intellektuellen Ausbildung gegeben wurde. Die Erziehungs- und Bildungsreformvon 1945 weist anscheinend fast die gleichen Vorziige und Fehler auf wie die fruhere

Bildungsrevolution.Es ist die Aufgabe des Erziehungs- und Bildungswesens im unabhangigen Japan,

diese Probleme aus eigenem Ermessen und aus eigener Verantwortung zu losen,

trotz internationaler und innerer Krisen. In Krisenzeiten sollte die Erziehung 1)den Sinn fur Verantwortung und Pflicht gegeniiber der nationalen Gemeinschaft -

die ihrerseits loyales Mitglied der Weltgemeinschaft ist - wecken und starken. 2)nationale Eintracht und Einheit festigen, 3) klare und lebendige Ideale, sichere

Entscheidungen und zum Handeln bereite Personlichkeieten f6rdern; 4) sollte der

Lehrerausbildung ernsthaftere Aufmerksamkeit geschenkt und 5) ausreichende

Mittel fur die Durchfuhrung der Erziehungsaufgaben bereitgestellt werden.

Bei der Gestaltung der Nachkriegs-Bildungsreform mussen wir aus der erstenRevolution lernen und versuchen, durch die Heranbildung von Personlichkeiten

einen neuen Ansatzpunkt zu finden und einen Patriotismus zu pflegen, der sich,von Treue und Liebe getragen, in die Volkergemeinschaft einfiigt und in ihr wirkt.

LA RItFORME PP1DAGOGIQUE ET SES PROBLJ-MES

DANS LE JAPON D'APRPtS-GUERRE

par TATSUOMORITO,Hiroshima

A deux reprises differentes au cours des trois dernieres g6n6rations, l'6ducationasubi au Japon de profondes transformations. La r6volution politique de 1868 avait

entrain6 une veritable revolution dans le domaine de l'enseignement. La d6faite de

1945, a son tour, fut l'occasion d'une r6forme p6dagogique.



EDUCATIONALREFORMAND ITS PROBLEMS N POST-WARJAPAN 351

La premiere revolution p6dagogique s'6tait donne pour tache l'occidentalisation

du Japon. On retrouve cette dominante a la fois dans les principes de base, dans le

systeme scolaire et dans les programmes.Cette occidentalisation pr6cipitee fut en butte a des severes critiques provenant

des milieux conservateurs et nationalistes.Vingt

ansplus

tard, une refonte de

l'education nouvelle permettait de realiser une synthese entre le rationalisme occi-

dental, les principes moraux de l'Orient et le nationalisme modere; les principesfondamentaux en furent 6nonc6s dans le Rescrit Imp6rial sur l']~ducation. La

reforme ainsi amend6e a servi de base depuis cette 6poque a l'6ducation japonaise.

Cependant le developpement accel6r6 de l'rtat japonais conjug6 aux effets d'une

tension internationale croissante, conduisirent peu a peu a l'aggravation des ten-

dances hyper-nationaliste et militariste qui finirent par impr6gner tout le domaine

de 1'education. Puis le Japon s'engagea dans la guerre du Pacifique; la defaite l'yattendait.

Apres la guerre, le

peuple japonais r6pudiatoutes tendances fascistes et s'efforca de

construire un 6tat d6mocratique et pacifique soucieux de bien-etre et de culture.

"Ces nobles id6aux ne peuvent prendre corps et s'enraciner que par la force de

l'6ducation", tel fut le mot d'ordre de la seconde r6forme pedagogique. Cette

reforme que l'on pourrait appeler une deuxieme occidentalisation est caract6ris6e

par les traits suivants. 1) Abolition du Rescrit Imperial sur l'lducation. 2) Decen-

tralisation administrative. 3) ]itablissement du systeme scolaire dit "6.3.3.4".. 4)Democratisation des programmes et des m6thodes. 5) Revision de la formation

des maitres. 6) Soutien donn6 aux associations des parents et maitres, aux syndicats

d'enseignants et aux associations autonomes d'6tudiants et 7) Institution de

l'education des adultes destin6e sp6cialement a la jeunesse, aux travailleurs et a la

population f6minine.Mise en place en un delai extremement court, pendant l'occupation 6trangere, a

une 6poque oi les esprits 6taient instables, inspiree de l'exemple et des m6thodes

d'un pays ou les conditions sont totalement diff6rentes, la r6forme ne repondait pas

toujours aux exigences de l'actualite. Elle provoqua bien souvent inutilement de

l'amertume et des disputes. On lui reprocha entre autres 1)l'insuffisance des moyens

financiers, 2) le manque de preparation s6rieuse, 3) les difficultes que pr6sententla transplantation et l'acclimatation d'institutions 6trangeres et 4) la pr6dominanceaccord6e a la formation intellectuelle. Par6e des memes vertus que la premiererevolution pedagogique, la reforme d'apres-guerre semble condamn6e areproduire

les memes erreurs.Face aux crises internationales ou int6rieures, le Japon independant doit r6soudre

les problemes pos6s par l'education sous sa propre responsabilite et selon son propre

jugement. 1) Dans une periode troublee, il lui faut developper le sens du devoir et

de la responsabilite a l'egard de la nation consideree comme partenaire loyalede la

communaute mondiale. 2) L'education doit renforcer l'entente et l'unite de la

nation. 3) Elle doit proposer des id6aux clairs et vivants, des solutions sires et

former des personnalites bien adaptees et capables d'initiative. 4) Une plus grandeattention devra etre port6e a la formation des maitres et enfin 5) l'education doit

s'assurer des bases financieres stables.

La refonte de la reforme p6dagogique d'apres-guerre doit tenir compte de l'exp6-rience de la premiere revolution pedagogique. Il lui faut trouver une formule

nouvelle, former des individus bien adaptes et d6velopper une forme de patriotisme

qui se concilie avec une cooperation franche et amicale au sein de la commu-

naute des peuples.

Pot War Japan

Documents