CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 PROTECTIVE DEVICES Equipment applied to electric power systems to detect abnormal and intolerable conditions and to initiate appropriate corrective actions. These devices include lightning arresters, surge protectors, fuses, and relays with associated circuit breakers, recloses, and so forth. From time to time, disturbances in the normal operation of a power system occur. These may be caused by natural phenomena, such as lightning, wind, or snow; by falling objects such as trees; by animal contacts or chewing; by accidental means traceable to reckless drivers, inadvertent acts by plant maintenance personnel, or other acts of humans; or by conditions produced in the system itself, such as switching surges, load swings, or equipment failures. Protective devices must therefore be installed on power systems to ensure continuity of electrical service, to limit injury to people, and to limit damage to equipment when problem situations develop. Protective devices are applied commensurately with the degree of protection desired or felt necessary for the particular system. 1.1.1 NEED OF PROTECTIVE DEVICES Current flow in a conductor always generates heat. Excess heat is damaging to electrical components. Over current protection devices are used to protect conductors from excessive current flow. Thus protective devices are designed to keep the flow of current in a circuit at a safe level to prevent the circuit conductors from overheating. 1.1.2 PROTECTIVE RELAYS These are compact analog or digital networks, connected to various points of an electrical system, to detect abnormal conditions occurring within their assigned areas. They initiate disconnection of the trouble area by circuit breakers. These relays range from the simple overload unit on house circuit breakers to complex systems used to protect extra high-voltage power transmission lines. They operate on voltage, current, current direction, power factor, power, impedance, temperature.
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Transcript
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 PROTECTIVE DEVICES
Equipment applied to electric power systems to detect abnormal and intolerable conditions and to
initiate appropriate corrective actions. These devices include lightning arresters, surge protectors,
fuses, and relays with associated circuit breakers, recloses, and so forth.
From time to time, disturbances in the normal operation of a power system occur. These may be
caused by natural phenomena, such as lightning, wind, or snow; by falling objects such as trees;
by animal contacts or chewing; by accidental means traceable to reckless drivers, inadvertent acts
by plant maintenance personnel, or other acts of humans; or by conditions produced in the system
itself, such as switching surges, load swings, or equipment failures. Protective devices must
therefore be installed on power systems to ensure continuity of electrical service, to limit injury to
people, and to limit damage to equipment when problem situations develop. Protective devices are
applied commensurately with the degree of protection desired or felt necessary for the particular
system.
1.1.1 NEED OF PROTECTIVE DEVICES
Current flow in a conductor always generates heat. Excess heat is damaging to electrical
components. Over current protection devices are used to protect conductors from excessive current
flow. Thus protective devices are designed to keep the flow of current in a circuit at a safe level to
prevent the circuit conductors from overheating.
1.1.2 PROTECTIVE RELAYS
These are compact analog or digital networks, connected to various points of an electrical system,
to detect abnormal conditions occurring within their assigned areas. They initiate disconnection of
the trouble area by circuit breakers. These relays range from the simple overload unit on house
circuit breakers to complex systems used to protect extra high-voltage power transmission lines.
They operate on voltage, current, current direction, power factor, power, impedance, temperature.
In all cases there must be a measurable difference between the normal or tolerable operation and
the intolerable or unwanted condition. System faults for which the relays respond are generally
short circuits between the phase conductors, or between the phases and grounds. Some relays
operate on unbalances between the phases, such as an open or reversed phase. A fault in one part
of the system affects all other parts. Therefore relays and fuses throughout the power system must
be coordinated to ensure the best quality of service to the loads and to avoid operation in the no
faulted areas unless the trouble is not adequately cleared in a specified time. See Fuse (electricity),
Relay
1.1.3 ZONE PROTECTION
For the purpose of applying protection, the electric power system is divided into five major
protection zones: generators; transformers; buses; transmission and distribution lines; and motors
(see illustration). Each block represents a set of protective relays and associated equipment
selected to initiate correction or isolation of that area for all anticipated intolerable conditions or
trouble. The detection is done by protective relays with a circuit breaker used to physically
disconnect the equipment. For other areas of protection See Grounding, Uninterruptible power
system
1.1.4 FAULT DETECTION
Fault detection is accomplished by a number of techniques, including the detection of changes in
electric current or voltage levels, power direction, ratio of voltage to current, temperature, and
comparison of the electrical quantities flowing into a protected area with the quantities flowing
out, also known as differential protection.
1.1.5 DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION
This is the most fundamental and widely used protection technique. The system compares currents
to detect faults in a protection zone. Current transformers on either side of the protection zone
reduce the primary currents to small secondary values, which are the inputs to the relay. For load
through the equipment or for faults outside of the protection zone, the secondary currents from the
two transformers are essentially the same, and they are directed so that the current through the
relay sums to essentially zero. However, for internal trouble, the secondary currents add up to flow
through the relay.
1.1.6 OVERCURRENT PROTECTION
This must be provided on all systems to prevent abnormally high currents from overheating and
causing mechanical stress on equipment. Overcurrent in a power system usually indicates that
current is being diverted from its normal path by a short circuit. In low-voltage, distribution-type
circuits, such as those found in homes, adequate overcurrent protection can be provided by fuses
that melt when current exceeds a predetermined value.
Small thermal-type circuit breakers also provide overcurrent protection for this class of circuit. As
the size of circuits and systems increases, the problems associated with interruption of large fault
currents dictate the use of power circuit breakers. Normally these breakers are not equipped with
elements to sense fault conditions, and therefore overcurrent relays are applied to measure the
current continuously. When the current has reached a predetermined value, the relay contacts
close. This actuates the trip circuit of a particular breaker, causing it to open and thus isolate the
fault. See Circuit breaker [5]
1.1.7 DISTANCE PROTECTION
Distance-type relays operate on the combination of reduced voltage and increased current
occasioned by faults. They are widely applied for the protection of higher voltage lines. A major
advantage is that the operating zone is determined by the line impedance and is almost completely
independent of current magnitudes.
1.1.8 OVERVOLTAGE PROTECTION
Lightning in the area near the power lines can cause very short-time overvoltages in the system
and possible breakdown of the insulation. Protection for these surges consists of lightning arresters
connected between the lines and ground. Normally the insulation through these arresters prevents
current flow, but they momentarily pass current during the high-voltage transient to limit
overvoltage. Overvoltage protection is seldom applied elsewhere except at the generators, where
it is part of the voltage regulator and control system. In the distribution system, overvoltage relays
are used to control taps of tap-changing transformers or to switch shunt capacitors on and off the
circuits. See Lightning and surge protection
1.1.9 UNDER VOLTAGE PROTECTION
This must be provided on circuits supplying power to motor loads. Low-voltage conditions cause
motors to draw excessive currents, which can damage the motors. If a low-voltage condition
develops while the motor is running, the relay senses this condition and removes the motor from
service.
1.1.10 UNDERFREQUENCY PROTECTION
A loss or deficiency in the generation supply, the transmission lines, or other components of the
system, resulting primarily from faults, can leave the system with an excess of load. Solid-state
and digital-type under frequency relays are connected at various points in the system to detect this
resulting decline in the normal system frequency. They operate to disconnect loads or to separate
the system into areas so that the available generation equals the load until a balance is
reestablished.
1.1.11 REVERSE-CURRENT PROTECTION
This is provided when a change in the normal direction of current indicates an abnormal condition
in the system. In an ac circuit, reverse current implies a phase shift of the current of nearly 180°
from normal. This is actually a change in direction of power flow and can be directed by ac
directional relays.
1.1.12 PHASE UNBALANCE PROTECTION
This protection is used on feeders supplying motors where there is a possibility of one phase
opening as a result of a fuse failure or a connector failure. One type of relay compares the current
in one phase against the currents in the other phases. When the unbalance becomes too great, the
relay operates. Another type monitors the three-phase bus voltages for unbalance. Reverse phases
will operate this relay.
1.1.13 REVERSE-PHASE-ROTATION PROTECTION
Where direction of rotation is important, electric motors must be protected against phase reversal.
A reverse-phase-rotation relay is applied to sense the phase rotation. This relay is a miniature three-
phase motor with the same desired direction of rotation as the motor it is protecting. If the direction
of rotation is correct, the relay will let the motor start. If incorrect, the sensing relay will prevent
the motor starter from operating.
1.1.14 THERMAL PROTECTION
Motors and generators are particularly subject to overheating due to overloading and mechanical
friction. Excessive temperatures lead to deterioration of insulation and increased losses within the
machine. Temperature-sensitive elements, located inside the machine, form part of a bridge circuit
used to supply current to a relay. When a predetermined temperature is reached, the relay operates,
initiating opening of a circuit breaker or sounding of an alarm.
1.2 WHAT IS FUSE?
Fig 1.1 Fuse
A fuse is a one-time over-current protection device employing a fusible link that melts (blows)
after the current exceeds a certain level for a certain length of time. Typically, a wire or chemical
compound breaks the circuit when the current exceeds the rated value. A fuse interrupts excessive
current so that further damage by overheating or fire is prevented. Wiring regulations often define
a maximum fuse current rating for particular circuits. Over current protection devices are essential
in electrical systems to limit threats to human life and property damage. Fuses are selected to allow
passage of normal current and of excessive current only for short periods.
1.2.1 HISTORY
In 1847, Breguet recommended use of reduced-section conductors to protect telegraph stations
from lightning strikes; by melting, the smaller wires would protect apparatus and wiring inside the
building. A variety of wire or foil fusible elements were in use to protect telegraph cables and
lighting installations as early as 1864.
A fuse was patented by Thomas Edison in 1890 as part of his successful electric distribution system
1.2.2 CONSTRUCTION
A fuse consists of a metal strip or wire fuse element, of small cross-section compared to the circuit
conductors, mounted between a pair of electrical terminals, and (usually) enclosed by a non-
combustible housing. The fuse is arranged in series to carry all the current passing through the
protected circuit. The resistance of the element generates heat due to the current flow. The size
and construction of the element is (empirically) determined so that the heat produced for a normal
current does not cause the element to attain a high temperature. If too high a current flows, the
element rises to a higher temperature and either directly melts, or else melts a soldered joint within
the fuse, opening the circuit.
The fuse element is made of zinc, copper, silver, aluminum, or alloys to provide stable and
predictable characteristics. The fuse ideally would carry its rated current indefinitely, and melt
quickly on a small excess. The element must not be damaged by minor harmless surges of current,
and must not oxidize or change its behavior after possibly years of service.
The fuse elements may be shaped to increase heating effect. In large fuses, current may be divided
between multiple strips of metal. A dual-element fuse may contain a metal strip that melts instantly
on a short-circuit, and also contain a low-melting solder joint that responds to long-term overload
of low values compared to a short-circuit. Fuse elements may be supported by steel or nichrome
wires, so that no strain is placed on the element, but a spring may be included to increase the speed
of parting of the element fragments.
The fuse element may be surrounded by air, or by materials intended to speed the quenching of
the arc. Silica sand or non-conducting liquids may be used.
1.2.3 CHARACTERISTIC PARAMETERS
RATED CURRENT IN
A maximum current that the fuse can continuously conduct without interrupting the circuit.
SPEED
The speed at which a fuse blows depends on how much current flows through it and the
material of which the fuse is made. The operating time is not a fixed interval, but decreases as
the current increases. Fuses have different characteristics of operating time compared to
current, characterized as fast-blow, slow-blow, or time-delay, according to time required to
respond to an overcurrent condition. A standard fuse may require twice its rated current to open
in one second, a fast-blow fuse may require twice its rated current to blow in 0.1 seconds, and
a slow-blow fuse may require twice its rated current for tens of seconds to blow.
Fuse selection depends on the load's characteristics. Semiconductor devices may use a fast or
ultrafast fuse as semiconductor devices heat rapidly when excess current flows. The fastest
blowing fuses are designed for the most sensitive electrical equipment, where even a short
exposure to an overload current could be very damaging. Normal fast-blow fuses are the most
general purpose fuses. The time delay fuse (also known as anti-surge, or slow-blow) are
designed to allow a current which is above the rated value of the fuse to flow for a short period
of time without the fuse blowing. These types of fuse are used on equipment such as motors,
which can draw larger than normal currents for up to several seconds while coming up to speed.
THE I2T VALUE
The amount of energy spent by the fuse element to clear the electrical fault. This term is
normally used in short circuit conditions and the values are used to perform co-ordination
studies in electrical networks. I2t parameters are provided by charts in manufacturer data sheets
for each fuse family. For coordination of fuse operation with upstream or downstream devices,
both melting I2t and clearing I2t are specified. The melting I2t, is proportional to the amount
of energy required to begin melting the fuse element. The clearing I2t is proportional to the
total energy let through by the fuse when clearing a fault. The energy is mainly dependent on
current and time for fuses as well as the available fault level and system voltage. Since the I2t
rating of the fuse is proportional to the energy it lets through, it is a measure of the thermal
damage and magnetic forces that will be produced by a fault.
BREAKING CAPACITY
The breaking capacity is the maximum current that can safely be interrupted by the fuse.
Generally, this should be higher than the prospective short circuit current. Miniature fuses may
have an interrupting rating only 10 times their rated current. Some fuses are designated High
Rupture Capacity (HRC) and are usually filled with sand or a similar material. Fuses for small,
low-voltage, usually residential, wiring systems are commonly rated, in North American
practice, to interrupt 10,000 amperes. Fuses for larger power systems must have higher
interrupting ratings, with some low-voltage current-limiting high interrupting fuses rated for
300,000 amperes. Fuses for high-voltage equipment, up to 115,000 volts, are rated by the total
apparent power (megavolt-amperes, MVA) of the fault level on the circuit.
RATED VOLTAGE
Voltage rating of the fuse must be greater than or equal to what would become the open circuit
voltage. For example, a glass tube fuse rated at 32 volts would not reliably interrupt current
from a voltage source of 120 or 230 V. If a 32 V fuse attempts to interrupt the 120 or 230 V
source, an arc may result. Plasma inside that glass tube fuse may continue to conduct current
until current eventually so diminishes that plasma reverts to an insulating gas. Rated voltage
should be larger than the maximum voltage source it would have to disconnect. Rated voltage
remains same for any one fuse, even when similar fuses are connected in series. Connecting
fuses in series does not increase the rated voltage of the combination (nor of any one fuse).
Medium-voltage fuses rated for a few thousand volts are never used on low voltage circuits,
because of their cost and because they cannot properly clear the circuit when operating at very
low voltages.
VOLTAGE DROP
A voltage drop across the fuse is usually provided by its manufacturer. There is a direct
relationship between a fuse's cold resistance and its voltage drop value. Once current is applied,
resistance and voltage drop of a fuse will constantly grow with the rise of its operating
temperature until the fuse finally reaches thermal equilibrium or alternatively melts when
higher currents than its rated current are administered over sufficiently long periods of time.
This resulting voltage drop should be taken into account, particularly when using a fuse in low-
voltage applications. Voltage drop often is not significant in more traditional wire type fuses,
but can be significant in other technologies such as resettable fuse (PPTC) type fuses.
TEMPERATURE DERATING
Ambient temperature will change a fuse's operational parameters. A fuse rated for 1 A at 25
°C may conduct up to 10% or 20% more current at −40 °C and may open at 80% of its rated
value at 100 °C. Operating values will vary with each fuse family and are provided in
manufacturer data sheets.
PACKAGES AND MATERIALS
Fuses come in a vast array of sizes and styles to serve in many applications, manufactured in
standardized package layouts to make them easily interchangeable. Fuse bodies may be made
of ceramic, glass, plastic, fiberglass, molded mica laminates, or molded compressed fiber
depending on application and voltage class.
Cartridge (ferrule) fuses have a cylindrical body terminated with metal end caps. Some
cartridge fuses are manufactured with end caps of different sizes to prevent accidental insertion
of the wrong fuse rating in a holder, giving them a bottle shape.
Fuses for low voltage power circuits may have bolted blade or tag terminals which are secured
by screws to a fuse holder. Some blade-type terminals are held by spring clips. Blade type
fuses often require the use of a special purpose extractor tool to remove them from the fuse
holder.
Renewable fuses have replaceable fuse elements, allowing the fuse body and terminals to be
reused if not damaged after a fuse operation.
Fuses designed for soldering to a printed circuit board have radial or axial wire leads. Surface
mount fuses have solder pads instead of leads.
High-voltage fuses of the expulsion type have fiber or glass-reinforced plastic tubes and an
open end, and can have the fuse element replaced.
Semi-enclosed fuses are fuse wire carriers in which the fusible wire itself can be replaced. The
exact fusing current is not as well controlled as an enclosed fuse, and it is extremely important
to use the correct diameter and material when replacing the fuse wire, and for these reasons
these fuses are slowly falling from favor. (Current ratings from Table 53A of BS 7671: 1992)
DIMENSIONS
Fuses can be built with different sized enclosures to prevent interchange of types of fuse. For
example, bottle style fuses distinguish between ratings with different cap diameters.
Automotive glass fuses were made in different lengths, to prevent high-rated fuses being
installed in a circuit intended for a lower rating.
SPECIAL FEATURES
Glass cartridge and plug fuses allow direct inspection of the fusible element. Other fuses have
other indication methods including:
Indicating pin or striker pin — extends out of the fuse cap when the element is blown.
Indicating disc — a colored disc (flush mounted in the end cap of the fuse) falls out when the
element is blown.
Element window — a small window built into the fuse body to provide visual indication of a
blown element.
External trip indicator — similar function to striker pin, but can be externally attached (using
clips) to a compatible fuse.
Some fuses allow a special purpose micro switch or relay unit to be fixed to the fuse body.
When the fuse element blows, the indicating pin extends to activate the micro switch or relay,
which, in turn, triggers an event.
Some fuses for medium-voltage applications use two separate barrels and two fuse elements
in parallel
1.2.4 TYPES OF FUSES
A fuse unit essentially consists of a metal fuse element or link, a set of contacts between which it
is fixed and a body to support and isolate them. Many types of fuses also have some means for
extinguishing the arc which appears when the fuse element melts.
In general, there are two categories of fuses
Low voltage fuses
High voltage fuses
Usually isolating switches are provided in series with fuses where it is necessary to permit fuses
to be replaced or rewired with safety. In absence of such isolation means, the fuses must be so
shielded as to protect the user against accidental contact with the live metal when the fuse is being
inserted or removed.
REWIREABLE FUSES
The most commonly used fuse in 'house wiring' and small current circuit is the semi-enclosed
or rewire able fuse. (Also sometime known as KIT-KAT type fuse). It consist of a porcelain
base carrying the fixed contacts to which the incoming and outgoing live or phase wires are
connected and a porcelain fuse carrier holding the fuse element, consisting of one or more
strands of fuse wire, stretched between its terminals. The fuse carrier is separate part and can
be taken out or inserted in the base without risk, even without opening the main switch. If fuse
holder or carrier gets damaged during use, it may be replaced without replacing the complete
unit. The fuse wire may be of lead, tinned copper, aluminum or an alloy of tin-lead. The actual
fusing current will be about twice the rated current. When two or more fuse wire are used, the
wires should be kept apart and ad e rating factor of 0.7 to 0.8 should be employed to arrive at
the total fuse rating. The specification for rewire able fuses are covered by IS: 2086-
1963.Standard ratings are 6, 16, 32, 63, and 100A. A fuse wire of any rating not exceeding the
rating of the fuse may be used in it that is a 80 A fuse wire can be used in a 100 A fuse, but not
in the 63 A fuse. On occurrence of a fault, the fuse element blows off and the circuit is
interrupted. The fuse carrier is pulled out, the blown out fuse element is replaced by new one
and the supply can is resorted by re-inserting the fuse carrier in the base. Though such fuses
have the advantage of easy removal or replacement without any danger of coming into the
contact with a lie part and negligible replacement cost but suffers from following
Disadvantages
Unreliable Operations
Lack of Discrimination
Small time lag
Low rupturing capacity
No current limiting feature
Slow speed of operations
1.2.4.1 TOTALLY ENCLOSED OR CARTIDGES TYPE FUSE.
The fuse element is enclosed in a totally enclosed container and is provided with metal contacts
on both sides. These fuses are further classified as
D-type
Link type
Link type cartridges are again of two type’s viz. Knife blade or bolted type.
D- Type Cartridges Fuses
It is a non-interchangeable fuse comprising s fuse base, adapter ring, cartridge and a fuse cap.
The cartridge is pushed in the fuse cap and the cap is screwed on the fuse base. On complete
screwing the cartridge tip touches the conductor and circuit between the two terminals is
completed through the fuse link. The standard ratings are 6, 16, 32, and 63 amperes. The
breaking or rupturing capacity is of the order of 4k A for 2 and 4ampere fuses the 16k A for
63 A fuses. D-type cartridge fuse have none of the drawbacks of the rewire able fuses. Their
operation is reliable. Coordination and discrimination to a reasonable extent and achieved with
them.
Link type Cartridge or High Rupturing Capacity (HRC)
Where large number of concentrations of powers are concerned, as in the modern distribution
system, it is essential that fuses should have a definite known breaking capacity and also this
breaking capacity should have a high value. High rupturing capacity cartridge fuse, commonly
called HRC cartridge fuses, have been designed and developed after intensive research by
manufactures and supply engineers in his direction. The usual fusing factor for the link fuses
is 1.45. The fuses for special applications may have as low as a fusing factor as 1.2.The
specifications for medium voltage HRC link fuses are covered under IS: 2202-1962
KNIFE BLAD TYPE HRC FUSE
It can be replaced on a live circuit at no load with the help of a special insulated fuse puller.
BOLTED TYPE HRC LINK FUSE
It has two conducting plates on either ends. These are bolted on the plates of the fuse base.
Such a fuse needs an additional switch so that the fuse can be taken out without getting a shock.
Preferred ratings of HRC fuses are 2, 4, 6, 10, 16, 25, 30, 50, 63, 80, 100,125, 160, 200, 250,
320, 400, 500, 630,800, 1000 and 1,250 amperes.
1.3 WHAT IS A POLYFUSE?
Polyfuses is a new standard for circuit protection. It is re-settable by itself. Many manufactures
also call it as Polyswitch or Multifuse. Polyfuses are not fuses but Polymeric Positive temperature
Coefficient Thermistors (PPTC).
We can use several circuit protection schemes in power supplies to provide protection against fault
condition and the resultant over current and over temperature damage. Current can be
accomplished by using resistors, fuses, switches, circuit breakers or positive temperature
coefficient devices.
Resistors are rarely an acceptable solution because the high power resistors required are expensive.
One shot fuses can be used but they might fatigue and they must be replaced after a fault event.
Another good solution available is the resettable Ceramic Positive Temperature Coefficient
(CPTC) device. This technology is not widely used because of its high resistance and power
dissipation characteristics. These devices are also relatively large and vulnerable to cracking as
result of shock and vibration.
The preferred solution is the PPTC device, which has a very low resistance in normal operation
and high resistance when exposed to fault. Electrical shorts and electrically overloaded circuits
can cause over current and over temperature damage.
Like traditional fuses, PPTC devices limit the flow of dangerously high current during fault
condition. Unlike traditional fuses, PPTC devices reset after the fault is cleared and the power to
the circuit is removed. Because a PPTC device does not usually have to be replaced after it trips
and because it is small enough to be mounted directly into a motor or on a circuit board, it can be
located inside electronic modules, junction boxes and power distribution centers. [4] [1]
1.3.1 THE BASICS
Technically Polyfuses are not fuses but Polymeric Positive Temperature Coefficient Thermistors.
For thermistors characterized as positive temperature coefficient, the device resistance increases
with temperature. The PPTC circuit protection devices are formed from thin sheets of conductive
semi-crystalline plastic polymers with electrodes attached to either side. The conductive plastic is
basically a non-conductive crystalline polymer loaded with a highly conductive carbon to make it
conductive. The electrodes ensure the distribution of power through the circuit.
Polyfuses are usually packaged in radial, axial, surface mount, chip or washer form. These are
available in voltage ratings of 30 to 250 volts and current ratings of 20 mA to 100A.
Polyfuses are usually packaged in radial, axial, surface-mount, chip, disk, or washer form. The
conductive plastic is basically a non-conductive crystalline polymer loaded with a highly
conductive carbon to make it conductive. PPTC devices limit the flow of dangerously high current
during fault conditions. PPTC devices reset after the fault is cleared and the power to the circuit is
removed. [1]
1.4 OVER CURRENT PROTECTION
Polyfuse is a series element in a circuit. The PPTC device protects the circuit by going from a low-
resistance to a high-resistance state in response to an over current
Fig. 1.2 Over Current Protection Circuit Using Polyfuse device.
This refers to tripping the device. In normal operation the device has a resistance that is much
lower than the remainder of the circuit. In response to an over current condition, the device
increases in resistance (trips), reducing the current in the circuit to a value that can be safely carried
by any of the circuit elements. This change is the result of a rapid increase in the temperature of
the device, caused by I2R heating. [3]
1.5 What is a PPTC Device?
A PPTC device is a form of thermistor. A thermistors is a type of resistor whose resistance varies
significantly with temperature, more so than in standard resistors.
Fig 1.3 PPTC (Polymeric Positive Temperature Coefficient)
The word is a portmanteau of thermal and resistor. Thermistors are, widely used as inrush current
limiters, temperature sensors, self-resetting over current protectors and self- regulating heating
element.
Thermistors differ from resistance temperature detectors (RTD) in that the material used in a
thermistor is generally a ceramic or polymer, while RTDs use pure metals. The temperature
response is also different; RTDs are useful over larger temperature ranges, while thermistors
typically achieve a higher precision within a limited temperature range, typically −90 °C to 130
Where,
ΔR = change in resistance ΔT = change in temperature
k = first-order temperature coefficient of resistance.
Thermistors can be classified into two types, depending on the sign of k. If k is positive the
resistance increases with increasing temperature, and the device is called a positive temperature
coefficient (NTC) thermistor or posistor. If k is negative, the resistance decreases with increasing
temperature, and the device is called a negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor.
Resistors that are not thermistors are designed to have a k as close to zero as possible, so that their
resistance remains nearly constant over a wide temperature range. When a polymer film is attached
to PTC thermistors these are known as PPTC devices. [3]
1.6 RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE CHARACTERISTICS
The resistance/temperature characteristics of the two types are shown in Fig 1.4. The resistance
the NTC falls following an exponential characteristic over a wide temperature range. The NTC
Thermistor shows a large increase of resistance over a small temperature range of power
dissipation within the component. When thermistors, especially the small bead type, are used for
temperature measurement, the power dissipation must be kept to a low level to avoid inaccuracies
due to self-heating. Fig 1.4 shows the voltage-current characteristic of an NTC thermistor.
Fig.1.4: Resistance &Temperature Characteristics of NTC and PTC Thermistor
Initially the relationship is linear, since, at low power levels, the dissipation is insufficient to raise
the temperature above ambient. At higher power levels. Dissipation factor and thermal time-
constant are two further properties frequently quoted. The first of these is the power expressed in
mill watts required to raise the temperature of the thermistor by 1 deg C. The time constant is the
time for the resistance of the thermistor to change by 63 % of the total change when subjected to
a step function change in temperature. [6]
CHAPTER 2
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
Although sometimes referred to as "resettable fuses," PPTC devices are non-linear thermistors
used to limit current. PPTC circuit protection devices are made from a composite of semi-
crystalline polymer and conductive particles.
Fig 2.1 Operating curve as resistance varies with temperature
Polyfuse device operation is based on an overall energy balance. Under normal operating
conditions, the heat generated by the device and the heat lost by the device to the environment are
in balance at a relatively low temperature, as shown in Point 1 of Fig 2.1.
If the current through the device is increased while the ambient temperature is kept constant, the
temperature of the device increases. Further increases in either current, ambient temperature, or
both will cause the device to reach a temperature where the resistance rapidly increases, as shown
in Point 3 of Figure 2.1.
Any further increase in current or ambient temperature will cause the device to generate heat at a
rate greater than the rate at which heat can be dissipated, thus causing the device to heat up rapidly.
At this stage, a very large increase in resistance occurs for a very small change in temperature,
between points 3 and 4 of Figure 2.1.
This is the normal operating region for a device in the tripped state. This large change in resistance
causes a corresponding decrease in the current flowing in the circuit. This relation holds until the
device resistance reaches the upper knee of the curve (Point 4 of Figure 3). As long as the applied
voltage remains at this level, the device will remain in the tripped state (that is, the device will
remain latched in its protective state). Once the voltage is decreased and the power is removed the
device will reset.
However, if the temperature rises above the device's switching temperature (TSw) either from high
current through the part or from an increase in the ambient temperature, the crystallites in the
polymer become amorphous. The increase in volume during this phase separates the conductive
particles, resulting in a large non-linear increase in the resistance of the device.
In this case, the device resistance typically increases by three or more orders of magnitude. This
increased resistance helps protect the equipment in the circuit by reducing the amount of current
that can flow under the fault condition to a low, steady-state level. The device remains in its latched
(high-resistance) position until the fault is cleared and power to the circuit is cycled; at which time
the conductive composite cools and re-crystallizes, restoring the PPTC to a low- resistance state
in the circuit and the affected equipment to normal operating conditions.
Because PPTC devices transition to their high-impedance state based on the influence of
temperature, they help provide protection for two fault conditions: overcurrent and over
temperature. Overcurrent protection is provided when the PPTC device is heated internally due to
I2R power dissipated within the device. High current levels through the PPTC device heat it
internally to its switching temperature, causing it to "trip" and go into a high impedance state.
The PPTC device can also be made to trip by thermally linking it to a component or equipment--
such as a motor--that needs to be protected against damage caused by over temperature conditions.
If the equipment temperature reaches the PPTC device's switching temperature, the PPTC device
will transition to its high-impedance state, regardless of the current flowing through it. In this way,
the PPTC device can be used either to reduce the current to the equipment to very low levels, or
as an indicator to the control system that the equipment is overheating. The control system can
then determine what action is appropriate to protect equipment and personnel.
PPTC devices are employed as series elements in a circuit. Their small form factor helps conserve
valuable board space and, in contrast to traditional fuses that require user-accessibility, their
resettable functionality allows for placement in inaccessible locations. Because they are solid-state
devices, they are also able to withstand mechanical shock and vibration. [4][6]
2.1 VOLTAGE-TEMPERATURE CHARACTERISTICS
Fig 2.2 Voltage versus Temperature Characteristics of Polyfuse
Thermistors can also be made with a positive temperature coefficient of resistance but, as shown
in Fig.2.2 their characteristic is not the inverse of the NTC type. These thermistors are made from
barium titanate. When used in its monocrystalline form this material has a resistance which varies
inversely with temperature. A polyfuse is not however monocrystalline but rather numerous small
crystals bonded together during the sintering process. At a certain temperature, barrier layers form
at the inter crystalline boundaries and impedance to the electron flow. As the temperature rises, so
does the resistance of these barrier layers until, above a certain limit, the material resumes its
normal negative characteristics, but at a much higher resistance value. The nature of this resistance-
temperature characteristic prevents a simple mathematical relationship and manufacturers usually
quote a resistance at 25°C together with resistance values at other temperatures.
The term 'switch temperature, Tsw' is introduced to denote the temperature at which the resistance
starts to rise rapidly. It is defined as that temperature at which the thermistor has a resistance equal
to twice its minimum value. Examination of the voltage-current characteristic (Fig.2.2) shows the
initial linear portion of the curve where voltage and current rise together followed by the rapid
drop in current that occurs once the thermistor has changed to its high resistance state. [6]
CHAPTER 3
CONSTRUCTION & WORKING
PPTC fuses are constructed with a non-conductive polymer plastic film that exhibits two phases.
The first phase is a crystalline or semi-crystalline state where the molecules form long chains and
arrange in a regular structure. As the temperature increases the polymer maintains this structure
but eventually transitions to an amorphous phase where the molecules are aligned randomly, and
there is an increase in volume. The polymer is combined with highly conductive carbon. In the
crystalline phase the carbon particles are packed into the crystalline boundaries and form many
conductor combination has a low resistance.
Fig 3.1 Conductive paths and the Polymer Carbon
A current flowing through the device generates heat (I2R losses). As long as the temperature
increase does not cause a phase change, nothing happens. However, if the current increases enough
so that corresponding temperature rise causes a phase change, the polymer‟s crystalline structure
disappears, the volume expands, and the conducting carbon chains are broken. The result is a
dramatic increase in resistance. Whereas before in the phase change a polymer-carbon combination
may have a resistance measured milliohms or ohms, after the phase change the same structure‟s
resistance may be measured in mega ohms. Current flow is reduced accordingly, but the small
residual current and associated I2R loss is enough to latch the polymer in this state, and the fuse
will stay open until power is removed.
Fig 3.2 Polymer Molecules in Amorphous State
Fig 3.3 Transition of Molecules from Semi crystalline to Amorphous State
At normal working conditions, the molecules of the device are in low resistance state, which is
known as crystalline structure of the Polyfuse. When current starts to flow through the device, the
temperature of the molecules tends to increase and when the current exceeds from a certain level
the temperature increases and the resistance increases. So the molecules of the material go into
high resistance state so the current reduces accordingly in the device. Due to leakage current and
I2R losses the circuit is still open, until the power is fully removed from the circuit then the
molecules of the device cooled down and reforms in its original structure so the Polyfuse resets.
[5]
3.1 RESISTANCE RECOVERY AFTER A TRIP EVENT
Typical Resistance Recovery after a Trip Event Fig 3.3 shows typical behavior of a PolySwitch
device that is tripped and then allowed to cool.
Fig 3.4 Resistance Recovery after a Trip Event
This figure illustrates how, even after a number of hours, the device resistance is still greater than
the initial resistance. Over an extended period of time, device resistance will continue to fall and
will eventually approach initial resistance.
However, since this time can be days, months, or years, it is not practical to expect that the device
resistance will reach the original value for operation purposes. Therefore, when PolySwitch
devices are chosen R1MAX should be taken into consideration when determining hold current.
R1MAX is the resistance of the device one hour after the thermal event. [1]
3.2 OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF POLYMERIC PTC
Operating Characteristics of Polymeric PTC Figure 5 shows a typical pair of operating curves for
a PolySwitch device in still air at 0oC and 75oC. The curves are different because the heat required
to trip the device comes both from electrical I2R heating and from the device environment. At
75oC the heat input from the environment is substantially greater than it is at 0oC, so the additional
I2R needed to trip the device is correspondingly less, resulting in a lower trip current at a given
trip time (or a faster trip at given trip current). [1]
Fig 3.5 Example of Operating Characteristics of PPTC
3.3 DEVICE RESET TIME
Fig 3.6 Resistance Recovery after a Trip Event
Returning to Figure 3.6, we note that after a trip event, the resistance recovery to a quasi-stable
value is very rapid, with most of the recovery occurring within the first one-to-two minutes. Figure
3.7 shows the resistance recovery curve for a number of other leaded PolySwitch devices. The
power dissipation values were also measured to provide the user with a sense of the thermal
environment the device was placed in for the measurement. [1]
Fig 3.6 Typical Resistance Recovery after a Trip Event
As with other electrical properties, the resistance recovery time will depend upon both the design
of the device and the thermal environment. Since resistance recovery is related to the cooling of
the device, the greater the heat transfer, the more rapid the recovery (see Figure 6 for miniSMD075
devices on boards with traces of 0.010 inch and 0.060 inch).
3.3 OPERATING PARAMETERS
There are few operating parameters of the Polyfuse which are described below:
LEAKAGE CURRENT: A PTC is said to have “tripped” when it has transitioned from its
low resistance state to a high resistance state due to overload current. Protection is
accomplished by limiting the current fl ow to a low leakage level. Leakage current can range
from less than a hundred milliamps at rated voltage up to a few hundred milliamps at lower
voltages. The fuse on the other hand completely interrupts the current fl ow and this open
circuit results in no leakage current after it has been subjected to an overload current.
INITIAL RESISTANCE: It is the resistance of the device as received from the factory of
manufacturing
OPERATING VOLTAGE: The maximum voltage a device can withstand without damage
at the rated current.
HOLDING CURRENT: Safe current passing through the device under normal operating
conditions.
TRIP CURRENT: It is known as the value of current at which the device interrupts the current
of the device.
TIME TO TRIP: The time it takes for the device to trip at a given temperature.
TRIPPED STATE: Transition from the low resistance state to the high resistance state due to
an overload.
TRIP CYCLE: The number of trip cycles (at rated voltage and current) the device sustains
without failure.
TRIP ENDURANCE: The duration of time the device sustains its maximum rated voltage in
the tripped state without failure.
POWER DISSIPATION: Power dissipated by the device in its tripped state.
THERMAL DURATION: Influence of ambient temperature.
HYSTERESIS: The period between the actual beginning of the signaling of the device to trip
and the actual tripping of the device.
FAULT CURRENT: The PTC is rated for a maximum short circuit current at rated voltage.
This fault current level is the maximum current that the device can safely limit keeping in mind
that the PTC will not actually interrupt the current flow (see LEAKAGE CURRENT above).
The typical short circuit rating of a board-mounted PTC is 40A; for battery strap PTCs, this
value can reach 100A. Fuses do in fact interrupt the current fl ow in response to the overload
and the range of interrupting ratings vary from tens of amperes up to 10,000 amperes at rated
voltage.
OPERATING VOLTAGE RATING: General use PTCs are not rated above 60V while fuses
are rated up to 600V.
HOLD CURRENT RATING The hold (operating) current rating for PTCs can be up to 14A
while the maximum level for fuses can exceed 30A.
TEMPERATURE DERATING: The useful upper limit for a PTC is generally 85°C while
the maximum operating temperature for fuses is 125°C. The following temperature derating
curves (see chart at bottom of page) that compare PTCs to fuses illustrate that more derating
is required for a PTC at a given temperature. Additional operating characteristics can be
reviewed by the circuit designer in making the decision to choose a PTC or a fuse for
overcurrent protection.
AGENCY APPROVALS: PTCs are recognized under the Component Program of
Underwriters Laboratories to UL Standard 1434 for Thermistors. The devices have also been
approved for use in Canada by Underwriters Laboratories. Approvals for fuses include
Recognition under the Component Program of Underwriters Laboratories and the CSA
Component Acceptance Program. In addition, many fuses are listed in accordance with
UL/CSA/ANCE (Mexico) 248-14, Supplemental Fuses.
RESISTANCE: Reviewing product specifications indicates that similarly-rated PTCs have
about twice (sometimes more) the resistance of fuses. [3][5]
CHAPTER 4
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR PPTC DEVICES
Some of the critical parameters to consider when designing PPTC devices into a circuit include
device hold current and trip current, the effect of ambient conditions on device performance;
device reset time, leakage current in the tripped state and the automatic or manual reset conditions.
4.1 HOLD AND TRIP CURRENT
Fig. 4.1: Hold and Trip Current
Region A shows the combination of current and temperature at which the Region A
describes the combinations of current and temperature at which the Poly Switch device will
trip (go into the high-resistance state) and protect the circuit.
Region B describes the combinations of current and temperature at which the Poly Switch
device will allow for normal operation of the circuit.
Region C it is possible for the device to either trip or remain in the low-resistance state.
4.2 EFFECT OF AMBIENT CONDITIONS ON DEVICE PERFORMANCE
The heat transfer environment of the device can significantly affect the device performance. In
general, by increasing the heat transfer of the device, there is a corresponding increase in power
dissipation, time to trip and hold current. The opposite occurs if the heat transfer from the device
is decreased. Furthermore, changing the thermal mass around the device changes the time to trip
of the device.
If the heat generated is greater than the heat lost to the environment, the device will increase in
temperature resulting in a trip event. The rate of temperature rise and the total energy required to
make a device trip depends on the fault current and heat transfer environment. Under normal
operating conditions the heat generated by the device and the heat lost to the environment are in
balance.
Increases in current or ambient temperature or increase in both, cause the device to reach a
temperature at which the resistance rapidly increases. This large change in resistance causes a
corresponding decrease in the current flowing through the circuit, protecting the circuit from
damage.
4.3 TIME TO TRIP
The time to trip of a PPTC device is defined as the time needed from the onset of a fault current to
trip the device. Time to trip depends upon the size of the fault current and the ambient temperature.
4.4 DESIGN CRITERIA
To select the best device for a specific application, circuit designers should consider the following
design criteria:-
4.4.1 CHOOSE THE APPROPRIATE FORM FACTOR
Select from radial- leaded, surface-mount, or chip parts. For mounting on circuit boards, a radial-
leaded or surface- mount configuration is preferred. Radial-leaded parts are typically wave
soldered to the board. Chip parts are designed to be held in clips, usually in an electric motor.
4.4.2 CHOOSE A VOLTAGE RATING
The voltage rating of a PPTC device should equal or exceed the source voltage in a particular
circuit. Also the expected fault voltage should not be later than the PPTC voltage device. When a
PPTC device trips, the majority of circuit voltage appears across the device because it is the highest
resistance element present in the circuit.
4.4.3 CHOOSE A HOLD CURRENT RATING
(At the proper ambient operating temperature). Hold current is defined as the greatest steady state
current the PPTC device can carry without tripping into a high resistance state. Designers must
choose a PPTC device with a hold current at maximum ambient temperature equal to or greater
than the steady state operating current.
4.4.4 CHECK TRIP TIME
Designers should determine what fault currents may occur and how quickly the most sensitive
system components could be damaged at these currents. A PPTC device should be selected that
trips before these sensitive components would be damaged. Many applications experience a start-
up surge current from a capacitance or motor. Normally, this in-rush current does not contain
enough energy to trip the PPTC device, but the designers should confirm performance in their
application over the range of expected ambient conditions.
4.4.5 CHECK MAXIMUM INTERRUPT CURRENT
A PPTC device normally has a maximum interrupt current rating, i.e., the maximum fault current
that the device consistently interrupts while remaining functional. [3]
CHAPTER 5
TYPES OF POLYFUSES
5.1 SURFACE MOUNT RESETTABLE FUSES
Fig 5.1 Surface Mount Resettable Fuses
This surface mount polyfuse family of polymer of polymer based resettable fuses provides
reliable over current protection for a wide range of products such as computer motherboards,
USB hubs and ports, CD/DVD drives , digital cameras and battery packs. Each of these
polyfuse series features low voltage drops and fast trip times while offering full resettability.
This makes each an ideal choice for protection in datacom and battery powered applications
where momentary surges may occur during interchange of batteries or plug and play
operations.
The SMD0805 with the industry’s smallest footprint, measuring only 2.2mm by 1.5mm,
features four hold current ratings from 100mA to 500mA with a current interruption capability
of 40A at rated voltage. Both the SMD1206 and SMD1210 series are optimized for protection
of computer peripherals, PC cards and various port types.
5.2 RADIAL-LEADED RESETTABLE FUSES
Due to the automatic resetting of the polyfuse, these components are ideal for applications, where
temporary fault conditions (e.g.: during hot plugging) can occur. The radial-leaded RLD-USB-
series 709 is specifically designed for universal serial bus (USB) applications with lower
resistance, faster trip times and lower voltage drops.
Fig 5.2 Radial-Leaded Resettable Fuses
5.3 BATTERY STRAP RESETTABLE FUSES
Fig 5.3 Battery Strap Resettable Fuses
This type profile strap type polyfuse family of resettable fuses provides thermal and over
charge protection for rechargeable battery packs commonly used in portable electronics such
as mobile phones, notebook computers and camcorders.
Both Li-Ion and NiMH pack designs are enhanced with 0.8mm high form factor on the VTD-
719 series. The LTD-717 series is optimized for prismatic packs and exhibits faster trip times-
down to 2.9 sec at five times the fuse’s hold current rating. [5][6][3]
CHAPTER 6
TECHNOLOGY COMPARISON
6.1 TECHNOLOGY COMPARISON - CPTC DEVICES
Ceramic PTC (CPTC) devices can be used to help provide resettable protection. However, their
application is limited due to their relatively high operating temperature, high resistance and large
size. The composition of the CPTC device tends to be brittle, which makes it vulnerable to damage
from shock, vibration, as well as the thermal stress of heating and cooling found in many motor
and transformer applications.
Figure 6.1 and Figure 6.2 show the results of testing, comparing CPTC and PPTC devices,
performed by Tyco Electronics. The PolySwitch™ PPTC devices were compared to CPTC devices
as primary protection elements using two identical transformers. The PPTC and the CPTC devices
were selected to have the same hold current. In this test, a fault was created with a secondary short,
while current, coil temperature and time-to-trip were measured. As shown in Figure 2, the PPTC
device reacted more quickly, and at a lower temperature.
Fig 6.1 Time-to-trip comparison of CPTC device versus PPTC device in secondary short on 120VAC transformer
Fig 6.2 Comparison of maximum surface temperatures of CPTC device and PPTC device in tripped state.
Compared to the CPTC device, which reached a surface temperature of about 75°C to 185°C
during test, the PPTC device exhibited a lower surface temperature of about 100C to 120°C in
the tripped state. The PPTC device also had lower resistance in the circuit, was lower in
capacitance and was less frequency-dependent.
In Figure 2, thermal images illustrate the difference in surface temperatures of the CPTC and
PPTC devices. In this comparison of a 220VAC trip, the CPTC device reached a maximum
temperature of 184.5°C, whereas the PPTC device reached a maximum temperature of 118.9°C.