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Writing Skills 1
UNIT 1
INTRODUCTION TO THE WRITING PROCESS
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the unit, students should be able to
1. understand the various steps involved in writing
2. use various strategies to generate ideas for a particular topic
3. provide various kinds of supporting details for a particular topic
4. draft, revise and draft again for a particular topic
1.1 What is the writing process?
Writing is always hard at the beginning, when the page is blank. We start to write,
find it going slow, and imagine our secret fears about our inability to write confirmed.
The truth is that for nearly everyone, writing is a hard and slow work. The only
solution to the slow start is to understand the process of writing.
By definition, a process is ―a series of actions, changes, or functions that bring about
a result.‖ According to Langan (2002), writing is a process of discovery which
involves a series of steps and those steps are very often a zigzag journey. In
addition, writing is often a process of continuing discovery. Very often writers
discover the direction and shape of a paper during the process of writing.
Lannon (2004) argues that most writing is a conscious, deliberate process – not the
result of divine intervention, magic, miracles, or last-minute inspiration. Nothing ever
leaps from the mind to the page in one neat and painless motion- not even for
creative geniuses. Instead we generate ideas, focus, support, draft, revise and draft
again. Sometimes we know right away what we want to say, sometimes we discover
our purpose and meaning only as we write. But our finish product takes shape
through our decisions at different stages in the writing process.
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Look at the following illustrations of the writing process:
Taken from Troyka (1999)
As you can see, the writing process is like a spiral. The components in the process
are not isolated; there is a constant interaction among them. Working on one
component influences how you look at another. You may even work on two elements
at the same time. For example, while writers are generating ideas, they may also
discover a focus for their essay. Very often, writers discover the direction and shape
of a paper during the writing process. In fact, discovering new ideas, focusing,
supporting, and revising go on in some form at each stage. Although there is a
continual interplay among the components, we need to look at each one separately
in order to understand what good writers do.
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1.2 Steps involved in writing
1. Generating ideas: Listing details, searching your mind for relationships, and
locating topics – much as the generator of electricity emits sparks and
provides energy.
2. Focusing: Choosing from among your ideas, narrowing your vision, making
clear your main idea, and formulating a thesis sentence – similar to the
photographer who selects an interesting subject, frames it in the viewfinder,
and sharply focuses the camera.
3. Supporting: Finding details, examples, facts, or description to explain and
reinforce your focus statement or thesis – just as a lawyer searches for facts
to prove a case.
4. Drafting: Determining your audience and your specific purpose and organizing
the essay with these in mind; putting your pen on the paper to write the essay.
5. Revising: Reshaping your thesis; reshuffling the draft; improving the thinking
and evidence; tightening the transitions; proofreading for grammar,
punctuation, and spelling.
6. Drafting again: Rewriting the composition in a form that satisfies the writer and
the writer‘s audience.
1.3 Generating ideas
Generating ideas is the first step in the process of writing. It is extremely important
because it provides the ideas from which to write an essay. There are many methods
of generating ideas.
The four strategies which are commonly used are:
1. Listing
2. The Reporter‘s Formula
3. Fish boning
4. Webbing
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1.3.1 Listing
Here you list words and phrases sparked by a particular topic.
Steps:
i) Jot down any images, ideas and phrases that come to mind regarding the topic (review your background knowledge). ii) Do not evaluate or be critical of your ideas while jotting them down.
iii) after you have completed the list, go through it and mark out all the ideas
that are irrelevant or that you are not interested in including in your essay. iv) Of the remaining ideas, pick a few that you think you can write on.
Example:
Here is a list formulated by a student in response to the topic ―My First Day in
the U.K.‖
- Horrible
- lost passport
- missed my parents
- scared, wanted to go home
- what would I do without a passport – go to jail? What are British police
like?
- Pakistani lady – asked me what was wrong – she helped me
- airport was too big, crowded – Heathrow London
- afraid of crime from TV I‘d watched back home
- end of story – ok – passport found under seat of airplane
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Take Note
i) put a title at the top of your list so that you will stay on purpose and always
know why you are making the list.
ii) write as fast as possible and use short words or phrases
iii) generate questions that will enhance your thinking about a topic.
Task 1.1
Using listing, generate ideas for the topic ―My most unforgettable experience‖.
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1.3.2 The Reporter’s Formula
Put yourself in the shoes of a reporter. Ask the following questions about a topic:
Who? Where? Why?
What? When? How?
Example:
Topic: An Embarrassing Incident
- What is the incident?
- Where did it occur?
- Who were involved?
- When did it happen?
- Who helped you?
- Why was it so embarrassing?
Take Note
Students must use their question-generating ability to the fullest to ensure you have a
pool of ideas.
Task 1.2
Using the ―The Reporter‘s Formula‖ strategy, generate ideas for the topic ―An
Unlucky Day‖.
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1.3.3 Fish boning
This method of generating ideas helps you form connections between your
thoughts. Write the topic on the left of your page and draw a horizontal line
across. This line is the fishbone (which represents the thesis statement). From
the backbone, you will represent your ideas on the topic (topic sentences) by
drawing in lines to represent sub-topics. You can branch out from these,
adding more lines to represent supporting details.
Example:
Taken from Troyka (1999)
In the above example, the thesis statement is ‗teenagers face many problems‘.
Based on this ‗fish bone‘, you can write four content paragraphs, each with one of the
topic sentences given.
For example, in one content paragraph, the topic sentence is ‗teenagers face a lot of
pressure to do well in school’. The supporting ideas for this are ‗pressure by
teachers‘ and
‗pressure by students’.
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Take Note
Work on the fishbone chart quickly and feel free to jump from one level to another as
you think of ideas, rather than trying to complete everything at one level before
proceeding to the next.
Task 1.3
Using the ‗fish boning‘ strategy, generate ideas for the topic ―Social issues in
Malaysia‖.
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1.3.4 Webbing
This is another useful strategy to help you to both generate idea and begin to
focus on a question as the basis of the essay.
Write the topic in the centre of your page. On a web radiating out from the
topic, identify issues or problems related to the topic which will form the topic
sentences. On the next set of webs, state the issues in the form of a question.
The web can be continued by next stating where the answers to the questions
can be found (supporting details).
Example:
Taken from Troyka (1999)
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In the above example, the thesis statement is ‗watching television brings about many
disadvantages‘. There are six points to support this thesis statement. Each point
represents the topic sentence/main idea. The answers to the questions will form the
supporting details. For instance, one of the topic sentences is about violence; i.e. one
of the disadvantages of watching television is there is too much violence shown on
TV‘. By answering the question ‗What is influence of TV violence? We can get
supporting details such as an increase in crime rate among teenagers – gangsterism,
fights etc.
Task 1.4
Using the ‗webbing‘ strategy, generate ideas for the topic ―Suggest some ways to
make your holidays more interesting‖.
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1.4 Focus
Ideas are certainly the beginning of the process of writing. Without them, you
would have no materials from which to build an essay. However, ideas can be
just a jumble of words and phrases on a page unless you see some links or
connections between them. Frequently these connections are discoveries that
writers make when they search through their ideas for a central theme or
focus. It is these ―discoveries of meaning‖ that make writing challenging for the
writer and interesting to the reader. When they are put into sentence form,
they are called focus or thesis statements.
1.4.1 What is a thesis?
A thesis is the clear focus of your essay, the opinion you express about a
subject, the basic attitude you have toward a limited subject. It is the idea that
controls and ties together all the separate elements in your essay.
The first step in creating a thesis is to sort through your ideas for general
connections in meaning, to focus on the ―truth‖ in those ideas. The next step is
to write one sentence which expresses this ―truth‖ or central idea. This
sentence is called a thesis statement.
The thesis statement can be expressed in various ways, as in these
examples:
As an opinion: Starting university after the age of 30 hasn‘t been easy,
but the good points definitely outweigh the bad.
As an evaluation: I want my life to be better than that of my parents.
As a suggestion: Laptops should be provided for all students.
As a question: Should examination be abolished?
As a debatable claim: University is not for everyone.
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From the examples above, it is obvious that each of those thesis statements
creates a clear expectation. They don‘t keep readers guessing. They make
their points quickly.
Task 1.5
Using the 5 ways, write a thesis statement for each of the following topic.
1. As an opinion: Marrying at a young age
2. As an evaluation: Imported cars
3. As a suggestion: University accommodation
4. As a question: Television commercials
5. As a debatable claim: Good health
1.5 Supporting Details
What kind of supporting details do paragraph writers most often use? That
depends on the topic sentence. A topic sentence is a single sentence that
sums up the main point of your paragraph. The good topic sentence suggests
the kinds of details needed for its support. Basically, there are five kinds of
supporting details:
1. Examples
2. Facts
3. Testimony
4. Reason
5. Personal observation
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1.5.1 Examples
An example is a part used to represent the whole. To use examples, simply
introduce them with a suitable phrase, such as for example, for instance, or
take the case of, and then spell out the example you have in mind. Naturally,
any example you use should support your point.
Example:
Topic sentence: UPSI provides many facilities for the students.
First example: It has a large library with thousands of books on various
subjects.
Second example: It also has a gymnasium.
Third example: Besides these, there are many big hostels.
Task 1.6
Write three appropriate examples that support the following points.
1. Topic Sentence: There are many places in Malaysia which will interest
tourists.
First example: ____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
Second example: _____________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
Third example: _______________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
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2. Topic sentence: There are many disadvantages of living in a big city.
First example: ____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
Second example: _____________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
Third example: _______________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
3. Topic sentence: Sometimes it hurts to tell the truth.
First example: ____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
Second example: _____________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
Third example: _______________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
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1.5.2 Facts
A fact is a statement that is true or can be verified. Anyone who is curious can
look up the statement in a proper source and confirm its truth. For instance,
the fact that Tun Mahathir was born in Alor Star, can be confirmed by checking
any biography of Malaysia‘s fourth prime minister. Some facts are simply
accepted by everyone because they have never been proven untrue. That sooner
or later humans die is one fact.
The opposite of a fact is an opinion. Unlike a fact, an opinion is a personal
belief, often accompanied by emotion, that cannot be proved either true or
false. Here are some examples of facts and opinions:
Accepted Fact: The sun will always rise in the East.
Verifiable Fact: John Steinbeck wrote Of Mice and Men.
Opinion: Steinbeck‘s best book is Of Mice and Men.
Here is a paragraph that supports its topic sentence with facts.
Food at Abuya Restaurant is cheaper than at the University Cafeteria. A can
of 100 plus at the University Cafeteria was RM1.80. But I found the same drink
at Abuya Restaurant for RM1.50. The price of a packet of nasi lemak was
RM1.20 at the University Cafeteria but RM1.00 at Abuya. Likewise, I paid 50
sen less for a plate of chicken rice at Abuya than I would have to at the
University Cafeteria. These cheaper prices are the reasons why I buy my food
at Abuya.
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Task 1.7
Support the following topic sentences with at least three facts. You may need to
interview or survey classmates or visit your library.
1. Topic sentence: The students in my English class come from many different backgrounds.
First fact: ___________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
Second fact: _________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
Third fact: ___________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
2. Topic sentence: Tuanku Bainun Library has an adequate book collection and
excellent facilities.
First fact: ___________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
Second fact: _________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
Third fact: ___________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
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3. Topic sentence: A car is expensive to run and maintain.
First fact: ___________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
Second fact: _________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
Third fact: ___________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
1.5.3 Testimony
Testimony is expert opinion that backs up your topic sentence. The expert
may be someone who is recognized in the field or who has had personal
experience with your topic. Of course, getting the testimony you need may
require you to check a newspaper or interview the right people. Here is a
paragraph that has both kinds of testimony – the personal experience and
expert opinion.
If you are stopped by the police for a traffic violation, there are some things
you should not do. You should not, for one, get out of your car unless the
officer asks you to. My friend Joe was pulled over by the police late one night
on a lonely city street and he got out of the car, thinking that it would make him
seem friendly. It had the opposite effect on the officer. Joe says she put her
hand on her gun and ordered him to get back into the car. He said he was
afraid she would shoot him. Corporal Aishah of the federal police
headquarters, Bukit Aman says a motorist who gets out of the car without
being told is considered a threat. Says Corporal Aishah, ―I‘m always cautious
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when a motorist gets out of the car and walks toward me. I think he‘s being
aggressive.‖
As a testimony, the writer quotes his friend‘s personal experience as well as
the expert opinion of Corporal Aishah.
Task 1.8
Cite at least two opinions as testimony, supporting the following topic sentences.
1. Topic sentence: When you‘re in university, parents should treat you like an
adult, not a child.
First fact: _____________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Second fact: ___________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
2. Topic sentence: Working your way through university can be a stressful
experience.
First fact: _____________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Second fact: ___________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
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1.5.4 Reasons
Some topic sentences are best supported by reasons – explanations based
on common sense, good judgment, clear thinking, and logic. This kind of
support is most commonly used when a writer is trying to persuade the reader
to change an opinion.
In the following paragraph, reason is used to support the writer‘s argument
that heavy rain stops many of our activities.
Heavy rain stops many of our activities. We cannot move about without getting
wet. Many accidents may occur on a wet road and traffic can be held up.
Games, sports, picnics and other outdoor activities are interrupted by rain.
Heavy rain also prevents fishermen from going out to sea.
Task 1.9
Provide at least three reasons to support the following topic sentences.
1. Everyone should play a sport.
2. Capital punishment does not stop murder.
1.5.5 Personal Observation
Some topics are strictly personal and must be supported mainly by your own
personal observation. That old stand-by topic, ―Write about how you spent your end-
of-semester vacation,‖ is a classic example of a personal topic. Unless he or she
vacationed with you, no librarian can help you find support for it. You must draw
entirely on your personal observations for support.
Personal observation includes descriptive details and examples. Here is an
example of both in a paragraph:
Last end-of- semester vacation I spent a week hiking and discovered that I
hate it. To begin with, we got caught in a two-day rain on Gunung Tahan Trail.
The tent turned out not to be waterproof, and for one whole night I tried to
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sleep with water dripping on my nose. When I moved, it dripped on my belly. I
turned over, and it dripped on my butt. I also found out that aside from weather
problems, hiking is unhealthy for you. For example, I ate poorly for the week
that I was starving and pigged-out afterward on double beef chicken burger
and french fries for a month. So I ended up gaining weight.
Task 1.10
Develop a topic sentence on the topic ―An incident that changed me in some way‖
and write a paragraph about it, supporting the topic sentence with personal
observations.
1.6 Drafting
When you have generated ideas, focused on a central theme, and selected
supporting details, you must next consider your audience, your purpose in writing,
and the way in which you will organize your essay.
1.6.1 Audience
Readers are the audience for your writing. Your ability to reach your intended
audience determines how good your writing is. Your writing must show that you are
aware of your readers and are trying to reach them. If you write without considering
your readers, you risk communicating with yourself.
To orient yourself to remaining aware of your readers as you write, think about the
various reader characteristics listed in the table below.
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Checklist of basic audience characteristics
Who are they?
age, gender
ethnic backgrounds, political philosophies, religious beliefs
roles (students, parent, voter, teacher, veteran, others)
interests, hobbies
What do they know?
level of education
amount of general or specialized knowledge about the topic
preconceptions brought to the material
If you know or can reasonably assume even a few of the characteristics listed in the
table above, your chances of reaching your audience improve. In short, you can
reach your audience better when your knowledge about your audience is more
explicit.
1.6.2 Purpose
The next step in beginning your first draft is to determine your purpose, which may be
to inform, to explain, to persuade, or to interact with your audience in some other
way. In determining your own purpose, you can simply complete this sentence: ―In
this paper I want to ______________.‖ This sentence doesn‘t usually appear in the
actual finished paper, but it does give direction to your writing as you go through the
process of essay writing. It also implies that there is an audience. If your purpose is
to inform, you are assuming that someone needs to be informed, if it is to persuade,
someone needs to be persuaded.
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1.6.3 Organizing your essay
Now you face the task of arranging the focus statement and the support you have
chosen to form a unified, coherent essay. Since the first kind of writing you probably
will have to do in a university English class is the expository essay, let‘s look at the
basic parts in this type of essay. The four basic parts of an expository essay include:
1. The introduction: This is the beginning of the essay, the first paragraph.
2. The focus statement: This statement is the thesis or main idea of the essay. It
is usually located at the end of the introduction but may be placed elsewhere
in the essay.
3. The body: This section is the middle of the essay. The paragraphs may
explain, define, clarify, or illustrate the focus statement. Each paragraph in the
body has a topic sentence and several supporting sentences. If the assigned
essay is long and complicated, more paragraphs will be needed.
4. The conclusion: The end of the essay, the last paragraph, which ties together
the major points of the essay.
Task 1.11
Consulting section 1.7, 1.8, and 1.9, draft an essay for any one of the topics you had
done in Section 1.3 (Generating ideas) above.
1.7 Revising
To revise, you must evaluate. You assess each draft to determine where
improvements are:
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needed. Then you make the improvements and evaluate each on its own and in the
context of surrounding material. This process continues until you are satisfied that
the essay is the best that you can make it in the time available. To revise effectively,
you likely need to engage in all the activities in the tables below:
Steps for revising
Shift mentally from suspending judgment (during the generating idea
and drafting) to make judgments.
Read your draft critically to evaluate it.
Decide whether to write an entirely new draft or to revise the one you
have.
Be systematic. Do not evaluate at random. You need to pay attention to
many different elements of a draft, from overall organization to choice
of words.
Major activities during revision
Add. Insert needed words, sentences and paragraphs. If your additions
require new content, return to gathering idea strategies.
Cut. Get rid of whatever goes off the topic or repeats what has already
been said.
Replace. As needed, substitute new words, sentences, and paragraphs
for what you have cut.
Move material around. Change the sequence of paragraphs if the
material is not presented in logical order. Move sentences within
paragraphs or to other paragraphs if any paragraph arrangement
seems illogical.
Task 1.12
Revise the draft you had prepared for Task 1.11.
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1.8 Draft again
After revising the essay, the last step in the writing process is to draft again. In this
stage you can make changes in wording, development of ideas, supporting details
etc. and edit the essay for mistakes in grammar, punctuation, mechanics, usage and
spelling. Finally, proofread your final draft closely for typos and careless errors.
Task 1.13
Draft again the revised draft in Task 1.12.
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SELF-ASSESSMENT
Test 1
What are the 6 steps in the writing process?
Test 2
Write a thesis statement for each of the following topic.
1. As an opinion: Money can buy happiness
2. As an evaluation: Studying overseas
3. As a suggestion: Healthy lifestyle
4. As a question: Facebook
5. As a debatable claim: Euthanasia
Test 3
Write a topic sentence and 2 supporting details for each of the thesis statement you
have written in Test 2.
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REFERENCES
Langan, J. (2004). English Skills With Readings (5th ed.) Boston: McGraw Hill.
Lannon, J.M. (2004). The Writing Process (8th ed.) New York: Pearson Education.
Shoemaker, C. (1985). Write in the corner where you are Fort Worth: Holt, Rinehart
and Winston.
Troyka, L. Q. (1999). Simon & Schuster Handbook For Writers. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Winkler, A.C. & Mc Cuen, J. R. (1997) Writing Talk: Sentences and Paragraphs New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
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Answer for Test 1
1. Generating ideas
2. Focusing
3. Supporting
4. Drafting
5. Revising
6. Drafting again
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UNIT 2
THESIS STATEMENT, TOPIC SENTENCES AND
SUPPORTING DETAILS
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the unit, students should be able to:
1. Write good thesis statements
2. Write good topic sentences and supporting details
3. Understand and recognize the characteristics of an effective paragraph
4. Write an effective paragraph
2.1 Thesis statement
You have learned in Unit 1 that a thesis statement is a sentence which
expresses the central idea of your essay. It is evident that you have something
definite to say about the topic. An effective thesis statement prepares your
readers for the essence of what you discuss in an essay. As the writer, you
want to compose a thesis statement with care so that it accurately reflects the
content of your essay. If you discern a mismatch between your thesis
statement and the rest of your essay, revise to coordinate them better. Troyka
(1999) lists five basic requirements for a thesis statement:
It states the essay‘s subject – the topic that you are discussing
It reflects the essay‘s purpose – either to give your readers
information or to persuade your readers to agree with you.
It includes a focus – your assertion that conveys your point of view.
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It uses specific language – vague words are avoided.
It may briefly state the major subdivisions of the essay‘s topic.
Here are some examples of thesis statements, written for 500-600 word essays with
an informative purpose.
1. Topic: classical music
Thesis statement: Classical music can be played by groups of various sizes,
ranging from chamber ensembles to full symphony orchestras.
2. Topic: discomforts of city living
Thesis statement: Rising crime rates, increasingly overcrowded conditions and
growing expenses make living comfortably in a modern city difficult.
3. Topic: deceptive advertising
Thesis statement: Deceptive advertising can cost consumers not only money
but also their health.
4. Topic: government loans for higher education
Thesis statement: The federal government should enact a law setting up an
education loan for each Malaysian citizen for university or college.
5. Topic: Malaysian food
Thesis statement: A variety of spices make Malaysian food much more
interesting than American food.
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Task 2.1
The following weak thesis statements were used as focus statements for essays.
Change each one so that it clearly expresses the main idea of the essay.
1. I want to discuss my ideas about the ideal wife.
2. My son decided to major in mechanical engineering.
3. Drug addiction among teenagers.
4. The treatment of handicapped people in my country
5. Electricity is a phenomenon arising from the existence and interactions of
electric charge.
Task 2.2
Evaluate each thesis statement below according to the five basic requirements listed
by Troyka (1999).
1. The university cafeteria could attract more students if it improved the quality of
its food, its appearance, and the friendliness of its staff.
2. The United States should increase efforts to slow the destruction of the ozone
layer.
3. Playing tennis for fun and exercise requires agility, stamina and strategy.
4. Cattle ranchers‘ biggest challenge is survival for their business.
5. The best features of my apartment are its large windows, roomy closets and
great location.
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Task 2.3
Construct appropriate thesis statement for each of the following essay topics.
1. My best vacation
2. What are some of the factors you would consider when buying a mobile
phone?
3. Do you think that, in Malaysian schools, too much attention is paid to
examinations?
4. What are the characteristics of an ideal teacher?
5. Write about someone you fear.
2.2 Topic sentence
You learned in Unit 1 that sometimes the main idea of a paragraph is stated in
one sentence. This sentence can usually be found at the beginning, the
middle or the end of the paragraph. If the main idea is conveyed in one
sentence, that sentence is called the topic sentence.
When you look closely at a topic sentence, you can see that it is made of two
parts:
1. the limited topic
2. the writer‘s attitude towards the limited topic
The writer‘s attitude, point of view, or idea is usually expressed in one or more
key words. All the details in a paragraph should support the idea expressed in
the key words. Examples:
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1. My girlfriend is very aggressive.
2. Highway accidents are often caused by absentmindedness.
In the first sentence, the topic is girlfriend, and the word that expresses the
writer‘s idea about the topic is that his girlfriend is aggressive. In the second
sentence, the topic is highway accidents, and the key word that determine the
focus of the paragraph is that such accidents are often caused by
absentmindedness.
Task 2.4
For each topic sentence below, draw a single line under the topic and a double line
under the idea about the topic.
1. Billboards should be abolished.
2. My boss is an ambitious man.
3. The car needed repairs.
4. The language in many movies today is offensive.
5. Looking for a job can be a degrading experience.
Task 2.5
Each group of sentences below could be written as a short paragraph. Circle the
letter of the topic sentence in each case. To find the topic sentence, ask yourself
―Which is a general statement supported by the specific details in the other three
statements?‖
1. A If you stop carrying matches or lighter, you can cut down on impulse
smoking.
B If you sit in no-smoking areas, you will smoke less.
C You can behave in ways that will help you smoke less.
D By keeping a record of when and where you smoke, you can identify
the most tempting situations and avoid them.
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2. A Its brakes are badly worn.
B My old car is ready for the junk pile.
C Its floor has rusted through, and water splashes on my feet when the
highway is wet.
D My mechanic says its engine is too old to be repaired, and the car isn‘t
worth the cost of a new engine.
3. A Tobacco is one of the most addictive of all drugs.
B Selling cigarettes ought to be against the law.
C Nonsmokers are put in danger by breathing the smoke from other
people‘s cigarettes.
D Cigarette smoking kills many more people than all illegal drugs
combined.
4. A Part-time workers can be easily laid-off.
B Most part-time workers get no fringe benefits.
C The average part-timer earns three ringgit less an hour than a full-timer.
D Part-time workers have second-class status.
5. A The last time I ate at the restaurant, I got food poisoning and was sick
for two days.
B The health inspector found matches and mice in the restaurant‘s
kitchen.
C Our town restaurant is a health hazard and ought to be closed down.
D The toilets in the restaurant often back up, and the sinks have only a
trickle of water.
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Task 2.6
Construct a topic sentence for each set of statements below.
1. A First I lost my notebook.
B Then I broke the mirror in my compact when I dropped it.
C I got sick during lunch and flunked my geometry mid-semester exam
after lunch.
D I cried all the way to the dorm.
Topic sentence: ________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
2. A Open the microwave oven door and put your leftovers.
B Then shut the door and set the timer to about two minutes.
C After that press the ―on‖ button and wait.
D When the bell goes off, take the leftovers out.
Topic sentence: ________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________
3. A Only thirty people came to the dance, instead of the expected two
hundred.
B The band arrived late and spent an hour setting up.
C There were at least three males at the dance to every female.
D An hour later the dance started, it ended because of power failure.
Topic sentence: ________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________
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4. A We had to wait an hour even though we had reserved a table. B Our appetizer and main course arrived at the same time. C The waiter ignored our request for more water. D The wrong desserts were served to us. Topic sentence: ________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________
5. A When we brought a ―welcome to the neighbourhood‖ present, the family
next door didn‘t even say thank you.
B The family never attends the annual block party.
C The family‘s children aren‘t allowed to play with other neighbourhood
kids.
D Our neighbours keep their curtains closed and never sit out in their
yard.
Topic sentence: ________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________
Task 2.7
The followings are five general topics and a series of limited topics that fit under
them. Make a point out of one of the limited topics in each group. To create a topic
sentence, ask yourself, ―What point do I want to make about __________________
(my limited topic)?‖
Example: Recreation
Movies
Dancing
TV shows
Reading
Sports parks
Your point: Sports parks today have some truly exciting games.
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1. Your hometown
Location
Development
Facilities
Food
Tourist attractions
Your point: _____________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________
2. Job
Pay
Boss
Duties
Coworkers
Working conditions
Customers or clients
Your point: _____________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________
3. Money
Budgets
Credit cards
Dealing with a bank
Family expenses
Ways to get it
Ways to save it
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Your point: _____________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________
4. Cars
First car
Accident
Driver‘s test
Safety problems
Road conditions
Mandatory speed limit
Your point: _____________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________
5. Sports
Women‘s team
Favourite team
Outstanding athlete
A team‘s chances
Recreational versus spectator
Your point: _______________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
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2.3 Supporting Details
You have learned in Unit 1 that specific details are examples, facts, testimony,
reasons and personal observations. Such details are needed to support and
explain a topic sentence effectively. They provide the evidence needed for
readers to understand, as well as to feel and experience, a writer‘s point.
Here is a topic sentence followed by two sets of supporting sentences. Which
set provide sharp, specific details?
Topic sentence
Some poor people must struggle to make meals for themselves.
Set A
They gather whatever free food they can find in fast-food restaurants and take
it home to use however they can. Instead of planning well-balanced meals,
they base their diet on anything they can buy that is cheap and filling.
Set B
Some make tomato soup by adding hot water to the free packets of ketchup
they get at McDonald‘s. Others buy cans of cheap dog food and fry it like
hamburger.
Set B provides specific details: instead of a general statement about ―free food
they find in fast-food restaurants and take……… home to use however they
can,‖ we get a vivid detail we can see and picture clearly: ―make tomato soup
from free packets of ketchup.‖ Instead of a general statement about how the
poor will ―base their diet on anything they can buy that is cheap and filling,‖ we
get exact and vivid details: ―Others buy cans of cheap dog food and fry it like
hamburger.‖
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Task 2.8
Each topic sentence below is followed by two sets of supporting details. Write S (for
specific) in the space next to the set that provides specific support for the point. Write
G (for general) next to the set that offers only vague, general support.
1. Topic sentence: My roommate is messy.
_____ a. He doesn‘t seem to mind that he can‘t find any clean clothes or
dishes. He never puts anything back in its proper place; he just
drops it wherever he happens to be. His side of the room looks
as if a hurricane has gone through.
______b. His coffee cup is covered inside with a thick layer of green mold.
I can‘t tell you what colour his easy chair is; it has disappeared
under a pile of laundry. When he turns over in bed, I can hear
the crunch of cracker crumbs beneath his body.
2. Topic sentence: Our new kitten causes us lots of trouble.
_____ a. He has shredded the curtains in my bedroom with his claws. He
nearly drowned when he crawled into the washing machine. And
my hands look like raw hamburger from his playful bites and
scratches.
_____ b. He seems to destroy everything he touches. He‘s always getting
into places where he doesn‘t belong. Sometimes he plays too
roughly, and that can be painful.
3. Topic sentence: My landlord is softhearted.
a. Even though he wrote them himself, he sometimes ignores the
official apartment rules in order to make his tenants happy.
b. Although the lease states ―No pets,‖ he bought my daughter a
puppy after she told him how much she missed having one.
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Task 2.9
Each of the following paragraphs needs specific details to back up its supporting
points. In the spaces provided, add a sentence or two of realistic details for each
supporting point. The more specific you are, the more convincing your details are
likely to be.
1.
Helping a Parent in University
There are several ways a family can help a parent who is attending university. First,
family members can take over some of the household chores that the parent usually
does.
Also, family members can make sure that the parent has some quiet study time.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
Last, families can take an interest in the parent‘s problem and accomplishments.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
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2.
A Pushover Teacher
We knew after the first few classes that the teacher was a pushover. First of all, he
didn‘t seem able to control the class.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
In addition, he made some course requirements easier when a few students
complained.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
Finally, he gave the easiest quiz we had ever taken.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
2.4 Characteristics of an effective paragraph
Troyka (1999) lists three characteristics of an effective paragraph:
Unity: clear, logical relationship between the main idea of a paragraph and
supporting evidence for that main idea.
Coherence: smooth progression from one sentence to the next within a
paragraph.
Development: logical arrangement of paragraphs and specific, concrete
support for the main idea of each paragraph.
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2.5 Unity
In every paragraph, there must be unity of ideas. In other words, there is a
main idea – which contributes to the central theme of the entire text – and
every point in the paragraph must support and develop that idea. Therefore, a
paragraph is unified when all its sentences clarify or help support the main
idea. Unity is lost if a paragraph goes off the topic by including sentences
unrelated to the main idea.
The sentence that introduces the main idea in a paragraph is called the topic
sentence. The remaining sentences are called supporting sentences because
they contain details that support or control the topic sentence. The final
sentence of a paragraph is called the concluding sentence. It relates the main
idea or summarize it in a new way.
Read the sample paragraph below and notice how the main idea and details
are arranged.
Interacting with American Students
If you are an international student interested in interacting with American
students, try making plans to study in a group and join some campus
organizations. First of all, at the beginning of the semester, arrange to study
with a group of students in one of your classes. You can do this by asking the
lecturer to announce to the class a group study opportunity. After that, you can
meet with other interested students to decide on the day, time, and place of
your regular meetings. When you meet, you can review vocabulary, discuss
ideas and assignments, and prepare for exams. Secondly, you can join some
campus organizations that attract American students. Very often clubs are
formed that are related to various major fields and subject areas. These clubs
can give you the opportunity to learn more about a subject while hearing
English spoken by Americans. A benefit of interacting with Americans in these
two ways is that friendships are sometimes formed, even though your primary
goal may be to just participate in the language.
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Interacting With American Students
1. International students interested in interacting with American students
can do two things.
A. First of all, at the beginning of the semester you can arrange to
study with a group of students.
1. Ask your instructor to announce a group study
opportunity.
2. Meet with other interested students to decide the day,
time, and place of your regular meetings.
3. When you meet, study vocabulary, discuss ideas and
assignments, and prepare for exams.
B. Join campus organizations that attract American students.
1. Clubs are formed that are related to various major fields
and subject areas.
2. These clubs can help you to learn more about a subject
while allowing you to hear more spoken English.
C. A benefit of forming study groups with American and joining
campus organizations is that you may make friends, in addition
to improving your English.
The diagram below offers another way to visualize the structure of a paragraph:
Topic sentence
Supporting details
Conclusion
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Task 2.10
Read the paragraph below and answer the questions that follow.
I have been living in a dormitory for two months with two Australians. This has
caused many good results. First, I can learn English. When I talk with the Australian
students, they always correct my English. I have become used to the native speed. It
improves my listening ability. Second, I can learn about Australian culture. We talk
about many topics and I can understand Australian thinking. I find many differences
between my culture and theirs. Third, I don‘t feel lonely because I always stay and
talk with them. When I worry about something, I can discuss it with them and so I
don‘t feel lonely. Due to these reasons, I really enjoy living in a dormitory.
1. State the main idea/topic sentence of this paragraph.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
2. How many supporting sentences are there? What are they?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
3. What is the concluding sentence?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
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Task 2.11
Write a paragraph of about 50-70 words on the following topic. Make sure there is a
clear topic sentence and supporting ideas that support the topic sentence.
How has the computer changed our lives?
2.6 Coherence
Another element that an effective paragraph needs is coherence. A coherent
paragraph contains sentences that are logically arranged and that flow
smoothly. Coherence within paragraphs can be achieved by:
1. using pronouns to refer to previous nouns.
Example:
Honour is very important in Japanese culture. It is the centre of family
and professional life.
2. repeating key words and phrases from the topic sentence.
Example:
Egypt has been famous for fine textiles from ancient times. The world‘s
earliest known textiles, in fact were woven in Egypt.
Synonyms can also be used for key words.
Example:
Egypt has been famous for fine textiles from ancient times. The world‘s
earliest known fabrics, in fact were woven in the land of the pharaohs.
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3. Using transitional words and phrases to indicate the relationship of one
idea to another.
Example:
All the ancient Greeks worshipped the same gods, but one city would
choose a particular god or goddess to protect it. The Athenians. For
example, choose Athens as their protector. All Greeks believed that
Zeus was the greatest of all gods. Under him were a number of divine
powers which were thought of as looking like humans. There were
Ares, God of War; Aelos, God of the Wind; Poseidon, God of the Sea;
Aphrodite, the Goddess of Love; and many others. In addition, there
were a great number of heroes, humans who had become half-gods,
like Herakles and Achilles.
4. Using parallel structures
Parallelism is created when grammatically equivalent forms appear in a
set of two or a series of three or more. The repeated tempos and
sounds of parallel structures reinforce connections among ideas and
create a dramatic effect.
Example:
Superstitions are sometimes smiled at and sometimes frowned upon as
observances characteristic of the old-fashioned, the unenlightened,
children, peasants, servants, immigrants, foreigners or back-woods
people. Nevertheless, they give all of us ways of moving back and forth
among the different worlds in which we live – the sacred, the secular,
and the scientific. They allow us to keep a private world also, where,
smiling a little, we can banish danger with a gesture and summon luck
with a rhyme, make the sun shine in spite of storm clouds, force the
stranger to do our bidding, keep an enemy at bay and straighten the
paths of those we love.
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Task 2.12
Fill in the blanks with pronouns to refer to previous nouns in the following paragraph. My host family is a typical American family. 1.____________ have only two children
and live in a three-bedroom house in the suburbs. The father, Mel Stinson, is very
busy as a vice president of his company. 2._____________ works at least fifty hours
a week. Mrs. Stinson also works, but 3. __________ is not in as important a job as
her husband. Even the children in the family are terribly busy. 4. ___________ go to
music lessons after school and sometimes 5. __________ play on organized soccer
teams. Nobody seems to have time for 6. _____________ own relaxation and
freedom of choice. 7._________ in the family has meetings, lessons, appointments,
and many other commitments. When do 8. _________ find time to relax and talk
together? When do 9._________ find time for family life?
Task 2.13
Fill the blanks with key words and phrases from the topic sentence.
To many people of other cultures, Americans ask too many personal questions and
‗come on‘ too fast and too strong. This barrage of 1.____________ seems like an
invasion of privacy for people from 2. ____________ where privacy is important.
―Where do you work?‖, ―Do you have any children?‖, ―Do you play tennis?‖ are not
3.__________ 4. ____________ by 5.___________ standards. They are a way of
searching for common interests on which to base a conversation or build a
relationship. Such 6. ____________ are meant to be friendly, not rude.
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Task 2.14
Use suitable transition words from the list in the box to complete the text below.
also but incidentally not only
although but also in particular on the other hand
and for in this way since
because however instead therefore
meanwhile too indeed for the moment
Janet West‘s sister is an air hostess for a famous international airline,
1._____________ Janet wants to become one 2.______________, she is still too
young: the minimum age for an air hostess is twenty 3.____________ Janet is only
just over sixteen. 4.__________ has taken a job in an office 5. ___________ she 6.
___________ attends evening classes. 7.___________ she wants to improve her
French and Spanish, 8.__________ foreign languages are an essential qualification
for an air hostess. 9.__________ Janet is gaining experience through her present job
10.__________ the office where she works is a travel agency 11.___________ she
is learning 12.________ how to deal with people 13._____________ quite a lot about
the places she one day hopes to visit.
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Task 2.15
The following sentences contain faulty parallelisms. Underline the faulty parallelism
and correct the sentence.
1. Fikri enjoys hunting for birds, socializing with friends, and to read the
comics.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
2. When I saw my roommate with my girlfriend, I felt worried, angry and
embarrassment as well.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
3. Najwa enjoys shopping for new clothes, to try different cosmetics and
reading beauty magazines.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
4. When Jessica doesn‘t have class, she uses her time to clean house,
getting her laundry done and to buy groceries.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
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5. The video store has sections devoted to comedy films, dramatic films
and films made in foreign countries.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
2.7 Development
Development involves arranging a paragraph and knowing patterns for
paragraph development. Arranging a paragraph means you put its
sentences into an order logical for communicating the message of the
paragraph clearly and effectively. Choices for arranging a paragraph
include sequencing according to time and to location; moving from
general to specific, from specific to general and from least to most
important; and progressing from problem to solution.
Patterns for paragraph development have evolved as writers created
better methods to express their ideas. If you get to know a variety of
patterns for paragraph development, you will always have more choices
as a writer to help your paragraphs deliver their meanings most
effectively.
In the next unit and the other consecutive units you will learn the
common patterns for paragraph development such as narrative, cause
and effect, process, comparing and contrasting and classification.
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SELF-ASSESSMENT
Test 1
Read the paragraph below and explain why it lacks unity.
Automated Customer Service
Today people have fewer human contacts as they go about their personal
business. To buy petrol, you can pull up alongside a petrol pump, insert a credit card,
and fill the tank without the help of an attendant. The charge is made automatically to
your credit card. You can pay for your purchase inside the station office. If you want
to make a deposit or withdraw some money from the bank, you can step up to an
automated teller machine (ATM) to complete your business without talking to a teller.
In fact, banking services charges are rising rapidly. Moreover, to park in a public lot,
you drive alongside a ticket dispenser machine, from which an automated voice
explains what you should do. The gate then opens and allows the car in. When you
leave, you insert the ticket in a machine, the gate opens, and you are on your way.
What are the disadvantages of automated customer service?
Test 2
Read the incoherent paragraph below and then make changes and additions so that
the paragraph is more coherent.
Miswan is very good in English and always make straight A‘s. Miswan doesn‘t
seem like a person who would study hard. Miswan loves to have good time. Miswan
loves western music and plays the guitar for hours everyday. He has three sisters
and two brothers at home in Indonesia. Miswan likes to dance and to have parties
with friends from Japan, Korea and Malaysia. I don‘t know when Miswan finds time to
study. I guess that‘s his secret.
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Test 3
Write a coherent paragraph on one of the following topics. Make sure you use
appropriate transitional words and there is consistent subject viewpoint in your
paragraph. You may use the order or pattern specified in brackets.
1. What do children expect from their parents today?
(General to Specific)
2. What benefits can be gained from studying at a university?
(Specific to General)
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REFERENCES
Langan, J. (2004). English Skills With Readings (5th ed.) Boston: McGraw Hill.
Lannon, J.M. (2004). The Writing Process (8th ed.) New York: Pearson Education.
Ramanoff, M. R. (1986). Language and Study Skills For Learners of English.
Massachusettes: Newburry House Publishers.
Shoemaker, C. (1985). Write in the corner where you are Fort Worth: Holt, Rinehart
and Winston Inc.
Troyka, L. Q. (1999). Simon & Schuster Handbook For Writers. New Jersey: Prentice
Hall.
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Answers
Unit 2
Task 2.4
1. Single line: Billboards
Double line: should be abolished
2. Single line: My boss
Double line: is an ambitious man
3. Single line: The car
Double line: needed repair
4. Single line: The language in many movies today
Double line: is offensive
5. Single line: Looking for a job
Double line: can be a degrading experience
Task 2.5
1. C
2. B
3. A
4. D
5. C
Task 2.8
1. a G b S
2. a S b G
3. a G b S
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Task 2.10
1. Staying in a dormitory for two months with two Australians has caused many
good results.
2. Two. First, I can learn English. Second, I can learn about Australian culture.
3. Due to these reasons, I really enjoy living in a dormitory.
Task 2.12
1. They
2. He
3. she
4. They
5. they
6. their
7. Everyone
8. they
9. they
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Task 2.13
1. personal questions
2. other cultures
3. personal
4. questions
5. Americans
6. question
Task 2.14
1. incidentally
2. But
3. However
4. For the moment
5. and
6. also
7. in particular
8. since
9. Therefore
10. because
11. too
12. not only
13. but also
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Task 2.15
1. to read = reading
2. embarrassment =embarrassed
3. to try = trying
4. getting = to get
5. made in foreign countries = foreign
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UNIT 3
NARRATIVE ESSAY
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the unit, students should be able to:
1. produce the structure of a narrative essay
2. complete the tasks given on narrative essays
3. write a narrative essay
3.1 What is a narrative essay?
A narrative essay is often written to tell a story.
It is a kind of writing that is usually written based on an individual‘s or
someone else‘s past or present experience.
A narrative type of essay often relates a central idea that reflects a lesson
learned from the experience or simply telling a story.
3.2 Steps to write narrative essays
Make decision on the topic.
Brainstorm for ideas on how to write the essay.
Start writing the essay.
Reread the essay. Check whether you have described the events vividly.
Identify the parts that need further development or details. Identify parts that
are irrelevant and stray away from the main point.
Edit the essay. Check for any grammatical errors or spelling and punctuation
errors.
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3.3 Guidelines for narration
It must have a central point or a thesis statement to ensure the essay is
developed around the central point.
The scene should be described immediately in the essay. It should give the
answer to the question who, what, where and when.
Pace the story. Do not recount all the details of the story. Instead, select the
details that would support your central point. Provide details that answer the
questions who, what, why, when and where.
The description should be vivid so that the readers could feel as if they were at
the scene and witnessing the event.
In narratives, the writer often uses first person perspective in their writings (I
took, I checked).
The essay should use transitions to indicate the changes in time, character
and location. In showing the change of time of the events, you have to be
careful of your tenses: present, past, past perfect or future tense. Be
consistent in using the tenses. Most of the time, when you are reporting past
events, you use past tense. ―As I walked, I saw a tiger‖. However, when you
are reflecting from present to past you may change the tense from present
tense to past tense as follows: ―Now I realize how impulsive I was back then‖.
The story should be chronologically sequenced so that the readers can follow
the story line and do not get confuse when reading the story. Use transitions
or sequence connectors to link the ideas you presented like afterwards, then,
now.
The story should move toward a climax, which gives an interesting or
surprising closure to the story. The climax is the moment the ending is
exposed and the story becomes clear.
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3.3.1 Thesis Statement
Some people think that a narrative essay does not need a thesis statement.
That is not true. Even a narrative essay requires a thesis statement. The
thesis statement can give a general idea to the readers what the story is going
to be all about. For example, if the writer writes “My school days were the
happiest moments in my life” as his thesis statement, the readers would then
know that they will be reading about the writer‘s memorable school days
moments.
The thesis of a narrative essay helps the writer presents the central point or
the main idea of the essay to the readers. Then, the writer will be able to build
the essay around the thesis.
A narrative essay thesis statement guides the writer in writing the essay so
that it does not stray away from the central focus.
The thesis of a narrative essay depends on the story. It can be a general
statement, a lesson learned or a key message to be related to the readers.
For example: The incident taught the family just how important following
simple directions is when travelling to a destination.
The readers would expect that they will be reading an essay on the
importance of simple directions and about a family‘s trip.
The following are examples of introductory paragraph without a thesis
statement and with a thesis statement.
Example A:
An introduction without a thesis statement
It was late November. My neighbour, Johan and his wife have
been planning for a trip to Penang where they will take their two
boys to visit their relatives. They were all looking forward to the
trip as they have decided to stop at several places along the
journey.
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Example B:
An introduction with a thesis statement
Based on the examples given, you can see that it is difficult to make out the focus of
the essay without the thesis statement. The readers would wonder what the writer
plans to write about. In contrast, the introductory paragraph with the thesis statement
provides a clear idea of the central point of the essay. Therefore, it can be concluded
that without the thesis statement the essay seems lack focus and pointless.
Writers should also take note of constructing interesting thesis statement. An
interesting thesis statement can attract readers to read your essay while a dull thesis
statement has the opposite effect.
Here are some examples:
Dull
Interesting
I first travelled to a foreign country when I
was nineteen years old.
I can still recall the excitement I felt when
I travelled overseas at the age of
nineteen.
I had a great time at the wedding
ceremony.
The wedding ceremony was one of the
most memorable events in my life.
It was late November. My neighbour, Johan and his wife have
been planning for a trip to Penang where they will take their two
boys to visit their relatives. They were all looking forward to the
trip as they have decided to stop at several places along the
journey. Little did they know that an unforgettable incident
happens during the journey because they did not follow a simple
direction.
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Task 3.1
Rewrite the following thesis statements to make them more interesting.
We almost died that day.
It was an interesting Sunday.
I had a good time at the farewell party.
The memories of my childhood are unforgettable.
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3.4 Organization of the story
The sequence or the chronology of the story is important in a narrative essay. The
story should be presented following a sequence of events. When the readers follow
the chronological order, they will understand the story better. In order to show the
sequence of events in the story, you should use transitional words.
The following are useful time transitions that can be used in a narrative essay.
first second
afterward later
when immediately
soon while
now suddenly
then the next day
following finally
It was my last day at school.
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Task 3.2
Read the following extract taken from an essay entitled ―My childhood memory‖
(Abraham Sung, 2000). The sentences have been jumbled up. Try to arrange the
sentences accordingly in the given table.
1.
Then, invariably our enthusiasm would turn to neglect and the
whole collection of fish would die.
2.
My elder brother taught me many things.
3.
We used to catch fighting-fish, tiger barbs, guppies and various
other colourful fishes.
4.
After some time, the enthusiasm would suddenly grip us again and
we would start all over again mending our nets and venturing out
into the countryside again.
5.
I learned to make flyable kites and spinnable tops.
6.
We kept them in all sorts of containers.
7.
In addition, we would go around the neighbouring countryside
catching tiny tropical fishes.
The correct sequence
2.
My elder brother taught me many things.
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Task 3.3
Now write the transitions you were able to identify from the rearranged sentences.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
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Task 3.4
The following paragraph is another extract adapted from the essay ―My childhood
memory‖ (Abraham Sung, 2000). Fill in the blanks with suitable transitions given
below.
Instead Before However Suddenly
Fortunately Often When Unfortunately
(1) __________, my elder brother went overseas to further his studies. I miss him
terribly. (2) __________, I had a group of friends living in the neighbourhood. (3)
__________We would play all sort of games and explore all sorts of places. We
were lucky to live at the fringe of town where the natural surroundings were not
destroyed yet. (4) __________, the streams and farm are gone now. They are the
victims of development. No longer can we catch any fish in the stream of cool water.
(5) __________ the stream has turned into polluted waters. No longer too can we
hear the call of the birds and animals. (6) __________, we hear impatient blast of
horns and the roar of bulldozers churning up the once beautiful land. I mourn the
destruction of the living bountiful land and the subsequent erection of nameless
houses all arranged in neat sterile rows. I wonder what sort of childhood memories
the children living in these houses will have.
3.5 Description
The writers of a narrative essay should give vivid descriptions of the events or
incidents they present so that the readers are hooked to the story and they feel as if
they were at the scene.
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The paragraph presented in Task 3.4 presents some vivid descriptions of the writer‘s
childhood memory. Some of the words and phrases used enable the readers to
imagine the situation described. The examples are as follows:
impatient blast of horns
the roar of bulldozers
neat sterile rows
3.5.1 Details
Details are important to give the readers supports and descriptions related to the
central idea of the narrative essay. Without details, the essay will be boring and dull.
Compare the two examples below. The first example lack details as compared to the
second example.
As the years passed, many of my friends left our
neighbourhood. I seldom see them anymore. We live
our separate lives. The only thing binding us is our
childhood memories.
As the years passed, my friends and I grew up. Most
of them have left the neighbourhood for more lucrative
jobs in the big cities. Some of us remained. However,
many things happened. A few years ago, one of my
childhood friends committed suicide and then another
one died in a tragic accident. Things became awkward
and strange since then. We have lost our childhood.
We are like strangers now for we have our separate
lives to live. The only thing that binds us together is the
fact that we share the same childhood memories,
memories we will always treasure.
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The first example given above clearly shows that when the paragraph lacks details,
the presentation of ideas becomes dull and uninteresting. Unlike the presentation of
ideas in the second example which is livelier because of the details being included to
elaborate the idea that things are not the same anymore between the writer and his
friends.
Task 3.5
The following paragraph lack details. Rewrite it by adding some details to make it
more realistic and livelier.
On the way home from work today, I witnessed a terrible accident.
It happened in front of my eyes. I saw a car was hit by a trailer. The
car then hit another car. A few people were injured including a five
months old baby.
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Task 3.6
Choose any of the following topics and write five episodes to develop the narrative.
Add a transition word to connect each episode.
1. A change in your life.
2. An unusual incident.
3. Think about an incident that makes you realize how important someone was
for you.
Episode 1 :
Transition :
Episode 2 :
Transition:
Episode 3:
Transition :
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Episode 4 :
Transition :
3.6 The structure of a narrative essay
The following is the structure of a narrative essay that can help a writer to structure
the essay.
Introduction
The writer can start the story with a quotation, a
question or a statement to catch readers‘ attention or
known as ―the hook‖.
Provide the readers with the scene; where it happens
and the major characters.
Write a thesis statement to show the main the story or
what the story will be about. The thesis statement will
provide the readers with a general idea on what the
story will be about.
An example of a thesis statement is as the following:
It was a wonderful day to go hiking. So, I asked two of
my good friends to join me hiking at the Maxwell Hill.
Little did I know that the journey turned out to be a
scary experience.
*The underlined thesis statement guides the writer in
writing the essay and presents the readers with what to
expect when reading the essay; a scary experience.
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Body
Paragraph
The writer writes details and descriptions related to the
experience to support and explain the main idea.
It would be good to describe the events by using all
five senses – what you saw, heard, smelled and felt.
Organize the events chronologically.
Conclusion
You can end the story by giving the moral of the story
or show the lesson you learnt from the experience or
story.
Task 3.7
Now, try to complete the following outline.
Choose any of the titles in Task 3.6.
Introduction
Begin with a
“hook” to attract
readers’ attention.
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Set the scene by
answering these
questions:
Where the
event
happened?
When it
happened?
How old
were you
when it
happened?
State the thesis
statement.
Body Paragraph
Paragraph 1
Starting of the
event/action
Topic sentence:
Detail 1:
Detail 2:
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Detail 3:
Paragraph 2
Middle of the
event/action
Topic sentence:
Detail 1:
Detail 2:
Detail 3:
Paragraph 3
End of the
event/action
Topic sentence:
Detail 1:
Detail 2:
Detail 3:
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Conclusion
Reflect on the
events/actions and
state the moral
value gained from
the story.
Task 3.8
Now, write a narrative essay based on the outline you have developed above. The
essay should be about 300 words. Remember to follow the following stages:
1) Brainstorm for ideas and present them in the form of a fishbone or a list.
2) Outline the essay according to the structure suggested in table 3.1.
3) Write your draft based on the outline developed.
4) Edit and revise the draft using the following self-evaluation checklist presented
in table 3.1.
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Language
Tick
Check on the basic grammar (tenses, transitions, word forms, word choice)
Correct usage of punctuation
Correct spelling
Organization
Introduction
Thesis statement in the introductory paragraph
Topic sentence in each body paragraph
Conclusion
Use of transitional markers to connect the ideas within the paragraphs and between paragraphs
Events are chronologically sequenced
Content
The introduction attracts readers‘ attention
Thesis statement clearly states the central idea.
Clear topic sentences in each body paragraph
Topic sentences are clearly developed with details
The conclusion consists of a reflection of the events and/ or the moral value of the story
Table 3.1 Self-evaluation checklist for a cause and effect essay
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3.7 Prompts to help in a narrative essay
There are times that you might find it difficult to decide on an experience to write
about. The followings are some prompts to help you identify a significant life
experience to write about.
A childhood event. Think of an experience when you learned something for
the first time, or when you realized how important someone was for you.
Achieving a goal. Think about a particularly meaningful achievement in your
life. This could be something as seemingly minor as achieving a good grade
on a difficult assignment, or this could be something with more long-lasting
effects, like getting the job you desired or getting into the best school to which
you applied.
A failure. Think about a time when you did not perform as well as you had
wanted. Focusing on an experience like this can result in rewarding reflections
about the positive emerging from the negative.
A good or bad deed. Think about a time when you did or did not stand up for
yourself or someone else in the face of adversity or challenge.
A realization. Think about a time when you experienced a realization. This
could be anything from understanding a complicated math equation to gaining
a deeper understanding of a philosophical issue or life situation.
Task 3.9
Use the prompts in 3.7 to write outlines and practice writing essays.
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SELF ASSESSMENT
Test 1
Fill in the blanks with the correct transition words from the box below.
so then hence immediately
fortunately however At first suddenly
surprisingly and but as
It was my first cross-country race and I can still recall that day. All the students were
at the school gate waiting impatiently for the shattering sound of the gun.
(1)__________ after hearing the blast of the gun, the crowd rushed out of the school
gate. (2) __________ I was hemmed in by a crowd of school runners so I had to
keep pace with them. (3) __________, the runners were running at a quick pace,
much too quick for me. (4) __________I tried my best to stay with the group
(5)__________ I found myself short of breath. I was struggling to keep up. (6)
__________, I slowed down and let the runners past ahead of me. (7) __________ I
slowed down to catch my breath, (8) __________, Silva, the overweight little fellow in
my class flashed past me. That really jolted me. (9) __________, I found myself
picking up the pace (10) __________ trying to overtake Silva with such strong
determination.
Test 2
Write the introductory paragraph with the thesis statement for the following topics.
1) A picnic on a rainy day.
2) A new beginning
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REFERENCES
Abraham Sung. (2000). 330 English essays. Seremban: Minerva Publications. Jarrett, J.M., Lee, M.G. & Mbalia, D.D. (1999). Pathways: A text for developing writers. Needham Heights: Allyn & Bacon. Lannon, J.M. (2001). The writing process: A concise rhetoric. (7th edn.). New York: Addison Wesley Longman. Lyons, C.C. (1984). Discover Writing: A rhetoric workbook for the beginning writer. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Mayers. A. (2003). Writing with confidence: Writing effective sentences and paragraphs. New York: Addison Wesley-Longman. Paxton, L.K. (1999). Writing power: Elements of effective writing. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Winkler, A.C, Metherell, J.R. (2003). Writing talk: Paragraphs and short essays with readings. (3rd edn.). New Jersey: Pearson Education. http://www.writeexpress.com/narrative-essay.html
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Answers
Task 3.2
2. My elder brother taught me many things.
5. I learned to make flyable kites and spinnable tops.
3. We used to catch fighting-fish, tiger barbs, guppies and various
other colourful fishes.
6. We kept them in all sorts of containers.
7. In addition, we would go around the neighbouring countryside
catching tiny tropical fishes.
1. Then, invariably our enthusiasm would turn to neglect and the
whole collection of fish would die.
4. After some time, the enthusiasm would suddenly grip us again and
we would start all over again mending our nets and venturing out
into the countryside again.
Task 3.3
Then, after some time, in addition
Task 3.4
1. When
2. Fortunately
3. Often
4. However
5. Unfortunately
6. Instead
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Answers for Test 1
1) Immediately
2) At first
3) However
4) Hence
5) but
6) So
7) As
8) Suddenly
9) Surprisingly
10) and
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UNIT 4
CAUSE AND EFFECT ESSAY
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the unit, students should be able to:
4. produce the structure of a cause and effect essay
5. complete the tasks given on cause and effect essays
6. write a cause and effect essay
4.1 Causes and Effects
Causes refer to the reasons a particular situation occur, for example the causes of
teenage social problems. Effects on the other hand refer to the results of the causes.
For instance, one of the causes of teenage social problems is lack parents‘ attention
while the effect of lacking in parents‘ attention is teenage social problem.
Causes of
Road accidents
Effects Of
Road accidents
Reckless driving
Faulty car condition Bad weather
Death Serious injury Damage to the
vehicle
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One is usually asked to write either on causes or effects in their essay. To
ensure that you have identified causes and effects clearly, you must be able to
differentiate between the two of them.
Task 4.1
Classify the following points into the columns labeled causes and effects of teenage
stress.
1.
the pressure from teachers
2.
disruptive behaviour in class
3.
becomes aggressive and disrespectful
4.
refuse to go to school
5.
separation of parents or parents‘ divorce
6.
being neglected or abandoned by people they love
7.
get involved in illegal and reckless activities
8.
peer and social pressures
9.
the pressure due to poor grades
10.
like to be alone and isolate himself or herself from other people
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Causes
of Teenage stress
Effects
Of Teenage stress
1) the pressure from teachers
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4.2 Writing a cause and effect essay
As in order writing process, you need to go through stages in writing you
essay.
The following are the stages you can follow when writing an essay:
a) Pre-writing
b) Writing
c) Editing
4.2.1 Prewriting
Before you start writing, you should allow some time to list or brainstorm for
possible ideas to be included in your essay. In the case of a cause and effect
essay, you may want to list out the causes or/and effects. When you list the
causes and effects, your essay will be more focused and organized.
When brainstorming for the causes and effects, you can use a mind map to jot
down all the points that come to mind in relation to the topic.
4.2.2 Fish bone
The following is an example of a mind map called fish bone for a cause and
effect essay.
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Detail 1 Detail 1 Detail 2 Detail 2
Thesis Statement
Detail 1 Detail 1
Detail 2 Detail 2
Figure 4.1 Fishbone for a cause and effect essay
Fishbone can be used to organize your ideas for a cause and effect essay.
The thesis statement that is the central idea to your essay is placed in the
middle of the fish bone to show the focus of the essay.
You can put the causes in the respective cause boxes.
The details are the supporting points or the evidence you want to use in order
to support the causes. The supporting details can be examples of cases or
situations. It is best to have two supporting details for each cause. This will
ensure a strong development of your points.
The following figure 3.2 shows a sample of a fishbone developed under the
topic causes of teenage social problems.
TITLE
Cause 3 Cause 4
Cause 1 Cause 2
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Faulty tyre sleepy Faulty brakes consume alcohol
Thesis Statement
Slippery road speeding
potholes disregard road signs
Figure 4.2 Fishbone for an essay titled Causes of Teenage Social Problem
Task 4.2
Now, fill in the blanks using the points given under the topic the causes of teenage
stress as presented in Task 4.1.
Causes of Road
Accidents
The condition of
the road
The driver’s
attitude
The condition of
the car
The driver’s condition
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Thesis Statement
4.2.3 Listing
Besides using a mind map such as a fishbone, you can also jot down the main
points that you want to use in your essay by listing them out. Then you choose
the best 3 or 4 points you would like to focus on in your essay.
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Task 4.3
For task 4.3, list out the causes and effects of stress.
Cause 1
Supporting details
Cause 2
Supporting details
Cause 3
Supporting details
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Effect 1
Supporting details
Effect 2
Supporting details
Effect 3
Supporting details
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When writing a cause and effect essay, you must classify the causes and
effects clearly so that the readers can see your main causes and effects and
these main points do not overlap with one another. For example, if your first
point for the causes of stress is excessive workload and you put a lot of
assignments to mark as your second point, then there is an overlap because a
lot of assignments can be considered as the supporting point for the main
point excessive workload.
Look through the causes and effects of stress that you have written down in
Task 4.3 and check whether the points in each category overlap with one
another.
4.3 Arrangement of causes and effects
When writing a cause and effect essay, you should follow the following structure:
Figure 4.3 Structure of a cause and effect essay
Introduction
Body Paragraph 1
Body Paragraph 2
Body Paragraph 3
Conclusion
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4.3.1 Introduction
The introduction paragraph should contain some background information of
the topic.
It should attract the readers‘ attention to read the essay.
It should consist of a thesis statement that presents the central idea or the
focus of the essay.
The following are examples of thesis statements for a cause and effect essay:
From the examples given above, you can see that the thesis statement usually
states the main points that will be discussed in the essay. Hence, it gives the
readers a general idea what the essay will be about.
There are numerous causes of teenage stress and among them are social
pressure, parents‘ high expectations and poor examination results.
A lot of road accidents in Malaysia are caused by faulty condition of the
car, driver‘s behaviour and the road condition.
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Task 4.4
Underline the thesis statement in the following introductory paragraphs.
There have been numerous campaigns against cigarette smoking
communicating that this vice causes death. But a threat to health
doesn‘t seem to be a good reason for quitting anymore. People
somehow block themselves and ignore all the information that is
given to them. The purpose of this essay is to discuss three effects of
cigarette smoking, besides the broadly mentioned possibility of
developing cancer or dying, which are the smell of smoke, the
stained teeth, and the cost of doing it.
Taken from http://www.tailoredessays.com/samples
Are you aware that 20 million people in Mexico live on less than two
dollars a day? Sixty million people, half the Mexican population, live
in poverty, and 20 million of them live in extreme poverty. Most of the
time, garbage is their food, and some days, they don‘t even eat
anything. This critical poverty situation in Mexico is caused by
individual, geographic and political factors.
Taken from http://www.tailoredessays.com/samples
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Task 4.5
Now, based on the following topics, write your thesis statement. Make sure you state
the three points you will discuss in your essay, in the thesis statement.
1. The effects of introducing the English for Science and Technology subject at
upper secondary level.
Entering a university is a very important and interesting experience in
a person‘s life, but at the same time it is an experience that will
change your lifestyle and personality forever. The purpose of this
essay is to discuss the three main effects of entering a university
which are missing old friends, learning how to survive during
university, and developing responsible behavior which must
accompany university studies.
Taken from http://www.tailoredessays.com/samples
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2. The causes of social problems among teenagers nowadays.
4.3.2 Topic sentence and supporting details.
When you write a thesis statement, you should include at least three main
points like the examples given above.
For instance, for the thesis statement on the causes of teenage stress, the
three main points presented are as underlined : There are numerous causes
of teenage stress and among them are social pressure, parents‘ high
expectations and poor examination results.
In an essay, each of the point presented in the thesis statement should be
developed to form a topic sentence. The topic sentence is usually the first
sentence in a body paragraph to give readers the main idea of a particular
body paragraph.
Each topic sentence should be supported with examples or specific details.
Details help to explain the writer‘s main point and provide evidence to support
the main idea presented.
Hence, if you have three main points, you should have three body paragraphs
and each body paragraph should contain a topic sentence.
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The following diagram shows the topic sentence of each body paragraph. The
topic sentence is usually the first sentence in the body paragraph.
Thesis Statement
There are numerous causes of teenage stress and among them
are social pressure, parents‘ high expectations and poor
examination results.
Body Paragraph 1
Topic Sentence
Many teenagers experience stress due to peer pressure.
Body Paragraph 2
Topic Sentence
Another source of teenage stress is parents‘ high expectations.
Body Paragraph 3
Topic Sentence
Finally, stress among teenagers is a result of poor examination results.
From the diagram, you can see that each body paragraph usually starts with a
topic sentence that states the main idea of the respective paragraph.
Each body paragraph also should contain details that provide evidence or
examples to support the main idea stated in the topic sentence.
Read the following example of a thesis statement, topic sentences and
supporting details.
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Title: The positive effects of modern inventions.
Introduction
Thesis
statement
Modern inventions build up the economy, save time
and energy and develop creativity.
Body
Paragraph
1
Topic
sentence
Modern inventions help to boost up the economy.
Supporting
details
a) They increase productions from factories.
b) They develop the business industry faster.
Body
Paragraph
2
Topic
Sentence
Modern inventions save time and energy.
Supporting
details
a) One can gain information from around the world.
b) Research can be carried out easily
Body
Paragraph
3
Topic
Sentence
Modern inventions also develop human creativity.
Supporting
details
a) The making of movies became more advanced.
b) Advertisements are well presented.
Conclusion
Restate the main points and close the essay
effectively.
Table 4.1 Outline of a cause and effect essay
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Read the sample essay below. Then, complete the table that follows with the thesis
statement, topic sentences and supporting details taken from the essay.
Task 4.6
The impacts of advertisements
There is no doubt that advertisements perform a useful service to the consumers.
They reduce the cost of goods, give educational benefits and provide service to the
public.
Advertisements help reduce the cost of goods in the market. The cost of newspapers
and magazines would be astronomical if not for the advertisements which subsidise
the cost of production. Besides that, manufacturers spend vast sums of money on
advertising their products to inform the public of the goods available in the market.
Far from increasing the cost of the product, advertisements help to promote sales of
that product. When sales of the product increased, it helps to keep the cost down.
Advertisements also give the public educational benefits. For instance,
advertisements on road safety provides advises on safety measures to be taken
seriously by road users before and while driving. This is to ensure the safety of those
in the car and other road users. Other than that, some advertisements also present
consumers with information about products that can cure particular illness and
products that can give bad impact to their well being.
Finally, advertisements provide services to the public. Some advertisements in the
newspaper or online advertise invaluable services to the consumers. For example,
advertisements on banking services to help consumers manage the payments of
their bills effectively. Other services like typing and editing services for students can
easily be found online.
To sum up, advertisements have brought innumerable benefits hence; they are
useful to the public. Without advertisements, the cost of living would be higher as the
price of goods and services would not be subsidized.
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Thesis statement
Topic sentence 1
Supporting details :
a)
b)
Topic sentence 2
Supporting details : a)
b)
Topic sentence 3
Supporting details : a)
b)
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Task 4.7
Below is a short task with a topic for you to practise writing out the thesis statement,
topic sentences and supporting details.
Title
The effects of face book.
Thesis statement
Topic sentence 1
Supporting details :
a)
b)
Topic sentence 2
Supporting details : a)
b)
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Cigarette smoking clearly causes lung cancer, stained teeth and
smelly odour. Hence, to those smokers out there, you should stop
smoking as it makes other people around you feel uneasy.
So, cigarette smoking clearly causes lung cancer, stained teeth and
smelly odour. Do you want to be one of those people whom other
people stay away from?
Topic sentence 3
Supporting details : a)
b)
4.3.3 Conclusion
You could restate your points in the concluding paragraph. You could also
restate the main supporting points.
Some of the ways to conclude your essay are:
a) end with a final thought
b) a thought-provoking question
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It is important that smokers realized that smoking is bad for their
health and it creates a bad image of themselves. Therefore, smokers
should not take the effects of smoking lightly. They should take
measures to stop the smoking habit for their own good.
c) a recommendation or prediction
4.4 Useful expressions
Here are some expressions you can use in writing a cause and effect essay.
Task 4.8
Now, write a cause and effect essay on the topic the effects of the internet. The
essay should be about 300 words. Remember to follow the following stages:
1) Brainstorm for ideas and present them in the form of a fishbone or a list.
2) Outline the essay according to the structure suggested in table 3.1.
one of the causes as a result is caused by is due to
is the result of results from results in leads to
contributes to in addition moreover accordingly
because consequently hence eventually
for this purpose therefore thus so
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3) Write your draft based on the outline developed.
4) Edit and revise the draft using the following self-evaluation checklist presented
in table 4.2.
Language
Tick
Check on the basic grammar (tenses, sequence connectors, word forms, word choice)
Correct usage of punctuation
Correct spelling
Organization
Introduction
Thesis statement in the introductory paragraph
Topic sentence in each body paragraph
Conclusion
Use of transitional markers to connect the ideas within the paragraphs and between paragraphs
Content
The introduction attracts readers‘ attention
Thesis statement clearly states the main points
Clear topic sentences in each body paragraph
Topic sentences are clearly supported with examples and evidence
The conclusion summarizes the main points of the essay
Table 4.2 Self-evaluation checklist for a cause and effect essay
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SELF ASSESSMENT
Test 1
What are the 3 stages in writing a cause and effect essay?
Test 2
Draw a fish bone for the essay entitled ―the causes of stress‖.
Test 3
From the points developed in the fish bone in Test 2, write an outline for the essay
entitled ―the causes of stress‖.
Thesis statement
Topic sentence 1
Supporting details :
a)
b)
Topic sentence 2
Supporting details :
a)
b)
Topic sentence 3
Supporting details : a)
b)
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REFERENCES
K C Lee, Happy Goh, Janet Chan & Ying Yang. (2007). Effective college writing: A
process- genre approach. Singapore: Mc. Graw-Hill Education.
Langan, J. (2002). English skills with readings. Boston: McGraw Hill Companies.
Lannon, J.M. 2001. The writing process: A concise rhetoric. (7th edn.). New York:
Addison Wesley Longman.
Lyons, C.C. (1984). Discover Writing: A rhetoric workbook for the beginning writer.
New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Mayers. A. (2003). Writing with confidence: Writing effective sentences and
paragraphs. New York: Addison Wesley-Longman.
Paxton, L.K. (1999). Writing power: Elements of effective writing. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. http://www.tailoredessays.com/samples
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Answers
Task 4.1
1. the pressure from teachers
Causes of teenage stress
2.
disruptive behaviour in class Effects of teenage stress
3. becomes aggressive and disrespectful
Effects of teenage stress
4. refuse to go to school
Effects of teenage stress
5. separation of parents or parents‘ divorce
Causes of teenage stress
6. being neglected or abandoned by people they love
Causes of teenage stress
7. get involved in illegal and reckless activities
Effects of teenage tress
8. peer and social pressures
Causes of teenage stress
9. the pressure due to poor grades
Causes of teenage stress
10. like to be alone and isolate himself or herself from other people
Effects of teenage stress
Task 4.4
1. The purpose of this essay is to discuss three effects of cigarette smoking, besides
the broadly mentioned possibility of developing cancer or dying, which are the smell
of smoke, the stained teeth, and the cost of doing it.
2. This critical poverty situation in Mexico is caused by individual, geographic and
political factors.
3. The purpose of this essay is to discuss the three main effects of entering a
university which are missing old friends, learning how to survive during university,
and developing responsible behavior which must accompany university studie
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UNIT 5
PROCESS ESSAY
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of the unit, students should be able to:
1. understand process essay
2. recognize the elements of a process essay
3. identify the steps to write a process essay
4. write a process essay
5.1. What is a Process Essay?
A process essay is written when you want to describe a process. Normally, it involves
step by step descriptions of the followings:
a) How something is done (providing instructions)
b) How something works (providing information)
c) How something happened (providing the history)
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Task 5.1
In the blanks provided, write A for how something is done, B for how something
works or C for how something happened.
1. __________ How to bake cookies.
2. __________ Three most effective steps to lose weight.
3. __________ How Malaysia became an independent nation.
4. __________ How to become a good student.
5. __________ Things to do during an emergency.
6. __________ How smoking becomes addictive.
Task 5.2
In the space provided, state whether the paragraph describes a process or not. If
yes, please indicate whether it shows how something is done, how something works
or how something happened.
1.
To be a good friend, an individual has to spend time working on the
friendships, or they will eventually fade. When two people first meet, they
both need to be sure they are acting in good manner, so they don‘t scare the
other away. After they meet and start talking a few times, they will start
getting to know each other, calling each other, and spending more time with
each other. That is how a friendship begins. After they call each other
―friends‖, the friendship can be maintained through the effort of both parties.
Friendships should not take a lot of money but they do take a lot of time and
care. Friends should always listen to what the other has to say, and then
should give advice only when asked for it.
__________________________________________________________________
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2. 3.
I am fifty years old, rather tall and I have brown eyes and short black hair. I
wear casual clothes as I attend to my patients in a relaxed atmosphere. I
enjoy my job because I get to meet and help so many different people from
all over the country. During my spare time, I like playing golf which I play at
least three times a week (much to wife‘s chagrin!). I also love listening to
traditional music and enjoy occasional movie nights with the family. I live in a
small town with my wife and two children. I always try to make the best out of
my life and I hope one day I would be able to look back and have no regrets.
_________________________________________________________________
In order to live on a tight budget, you may have to find a new job, keep a record of your money, and spend your free time wisely. The first step is to consider getting a second or third job because doing so has two advantages: you can make more money, and you have less time to spend the money! Secondly, you must record all the money that you receive and spend. The money you receive is called your salary, and it should be more than the money you spend. This is called a budget. Finally, try to spend your free time without spending money! Spare time activities like movies, parties, and eating out at fancy restaurants will require you to spend some money. You should cut back on these unnecessary expenses. If you follow these steps, you may not notice that you are actually living on a tight budget.
__________________________________________________________________
4.
There are three different types of rock music, alternative rock, classic rock,
and hard rock, also known as metal. Alternative rock features a steady bass
drum laying down the beat, with easy flowing guitar riffs over the top. The
bass line is toned town, and the lyrics are sung with intensity an authority.
Depending on the song, the guitars can either be acoustic guitars or electric
guitars. Classic rock combines a steady driving bass drum sound, with high
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5.
6.
snare overtones, steady and often repeating guitar riffs, and an intensive
bass line. The guitars are more often than not all electric guitars, and
distortion is rarely used. The lyrics are sung with style and enthusiasm. Hard
rock, or metal, features a hard rolling bass drum with an abundant amount of
cymbal work. This style of rock uses several electric guitars with heavy
distortion to bring a very intense sound. A hard, intense, driving bass line
rounds out the style. The lyrics aren‘t really sung so much as screamed. It
doesn‘t matter what your preference is, each different style of rock music is
unique on its own.
___________________________________________________________________
The problem of hairballs that have already formed in cat‘s fur can be solved
by proper brushing. In order to brush your cat‘s hairballs, you‘ll need two
kinds of brushes: a wide-teeth wipe and a metallic one. The former will help
you dissolve and, partially, remove tightly knotted hairballs without causing
any pain or discomfort to your cat. The latter, used subsequently, will remove
excess of loose puffy hair and decrease the possibility of reoccurrence the
next day. Once brushing is over, make sure to polish your cat‘s fur all over
his body with the help of a clean, cotton, or woolen cloth.
___________________________________________________________________
Since my daughter has been in daycare she has become better at a few
different things. To start off, her vocabulary is much larger and more
developed. Before she started daycare, my daughter had a few select words
that she would say like; mama, papa and some other simple words. Now she
tries to repeat everything that is said. Another result of her being in daycare
is that she has the ability to interact with other children better. In the past,
she was only around one child. Now she is around about six to eight kids,
and she has learned to share her toys and to play in a group with the other
children. A third outcome of her being in daycare is the fact that she is
becoming more self-reliant. Before daycare, she wouldn‘t try very hard to
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help me with getting dressed, but now she wants to try to do it all on her own.
She tries to pull on her shirts and pants herself. Socks still go on upside
down, but at least her shoes go on the correct feet I am really glad that I
decided to put her in a daycare, for the benefits have been great.
___________________________________________________________________
5.2. How to Write a Process Essay
Writing a process essay involves the followings:
1. At the beginning of the essay, you must state the purpose very clearly.
2. Each step of the process must be presented in logical order.
3. To help readers understand your essay, you must use some transitions.
5.3. Stating a Clear Purpose
When you write a paragraph describing a process, you must begin with a very clear
topic sentence. The topic sentence will help you and your readers to understand your
paragraph better.
Examples: Baking cookies involves five easy steps
To drive a car, you need to follow some instructions.
The building was constructed over several phases.
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Task 5.3
Write a topic sentence for each process below.
1. How to prepare a cup of coffee.
________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________
2. Three most effective steps to lose weight.
________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________
3. How Malaysia became an independent nation.
________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________
4. How to become a good student.
________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________
5. Things to do during an emergency.
________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________
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6. How smoking becomes addictive.
________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________
7. Getting a dream job.
________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________
5.4. Presenting a Logical Order
Having a logical order is another important element of a process essay. You need to
be clear of which step should come first and which one should come later. In some
processes such as baking cookies, you need to make sure that each step follows a
chronological order or else you may end up not having any cookies to eat! On the
other hand, there are processes which do not have obvious order of sequence (i.e.
how to become a good student). For these kinds of processes, you need to decide
the order of which you want your ideas be presented. The most important thing to
remember is that, your paragraph must be presented in a logical order.
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Task 5.4
List the steps for each of the process below.
1. Three most effective steps to lose weight.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. Things to do during an emergency.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
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3. Getting a dream job.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
4. How to become a good student.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
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5.5. Using Some Transition Words
A process essay is normally organized according to time. It begins with the first step
in the process and proceed in time until the last step in the process. Transition words
indicate that one step has been completed and a new one will begin. Some common
transitional words used in process essays are as follows:
Firstly
First
In the beginning
At first
Initially
Then
Next
Second
Third
Immediately
After that
Afterward
Eventually
Simultaneously
Meanwhile
While
During
Later
After a few seconds/minutes
At the same time
In the mean time
Soon after
At the end
Before
When
Last of all
Finally
Lastly
Please take note that there are other transition words which you can used in your
process essay besides the ones listed above.
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Task 5.5
Based on Task 5.4, choose four of the processes and connect each step you have
listed using transition words.
1. ________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. ________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
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________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
3. ________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
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4. ______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
5.6. The Structure of a Process Essay
When you write a process essay, you need to use the following structure:
Introductory Paragraph
In the introduction you reveal the basic aim of the process leaving out specific details.
You also need to provide basic background information. Another important thing to
mention is the true meaning of this process and its everyday life application.
Therefore the reader learns in which spheres he can later apply the knowledge of this
process. The thesis statement is always the final sentence of the introduction.
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Here is an example of an introductory paragraph of a process essay:
Many students feel uncomfortable when they are faced with the
task of writing an essay. While they may have many ideas
when they discuss a topic, picking up pen and paper seems to
dry up all ideas. Some students aren't even sure what an
essay is. Basically, an essay is an organized way to express
an opinion and prove that I is valid. This can take a variety of
forms, but the standard format starts with an introduction, has a
body, and ends with a conclusion. There are a few simple
steps to writing an essay.
In the above example, the writer does the followings:
a) introduces the topic (sentence 1 and 2)
b) provides basic background information about the topic (sentence 4 and 5)
c) write a thesis statement (last sentence of the paragraph)
Task 5.6
Based on the topics in Task 5.1, choose two of them and write the introductory
paragraphs.
1. ________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
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________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. ________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
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Body Paragraph
The number of body paragraphs of a process essay depends on the amount of
processes involved. If the process you are describing consists of five main steps for
example, your essay must have five body paragraphs – one paragraph for each step.
Each step or stage should have its specific purpose the reader needs to understand.
All the stages need to be presented in a logical order to avoid confusion. In each
paragraph you must include all the necessary details for the procedure including
equipment (should there be any), cautions readers must take and the stage‘s main
difficulties.
The following is an example of the body paragraphs for the essay describing the
steps involved in writing an essay.
First, students must generate ideas. They have to think
about what they know about a topic and what they want to
write. Students do this in different ways. Some students do
brainstorming. That is, they sit with a piece of paper and write
words and try to relate them to other words. Some students
just make a list of ideas. Other students find they need to do
some prewriting because they think better when they are
writing out their ideas. Some students just sit and think and get
the ideas sorted out in their minds. One way is not better than
another way. Everyone is different, so everyone writes in a
different way. The important thing is not the method but the
results. Sometimes, students think that the ideas have to be
perfect from the beginning, but this is not true. Sometimes they
might find that their ideas need revision or that some can be
eliminated. Once they have generated ideas, they have a
starting point so they can begin to write, and that is what is
important.
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Next, students need to organize their ideas. They need to
make sure that they have a statement of opinion, and then they
need to put their supporting ideas into some kind of order. That
is, they need to decide what will come first and so forth. For
example, if students are writing about history, most of the time
they will organize their ideas chronologically because that is
the way that people usually think about history--from past to
present.
Sometimes, the decision students have to make is whether to
start with something very simple first and then building up to
something big, or whether to hit the reader right away with
something important. Students need to look carefully at their
ideas and think about what will make the strongest paper--and
the most interesting paper.
Last, students need to write. This seems easy enough, but
many students delay this part of the paper until the last minute.
Write here means writing the first draft because, whenever
possible, it is good to save time to write, look at it and make
corrections, and then write it again. Students need to give
themselves time--especially in the beginning--to learn from
their writing. If they wait until an hour before class, the paper
becomes a burden instead of an opportunity to learn and share
ideas. Sam, for example, had a 1000 word essay due at
11:00pm in his English class. He waited until 9:00pm the night
before to begin. By then, he was so nervous about getting the
paper finished on time that he couldn't think of anything to write
about. He kept thinking about the F he was going to get and
what it would do to his grade point average. Students should
just start writing and not expect a perfect product the first time,
but even an imperfect paper is better than no paper.
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In the example above, the writer does the followings:
1. divide three important steps into three different paragraphs
2. start each paragraph with a very clear topic sentence
3. use transitional words
4. describe each step in detail by providing lengthy explanations and examples.
This helps readers to understand the process better.
Task 5.7
Based on the topic sentences you wrote in Task 5.3, choose two of them and write 2
main steps involved in the processes. Pay attention to the logical order of your
paragraphs and please use transition words.
1. ________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
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________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. ________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
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________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
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Concluding Paragraph
Your concluding paragraph should tell the readers the result of the process. You
must also reinstate the thesis restatement to reinforce the significance of the
procedure.
Here is an example of the concluding paragraph of an essay describing the process
of writing an essay.
In conclusion, writing an essay is really not so difficult.
Students simply need to have a plan for writing. First, they
need to find a way to generate ideas, and then they need to
organize these ideas in some way that makes sense to them.
Lastly, but most importantly, the students have to sit down and
pick up their pencils and begin to write. The more students
practice writing, the easier it will become because it's really
only thinking and sharing ideas—something they do all of the
time.
In the above example, the writer has done the followings:
1. informs the readers the result of the process (sentence 1)
2. reinstate thesis statement (sentence 2)
3. reinforce the significance of the procedure (sentence 3 and 4 and 5)
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Task 5.8
Write the concluding paragraphs for the two topics you have chosen in Task 5.6.
1. ________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. ________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
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________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
5.7. Things to Remember
As you are writing your process essay, consider the followings:
What process are you trying to explain? Why is it important?
Who or what does the process affect?
Are there different ways of doing the process? If so, what are they?
Who are the readers? What knowledge do they need to understand this
process?
What skills/equipment is needed for this?
How long does the process take? Is the outcome always the same?
How many steps are there in the process?
Why is each step important?
What difficulties are involved in each step? How can they be overcome?
Do any cautions need to be given?
Does the process have definitions that need to be clarified?
Are there other processes that are similar and could help illustrate the process
that you are writing about?
If needed, tell what should not be done or why something should be done.
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This is a checklist to help you when writing a Process Paragraph:
Narrow the topic. Think of who you are writing to.
Make a topic sentence that clearly states what your process will be.
Free write or brainstorm some ideas that might help with the process.
Drop unnecessary information that is not necessary in the process.
Make an outline with the steps of how you will write it.
Write a draft of the process and use transitional words to indicate order.
Revise.
Proofread to make sure that you have no errors in grammar or spelling,
punctuation, or mechanics.
Task 5.9
Write a process essay of your choice. Bear in mind that you should be writing about a
process you are very familiar about. Please make sure that you do not leave any
critical steps in the process and always remember your audience when you are
writing.
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SELF ASSESSMENT
Based on the topic “Preparing for an Examination‖, complete the followings:
1. Write the thesis statement.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. Write the first topic sentence.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
3. List three supporting details for the first topic sentence.
a) __________________________________________________________
b) __________________________________________________________
c) __________________________________________________________
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4. Write the second topic sentence.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
5. List three supporting details for the second topic sentence.
a) __________________________________________________________
b) __________________________________________________________
c) __________________________________________________________
6. Write the third topic sentence.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
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7. List three supporting details for the third topic sentence.
a) __________________________________________________________
b) __________________________________________________________
c) __________________________________________________________
8. Write the concluding statement.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
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REFERENCES
Meyer, A. (2003). Writing with confidence. New York: Longman
Winkler, A.C & McCuen-Metherell, J.R. (2003). Writing talk. New Jersey: Prentice
Hall
http://daria-przybyla.suite101.com
Jessi Johnson 2005 http://english120.pbworks.com
Kristian Anderson 2005 http://english120.pbworks.com
http://leo.stcloudstate.edu/acadwrite/process.html
http://english120.pbworks.com/w/page/19007022/process%20paragraph
http://www.mpc.edu/academics/Humanities/ESSC/Handouts/sampleprocess.pdf
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UNIT 6
COMPARE AND CONTRAST ESSAY
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of the unit, students should be able to:
1. understand compare and contrast essay
2. recognize the elements of a compare and contrast essay
3. identify the steps to write a compare and contrast essay
4. write a compare and contrast essay
6.1. What is a Compare and Contrast Essay?
When you compare, you discuss similarities. When you contrast, you discuss
differences. Most of the time, when you write a compare and contrast essay, you
discuss both, the similarities and the differences. Comparing and contrasting can
only be done on entities that share similar features. For example, it is possible for
you to compare and contrast two people. However, you cannot compare or contrast a
person to a table.
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Task 6.1
In the blanks provided, write CC if you think it is possible for you to compare and
contrast and write X if you think it is not possible.
1. __________ The advantage of using computers.
2. __________ The wonderful features of two cars
3. __________ How Malaysia became an independent nation.
4. __________ How Malaysia and Indonesia became independent nations.
5. __________ Why conventional classrooms are better than virtual classrooms.
6. __________ Television programmes then and now.
6.2. How to Write a Compare and Contrast Essay
Writing a compare and contrast essay involves the followings:
a) comparing and contrasting things that share similar features
b) writing a clear topic sentence to state the purpose
c) choosing a pattern
d) using transition words
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6.3. Comparing and Contrasting
As stated earlier, compare and contrast can only be conducted on things which carry
similar features. As such, it is not possible for you to compare or contrast your
favourite food to your cat. However, you may compare these two if your essay
focuses on why you like your favourite food and your cat. Here, the discussion is not
on the similarities or differences between the food and the cat but rather on your two
favourite things – the food and the cat.
Task 6.2
The followings are two things which may not be suitable for comparing and
contrasting. In the space provided, provide a brief explanation on the focus of your
discussion so that you are able to compare and contrast them.
Example:
1. Reading and My brother
Both are annoying.
2. Exercising and Apples
______________________________________________________________
3. Shoes and Study
______________________________________________________________
4. Maps and Hobbies
______________________________________________________________
5. Clothes and Babies
______________________________________________________________
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6. Songs and Chairs
______________________________________________________________
7. Sickness and Holidays
______________________________________________________________
8. Dancing and Grandparents
______________________________________________________________
9. Hong Kong and Flowers
______________________________________________________________
10. Football and Hornbill
______________________________________________________________
Task 6.3
In the space provided, state three similarities or differences of the followings:
1. Football and tennis
a. _________________________________________________________
b. _________________________________________________________
c. _________________________________________________________
2. An iron and a remote control
a. _________________________________________________________
b. _________________________________________________________
c. _________________________________________________________
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3. A teacher and a mother
a. _________________________________________________________
b. _________________________________________________________
c. _________________________________________________________
4. America and Britain
a. _________________________________________________________
b. _________________________________________________________
c. _________________________________________________________
5. Day and night
a. _________________________________________________________
b. _________________________________________________________
c. _________________________________________________________
6.4. Writing a Clear Topic Sentence
Similar to writing other types of essays, a compare and contrast essay also requires
you to write a very clear topic sentence. This is to ensure that your readers are aware
of the purpose of your essay. Some examples of clear topic sentences for compare
and contrast essays are as follows:
Both Mathematics and Science are difficult subjects.
Even though they are twins who share some similarities, they do have their
differences.
Walking is a lot better than jogging.
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Task 6.4
In the space provided, write a topic sentence for each of the following:
1. Exercising and Apples
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. Shoes and Study
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
3. Maps and Hobbies
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
4. Clothes and Babies
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
5. Dancing and Grandparents
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
6. Football and tennis
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
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7. An iron and a remote control
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
8. A teacher and a mother
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
9 America and Britain
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
6.5. Choosing a Pattern
A compare and contrast essay may follow two patterns : Pattern A and Pattern B. If
for example, you are writing an essay comparing or contrasting conventional
classrooms and virtual classrooms, this is how you may write your essay.
First of all, you need to decide the features of the two classrooms that you want to
compare or contrast. For example:
Expenses
Convenience
Accessibility
Based on these three features, you may decide whether you want to follow Pattern A
or Pattern B.
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Pattern A
Pattern B
Point 1 : Expences
Conventional Classrooms
Virtual Classrooms
Point 2 : Convenience
Conventional Classrooms
Virtual Classrooms
Point 3 : Accessibility
Conventional Classrooms
Virtual Classrooms
Conventional Classrooms
Point 1 : Expenses
Point 2 : Convenience
Point 3 : Accessibility
Virtual Classrooms
Point 1 : Expenses
Point 2 : Convenience
Point 3 : Accessibility
Task 6.5
The followings are four possible topics that you can develop into a compare and
contrast essay. In the space provided, write down the points for each topic using the
two patterns.
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1. Two friends
Pattern A Pattern B
2. Two feature films
Pattern A Pattern B
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3. Two favourite hobbies
Pattern A Pattern B
4. Two secrets nobody knows
Pattern A Pattern B
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6.6. Using Transition Words
Similar to writing a process essay, you need to use transition words to make your
ideas clear.
Read the following paragraphs. Do you notice the difference between the two?
Maisy and Kiki are best firiends. They both have very different
personalities. Maisy is a petite young woman who is soft spoken.
Kiki is tall and is almost always very loud. Maisy likes to stay
indoor. Kiki prefers outdoor activities. Maisy is shy and quite
reserve. Kiki is very friendly and enjoys meeting people. The fact
that they are best friend makes it hard to believe that they are so
different.
Although Maisy and Kiki are best firiends, they both have very
different personalities. While Maisy is a petite young woman who
is soft spoken, Kiki on the other hand is tall and is almost always
very loud. Unlike Maisy who likes to stay indoor, Kiki prefers
outdoor activities. Maisy is shy and quite reserve. However, Kiki is
very friendly and enjoys meeting people. The fact that they are
best friend makes it hard to believe that they are so different.
The second paragraph uses some transition words and this has made it easier for us
to follow the idea. Can you list all the transition words used in the second paragraph?
1. __________________________________
2. __________________________________
3. __________________________________
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4. __________________________________
5. __________________________________
The followings are some of the transition words you can use in your essay.
Similarities
Differences
Similar to
Also
Additionally
As well as
Both
Too
Furthermore
In addition
And
In the same way
Like
Just as ….. so
Conversely
However
Unlike
Yet
Although
In contrast
On the other hand
Whereas
While
The opposite
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There are other transition words that you may use in your essay in addition to the
ones listed above. It is important that you use the correct transition words or else
your readers may not be able to understand your ideas.
6.7. The Structure of a Compare and Contrast Essay
When you write a compare and contrast essay, you need to use the following structure:
Introductory Paragraph
In the introduction, you should provide some basic background information about the two
things being compared or contrasted. This paragraph should end with a very clear thesis
statement.
Here is an example of an introductory paragraph of a process essay:
It is a fact that not all the people have the opportunity to go on
vacation. The ones who have the facilities like to go out of town once
in a while in order to leave their worries behind. When we go on
vacation, we have to decide the best place to go according to what
we have in mind. The purpose of this essay is to contrast the
differences between vacation at a beach or in a city. We will look at
the kinds of activities, the clothing required and the pace of life
available while vacationing on the beach or in the city.
In the above example, the writer does the followings:
a) introduces the topic (sentence 1 and 2) b) provides basic background information about the topic (sentence 3 and 4) c) write a thesis statement (last sentence of the paragraph – all the three
features to be contrasted are mentioned)
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Task 6.6
Based on the topics in Task 6.5, choose two of them and write the introductory
paragraphs.
1. ________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. ________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
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________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Body Paragraph
For the body paragraphs, you need to follow the two patterns we discuss in 6.5.
The following is an example of the body paragraphs for the essay describing the
differences between vacationing on the beach and in the city.
The first major difference between vacationing on the
beach or in a city is the kind of activities you are able to
do. On the beach, for example, you can go sailing, fishing,
surfing, skiing, or take advantage of the sun and lie in the sand
to get tan, or even in some cases feed sharks and swim with
dolphins. On the other hand, in a city you can visit different
sites such as museums, theaters, important buildings,
downtown, among other things. This means that you have
many places to know and you will need much more time and
organization in a city than on the beach.
Another difference between vacationing on the beach or in
a city is the clothing and equipment you need to take with
you. If you decide to go to the beach, you will have to take
mainly a bathing suit, shorts, short-sleeve shirts, sandals,
sunglasses, goggles, and sun block. Considering that you are
going to the city where you will have to walk a lot, you will need
comfortable and casual clothing such as jeans and tennis
shoes. You will also have to take fancy clothes in case you
want to go, for example, to watch a play or to a concer.
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The final difference between vacationing on the beach or
in a city is the pace of life. If you want a relaxing plan, your
option will be the beach. When you are on the beach you just
let things happen while in the city you will have to schedule all
your activities in order to have time to visit the different sites
you want to.
In the example above, the writer does the followings:
a) choose Pattern A to present the ideas and stick to it (You may want to choose
Pattern B when you write your essay).
b) start each paragraph with a very clear topic sentence
c) use transitional words
d) describe each step in detail by providing explanations and examples. This
helps readers to understand the process better.
Task 6.7
Based on the topic sentences you wrote in Task 6.4, choose two and write 2
paragraphs of compare and contrast for each of them. Please use transition words.
1. _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
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_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
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Concluding Paragraph
In this paragraph, you need to restate your thesis statement and briefly concludes
how you have discussed what you claim you would in the introductory paragraph.
Here is an example of the concluding paragraph for the essay describing the
differences between vacationing on the beach and in the city.
In conclusion, here you have these differences to consider
when deciding where to go on vacation. Although both places
are interesting and exciting, it all depends on what you are
looking for. Keep in mind that wherever you decide to go you
will enjoy it.
In the above example, the writer has done the followings:
a) concludes the essay (sentence 1)
b) reinstate thesis statement (sentence 2)
Task 6.8
Write the concluding paragraphs for the two topics you have chosen in Task 6.6.
1. _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
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_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
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6.8. Things to Remember
To write a good compare and contrast essay, remember the followings:
Be sure of the pattern you want to use
Stick to the pattern you choose.
Narrow the topic. State the features you want to compare or contrast very
clearly so that you would not write anything irrelevant.
Think of who you are writing to.
Write clear topic sentences.
Free write or brainstorm some ideas that might help.
Drop unnecessary information that is not necessary.
Make an outline with the steps of how you will write it.
Revise.
Proofread to make sure that you have no errors in grammar or spelling,
punctuation, or mechanics.
Task 6.9
Write a compare and contrast essay of your choice. Bear in mind that you should
choose a pattern in presenting your ideas.
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SELF ASSESSMENT
Based on the topic “Studying and Working‖, complete the followings:
1. Write the thesis statement to compare or contrast studying and working.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
2. Write the first topic sentence.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
3. List three supporting details for the first topic sentence.
a)
__________________________________________________________
b)
__________________________________________________________
c)
__________________________________________________________
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4. Write the second topic sentence.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
5. List three supporting details for the second topic sentence.
a)
__________________________________________________________
b)
__________________________________________________________
c)
__________________________________________________________
6. Write the third topic sentence.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
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7. List three supporting details for the third topic sentence.
a)
__________________________________________________________
b)
__________________________________________________________
c)
__________________________________________________________
8. Write the concluding statement.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
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REFERENCES
Langan, J. (2002). English skills with readings. Boston: McGraw Hill
Lannon, J.M. (2001). The Writing Process. New York: Longman
Meyer, A. (2003). Writing with confidence. New York: Longman
Winkler, A.C & McCuen-Metherell, J.R. (2003). Writing talk. New Jersey: Prentice
Hall
http://eslbee.com/contrast_vacation_beach_or_city.htm
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Writing Skills 158
UNIT 7
CLASSIFICATION ESSAY
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the unit, students should be able to:
1. classify things into categories and provide examples for them.
2. write thesis statement in the introductory paragraph of the classification essay.
3. develop the body of classification essay into paragraphs with each paragraph
consisting of a topic sentence.
4. write concluding statements for the conclusion paragraph of a classification
essay.
5. use language that represents categories accurately.
7.1 Understanding Classification Essay
Do you know what a classification essay is? Have you heard of it? Have you been
asked to write one? According to Ozagac (2004), a classification essay requires a
person to classify things into categories and provide examples of things that fit into
each category. Let‘s look at the examples below provided by Ozagac (2004) on
different types of computers (PCs & servers).
5 types of
computers
Criteria: Functions Criteria: Capabilities
1.PC General use by a single person desktop: permanent
laptop: portable
2. Workstation Used by 3D graphics, game
development
powerful microprocessor,
additional memory and
enhanced capabilities
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3. Server Used to provide services to other
computers
have powerful processors,
lots
of memory and large hard
drives
4. Main Frame Used in business enables hundreds of people
to work together
5.Super
Computer
Used for jobs that take massive
amount of calculating
very powerful
For example, if you are interested to write about types of residential colleges, each of
your developmental paragraphs should discuss the features of a different type of
residential college.
Task 7.1
Let‘s try this. First, think of the different types of residential colleges that you know.
Then, think of the different features of those residential colleges that you can classify.
Figure 7.1: Different Type of Residential Colleges
HOUSE
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Writing Skills 160
Table 7.1: Types of Residential Colleges and Their Features
Features
Types
Of
Residential
Colleges
Task 7.2
You may also choose the following topics as your classification essay and brainstorm
your ideas as in Task 7.1.
a. Favourite Shopping Malls
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i) Types of Favourite Shopping Malls
ii) Criteria of the Shopping Mall
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b. Reality Shows on Television
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c. Social Networking Sites
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7.2 Organization
The organization of a classification essay is very simple. Like any other essays, you
need to divide your paragraphs into the Introduction, Body of the Essay and
Conclusion section. In the Introduction Paragraph, you need to have a thesis
statement. This thesis statement should state that there are how many types of
something that you have chosen and what are their features or properties. For
instance, in the case of the computer as mentioned above, your thesis statement
should state that there are 5 types of computers and each of the computers is
compared in terms of their functions and capabilities. The body paragraphs should
include the number of types mentioned in the thesis statement. So, in the case of the
computers just now, you need to have at least 5 paragraphs for the Body of the
Essay. You need to define and provide explanation of each of the type. You also
need to show the similarities and differences of these types. This would enable your
readers to understand better.
Tips on Organizing the Classification Essay
a. Identify the group and try to distinguish it by giving a specific name to avoid the
reader from being confused.
b. Describe the category properly. State the similarities of the members in the category.
Once the category is defined, discuss the common characteristics of the category‘s
members.
c. Supply relevant examples with good elaborations on the categories used in your
classification. Remain objective by providing vivid descriptions of the categories.
d. Give clear distinction on how one category is different from another. Use the compare
and contrast techniques when discussing different categories. Stay coherent in terms
of order when discussing the categories.
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Let’s look at the following essay:
TYPES OF COMPUTERS
There are a lot of terms used to describe computers. Most of these
words imply the size, expected use or capability of the computer.
While the term ―computer‖ can apply to virtually any device that has a
microprocessor in it, most people think of a computer as a device that
receives input from the user through a mouse or keyboard, processes
it in some fashion and displays the result on a screen. Computers can
be divided into five according to the purpose they are used for and
their capabilities.
TITLE OF THE
ESSAY
Look at the
sentence in red.
This is the thesis
statement.
Introduction
The most familiar type of microprocessor is the personal computer
(PC). (It designed for general use by a single person. While a Mac is
also a PC, most people relate the term with systems that run the
Windows operating system. PCs were first known as
microcomputers because they were a complete computer but built
on a smaller scale than the huge systems in use by most
businesses.) A PC can come in two types (three if we include the
Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs) that differ from PCs not by the working
policy but in appearance as well.): Desktop and laptop. The former is not
designed for portability.
The expectation with desktop systems is that you will set the computer up
in a permanent location. Most desktops offer more power, storage and
versatility for less cost than their portable brethren. On the other hand, the
laptops - also called notebooks - are portable computers that integrate the
display, keyboard, a pointing device or trackball, processor, memory and
hard drive all in a battery-operated package slightly larger than an
average hardcover book.
Paragraph 1
Personal
Computer
(Body)
Topic
Sentence
The
functions of
a PC PC
Capabilities
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Another purpose for using a microprocessor is as a workstation.
[The computers used for this purpose have a more powerful processor,
additional memory and enhanced capabilities for performing a special
group of task,] such as 3D Graphics or game development.
TOPIC
SENTENCE
Capabilities of
Workstation
Function of
the
workstation
Paragraph 2 Workstation (Body)
A fourth type, a main frame is the heart of a network of computers
or terminals which allows hundreds of people to work at the
same time on the same data. It is indispensable for the business
world. These machines are huge both in size and in capacity. Generally
they are kept in a separate room where nobody can reach since their
breakdown can cause a fortune to the company.
Paragraph 3 Server (Body)
Topic Sentence
Function
of the
server
Capabilities
of the
server
Sometimes, computers can be used for specialized fields as well. The
supercomputer is the top of the heap in power and expense. It is used for
jobs that take massive amounts of calculating, like weather
forecasting, engineering design and testing, serious decryption, and
economic forecasting.
Paragraph 4
Super-computer
(Body)
Topic Sentence
Capabilities of
the
supercomputer
Function of the Supercomputer
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Writing Skills 167
http://www.buowl.boun.edu.tr/students/types%20of%20essays/Classification%20Essay.htm
How to write the thesis statement of a classification essay? The following are some
tips:
The thesis statement usually includes the topic and how it is classified.
Sometimes the categories are named.
e.g. Tourists in Pulau Tioman can enjoy three water sports: snorkeling,
surfing, and sailing.
With the increasing demand in different specialties, new
adjustments are being made to microprocessors and new types of
computers that serve different purposes emerge. In this ongoing
process, it would not possible to put a full stop here. What we
suggest is that it is better to keep en eye on the development of science
in this field and keep updating our knowledge in order not to be out-of-
date like the
computers of old times that were as big as a room.
Concluding Paragraph
Concluding
Remark
Suggestions
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Task 7.3
Underline the thesis statement in the following introductory paragraph of the
classification essay.
a. Working at a supermarket has given me a chance to observe the different
ways human beings behave. I like to think of the shoppers as rats in a lab
experiment, and the aisles are a maze designed by a psychologist. Most of the
customers follow a dependable route, walking up and down the aisles,
checking through my counter, and then escaping through the exit door. But not
everybody is so dependable.
(taken from: http://www.bestessaytips.com/classification_essay.php)
b. Money is the foremost incentive why infinite people work around the world.
There are unequal classifications of jobs that contain more physical labor or
deskwork. Some work as rescuers, businessmen, consultants, a student,
doctors, or even garbage men. No matter where an individual works, they will
always encounter three types of workers: Hard-Workers, Slackers, and
Mediocres.
(taken from: http://www.123helpme.com/preview.asp?id=42948)
c. There are three types of domestic cats: indoor domestic cats, outdoor
domestic cats, and indoor-outdoor domestic cats. Though these cats would
look very similar if they were clean and sitting next to each other, they would
also be very different.
(taken from: http://www.123helpme.com/preview.asp?id=42948)
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Writing Skills 169
Task 7.4
Based on the ideas that you have brainstormed in Task 7.2, write the introductory
paragraph for each of the following topic. Make sure that your introductory
paragraph has a thesis statement.
a. Favourite Shopping Malls
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
b. Reality Shows on Television
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
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c. Social Networking Sites
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Task 7.5
Underline the topic sentence in each of the paragraph below. Identify the main points
and elaboration of the main points.
a. The first type of unusual shopper is one that I call the amnesiac. He always
seems to be going down the aisles against the normal flow of traffic. He
mutters things to himself because he left his shopping list at home. When he
finally makes it to my register and starts unloading the cart, he suddenly
remembers the one item of food that brought him here in the first place. He
then resumes his trip around the store while the customers waiting in line start
to grumble impatiently. Inevitably, when it comes time to pay for the goods, the
amnesiac discovers that he has left his wallet at home. I don't say a word. I
just void his receipt and tell him to have a nice day.
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Main Point:
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
Elaborations:
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
b. Senior citizens mean well, I guess, but they can also try my patience. One
man stops by several times a week, more to pay a visit than to shop. He
wanders around the aisles slowly, pausing now and then to read a box of
cereal or squeeze a roll or sniff one of those lemon-scented blobs of room
freshener. But he never buys very much. When he finally comes up to the
checkout, this type likes to chat with me--about my hair, his bunions, or that
pretty tune tinkling out of the ceiling speakers. Although the people waiting
behind him in line are usually fuming, I try to be friendly. I really don't think this
man has anywhere else to go.
MainPoint:
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
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Elaborations:
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
c. Even more annoying is someone I call the hot shopper. You can tell that she
plans her shopping trip days in advance. She enters the store with a
pocketbook on her arm and a calculator in her hip pocket, and she carries a
shopping list that makes the Dewey Decimal System look chaotic. Like a
soldier marching in a parade, she struts from one sale item to another,
carefully organizing things in her basket by size, weight, and shape. Of
course, she is the biggest complainer: something she wants always seems to
be missing or mispriced or out of stock. Often the manager has to be called in
to settle her down and set her back on course. Then, when she reaches my
lane, she begins barking orders at me, like "Don't put the grapes in with the
Nutty Ho Hos!" In the meantime, she stares at the prices on the register, just
waiting to jump on me for making a mistake. If my total doesn't match the one
on her calculator, she insists on a complete recount. Sometimes I make up the
difference myself just to get her out of the store.
Main Point:
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Elaborations:
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
(taken from: http://www.bestessaytips.com/classification_essay.php)
Task 7.6
Write three paragraphs which contain the body of the classification essay based on
the ideas that you have brainstormed and categorized in Task 7.2. Make sure you
write one topic sentence and three sentences to elaborate the main point for each of
the paragraph.
a. Favourite Shopping Malls
___________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
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Writing Skills 174
_________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
Task 7.7
Underline the concluding statement in the paragraph below.
a. To be truthful, most of the people who pass through my checkout are quietly
efficient and polite--and a little boring. Though the abnormal ones may try my
patience, they also help to make a dull job more interesting. So, for your own
amusement keep an eye out for these characters the next time you pull into
the parking lot of the Piggly Wiggly: a fellow trying to unlock his car with a coat
hanger, a woman fussing at the bag boy for squashing a grape, and a sweet
old man who may try to tell you about the arthritis in his knees or the
expiration date on his buttermilk.
( taken from: http://www.bestessaytips.com/classification_essay.php)
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Write the concluding paragraph for Task 7.6 based on the paragraphs that you have
developed and make sure that the paragraph consists of the concluding statement.
b. Favourite Shopping Malls
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
7.3 Language
The most common transition used while classifying are the first kind/type/group, the second
kind/type/group or the third kind/type/group.
Look at the example below:
One of the quickest and most popular breakfast foods is cold cereal. There's a wide
selection and various name brands to choose from. For people with a sweet tooth, the
choice is plentiful. For instance, Frosted Corn Flakes, made by Kellogg's, is a grain cereal
that consists of fine corn flour, sugar, sugar, and sugar, plus corn syrup, calcium carbonate,
trisodiumphosphate, and topopherol to preserve freshness. For the health conscious,
Honey Bunches of Oats is one of many alternatives. Made by Post, it is also a grain
cereal which comes with a list of ingredients that doesn't sound like Chemistry 101! It
contains corn, whole wheat, rolled oats, and brown sugar instead of processed
sugar, almond, rice, and of course, honey. Sure, one can disguise a bowl of cereal
with slices of banana or juicy strawberries, but that's where the excitement ends! No
matter the camouflage, a bowl of cereal has the potential to become redundant
quickly.
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The following phrases are examples on how the reference for categories can be
made as in the above paragraph.
One of the quickest and most popular
For people with a sweet tooth
For the health conscious
Task 7.8
Underline the phrases that show reference to the categories.
a. Another option that might satisfy one's palate in the morning is hot cereal.
Perhaps not as popular as cold cereal but just as quick to get to the table, this
breakfast food does not fall in the "exciting" category. It does, however,
command the respect of other health foods; it is wholesome and known to
lower cholesterol levels. The only disadvantage is its extremely fixed quantity
of assortment. One can only find three or four selections in any given
supermarket. One of the most sold is Quaker Oats. Its ingredient is quite
simple: one hundred percent rolled oats! Oats can be prepared effortlessly.
With just two parts boiling water and one part oats, breakfast is served.
Another variety of hot cereal, grits, is equal in taste but very different in
texture. It is made of finely ground wheat and salt. It comes in twelve individual
packets to a box which makes it convenient. Grits is prepared in the same
manner as oats and just as quickly, so quickly that there would still be time to
prepare a bowl of corn flakes instead!
b. The last category of the breakfast dilemma is the greasy food group which
includes the likes of bacon, eggs, and their associates. This type of meal is not
the quickest to make, but for certain, is the most desirable. After days of corn
flakes and grits, this is a criminal's last meal before the execution! The list of
choices is endless. Topping it, of course, is bacon and eggs. Bacon comes not
only in different brands but also in different thicknesses, smoked and regular.
Some bacon comes with less fat than others, but all comes with much more
fat than it should. Eggs come in various sizes and colors: small, medium,
large, and extra large. They're packed in half dozen, one dozen, or a baker's
dozen of eighteen to a carton. Their shell's colors range from white, brown to
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pastel blue and pale yellow. Though there's only one way to prepare bacon,
eggs can be cooked in numerous ways. They can be scrambled, hard-boiled,
poached, pan fried, or made into omelettes. For those who prefer a "hardier"
breakfast, a variety of sausage can be added to the menu. Beef sausage and
Kielbasa sausage are the most popular. They can be baked and served sliced
with warm bread. Although they're delicious, most sausage contains nitrite, a
quantity. However, preferable this group of breakfast food is, it contains too
much fat and cholesterol and should be consumed with moderation.
(taken from: faculty.ksu.edu.sa/aldarby/Pages/example-classification-essay.aspx)
Task 7.9
From the process that you have gone through on how to write a classification essay,
let‘s try to brainstorm ideas and write a complete classification essay. You may
choose one of the following topics:
On-campus jobs for students
Online educational resources
Videos on YouTube
Styles of eating in the cafeteria
High school teachers or college professors
Ways of protecting the environment
Title
Introduction
Paragraph
___________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
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Body of
Essay
Category 1
Paragraph 1
Category 2
Paragraph 2
Category 3
Paragraph 3
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
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Concluding
Paragraph
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
7.4 Revisiting Your Draft
Once you have finished writing your essay, revised your work by going through the
questions in the following checklist:
Have I made my ideas clear by stating my thesis statement in the introduction
paragraph?
What is the purpose of my classification essay? Do I intend to inform,
entertain, evaluate or persuade? Have I made my purpose clear to the
readers?
Have I made the introduction paragraph interesting for my readers?
Have I organized my essay accordingly?
Is there a continuity and coherence in the paragraphs I develop?
Have I stated the topic sentence clearly in each of the paragraph?
Have I elaborated on the topic sentence by elaborating my ideas and
providing examples?
Have I used correct words and phrases to provide reference to the
categories?
Have I maintained a consistent tone in the essay?
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Writing Skills 180
Have I used the correct words to convey my ideas?
Is the structure of my sentence correct?
Is there any glaring grammatical mistakes made?
Have I written a concluding statement in my conclusion paragraph?
Have my conclusion paragraph summed up the main ideas in the essay?
SELF ASSESSMENT
Test 1
Topic: Compulsive Shopper
1) Brainstorm on how you can classify on the topic of Compulsive Shopper.
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Test 2
Write an introductory paragraph for the classification essay entitled ―Compulsive
Shopper‖.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Test 3
Choose one of the main points that you have brainstormed above and write a
paragraph which consists of a thesis statement and elaborate the ideas into three
sentences.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
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Writing Skills 182
Test 4
Write a concluding paragraph for the topic ―Compulsive Shopper‖.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
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Writing Skills 183
REFERENCES
http://www.buowl.boun.edu.tr/students/types%20of%20essays/Classification%20Ess
ay.htm
http://www.essaymall.com/Classification_essay.php
http://grammar.about.com/od/developingessays/a/draftclass07.htm
http://essayinfo.com/essays/classification_essay.php
http://www.bestessaytips.com/classification_essay.php
http://www.ehow.com/about_4597015_what-classification-essay.html
http://www.123helpme.com/preview.asp?id=42948
http://faculty.ksu.edu.sa/aldarby/Pages/example-classification-essay.aspx
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UNIT 8
RECOGNIZING SENTENCES AND FIXING
FRAGMENTS
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. At the end of this unit, students should be able to:
2. identify subjects and verbs in sentences.
3. write complete sentences with subject-verb and agreement.
4. recognize and identify group of words with sentence fragments.
5. rewrite group of words with fragments into complete sentence.
8.1 How do we identify subjects and verbs?
When you write a sentence in your essay, you have to remember that every
sentence has a subject and a verb. A subject is the ‗who‘ or ‗what‘ the sentence is all
about. A verb is what the sentence says about the subject. The verb usually is in the
form of an action or what the subject is doing. Usually ‗S‘ stands for subject and ‗V‘
stands for verb. For example:
The boys laughed.
S V
Most graduates attended the convocation.
S V
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Task 8.1
Identify the subject and the verb in the following sentences.
1. A huge thunderstorm ruined the air display in Langkawi.
Subject: _______________
Verb: _______________
2. A bee stung the baby on his cheeks.
Subject: _______________
Verb: _______________
3. The two celebrities like to quarrel over small issues.
Subject: _______________
Verb: _______________
4. The old lady sat a few minutes on the park bench.
Subject: _______________
Verb: _______________
5. My laptop and computer tablet are stolen from my office.
Subjects: _______________
Verbs: _______________
6. Mikhail and Haikal ate at Mac. Donalds and then went shopping.
Subjects: _______________
Verbs: _______________
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Writing Skills 186
7. Liza and Anne have bought a glittering golden pendant.
Subjects: _______________
Verbs: _______________
8. The lorry began to sputter on the highway.
Subjects: _______________
Verbs: _______________
9. The newlywed couples have decided to go to Bangkok for their honeymoon.
Subjects: _______________
Verbs: _______________
10. Vampires and werewolves are repelled by garlic.
Subjects: _______________
Verbs: _______________
8.2 Do you know what a subject-verb agreement is?
Subjects can be nouns or pronouns. They can be singular in which they represent
one particular thing, place or a person. They can also be plural in which they
represent two or more things, places or persons. A singular subject takes a singular
verb and a plural subject takes a plural verb. For example:
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Writing Skills 187
SINGULAR VERB PLURAL VERB NOTES
The lady boss requires a lot
of help and support from her
subordinates.
Many professional
footballers make a lot of
money.
Verb + -s = singular
Noun + -s = plural
That magazine on political
views is interesting.
The ideas in his biography
are interesting.
A prepositional phrase that
comes between a subject
and a verb does not affect
the verb.
Some of the equipment is
good.
Some of the equipments
are good.
The verb is determined by
the noun which follows an
expression of quantity.
Examples of the expressions
of quantity: most of, half of,
some of and two thirds of.
The number of students in
the class is fifteen.
A number of students are
late.
The number is a subject.
A number of is an expression
of quantity. It is followed by a
plural noun and a plural verb.
There is a vase on the table. There are vases on the
table.
There is a vase –singular
There are vases – plural
Every girl has been given a
room.
Every or each require
singular verb.
Each baby requires a
mother‘s love.
Everyone is here.
Everybody is there.
Everyone and everybody
take a singular verb.
One of my nieces is getting
married.
One of + plural noun +
singular verb
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None of the volunteers is
here.
Subjects with none of are
considered as singular in
formal English.
The news is interesting yet
shocking to many people.
News is usually used as
singular.
Six hours of sleep is
enough.
Five dollars is too little to
pay.
Expressions of time, money
and distance are usually
singular.
Physics is easy for her.
Statistics is a discipline to
be studied.
The statistics in that report
are not accurate.
Chinese is a difficult
language.
The Chinese are kind and
helpful.
Task 8.2
Choose the correct answer from the two words in the parentheses.
1. Half of this money ______________ (belong, belongs) to my brother.
2. One of the lectures ______________ (is, are) going to meet me at the
conference.
3. Many people in this world _______________ (do, does) not have a place to
live.
4. Thirty minutes _____________ (is, are) the maximum hour to answer the quiz.
5. The English _________________ (drink, drinks) more tea than the American.
6. None of my friends ____________ (is, are) at the party.
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7. A lot of students in the class ___________________ (is, are) from European
countries.
8. January and February ________________ (is, are) the coldest month of the
year.
9. The taxes for our car ___________________ (is, are) high because we live in
the city.
10. The blind _____________________ (read, reads) using Braille.
Task 8.3
Each of the following passage contains two mistakes in subject-verb agreement.
Find these two mistakes and cross them out. Then write the correct form of each
verb in the space provided.
1. Few people recalls of seeing baby crow. The reason is simple. Baby crows in
the nest eats a huge amount of food every day. Before leaving the nest, they
are close to the size of their parents.
a. __________________
b. __________________
2. Everything in the supermarket are on sale today. Customers from everywhere
are overcrowding the spaces. There is terrific bargains in many departments.
a. __________________
b. __________________
3. All the neighbours meets once a year for the Hari Raya gathering. Everyone
talks and has fun until late night. Many delicious foods is served on the tables.
Later, everyone goes home and sleeps all day.
a. __________________
b. __________________
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4. The members of the football team paces nervously at the side of the football
field. The referee blows a whistle. The new footballer run into the field to get
to his position.
a. __________________
b. __________________
5. When Mila comes home from school each day, her work is just starting. The
members of her family all works in their Café. Nobody rest until the last
customer has gone home. Only then Mila and her brother start doing their
homework.
a. __________________
b. __________________
8.3 Have you heard of Sentence Fragments?
As mentioned at the beginning of this unit, every sentence must have a subject and a
verb and they must also express a complete thought. According to Langan (2002), a
word group that lacks a subject or a verb and that does not express a complete
thought is a fragment. Based on your understanding of subject and verb, underline
the following statements that you think are not a complete sentence.
1. Because I could not eat. I start reading the magazines in the restaurant.
2. Calling his cat‘s name. Ash walked into the backyard of his house.
3. My little sister will drink anything. Except milk, soya and yogurt drinks.
4. The copy writer turned on her laptop computer. Then began to type frantically.
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Let‘s analyze the above statements.
Statements Explanation
1. Because I could not eat. I start
reading the magazines in the
restaurant.
Because I could not eat is not a complete
sentence because the writer does not
complete the verb by telling us why he
could not eat.
2. Calling his cat‘s name. Ash
walked into the backyard of his
house.
Calling his cat‘s name. This word group
has no subject and no verb and
therefore, does not express a complete
thought.
3. My little sister will drink anything.
Except milk, soya and yogurt
drinks
Except milk, soya and yogurt drinks. This
word group also does not have a subject
and a verb so it does not express a
complete thought.
4. The copy writer turned on her
laptop computer. Then began to
type frantically.
Then began to type frantically is not a
complete sentence. This word group has
no subject. One way to correct is to add
the subject she.
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8.3.1 The Most Common Types of Fragments
Type 1: Dependent Word Fragments
Types of Fragment Examples
Dependent-word fragments Dependent Words
After, although, even if, whenever, although, in order
that, where, as, since, whether, because, while, even
though, until, unless, whose, whoever, how.
Fragmented Sentence
After I left him. I went overseas to pursue my
career.
A dependent word group like after cannot
stand on its own.
My sister refused to diet. Unless I diet also.
A dependent word group like unless I diet also
cannot stand on its own.
Correcting Fragmented Sentence
After I left him, I went overseas to pursue my
studies.
The phrase with the dependent word above
has been attached to the next sentence so the
phrase no longer stands on its own.
My sister refused to diet unless I diet also.
The phrase with the dependent word has been
combined with the sentence before to make it
complete.
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Task 8.4
Turn each of the following dependent word groups into a sentence by adding a
complete thought. Put a comma after the dependent word group if a dependent word
starts the sentence.
1. Although the jet fighters are nervous to perform the aerobatics display
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
2. Because it was raining
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
3. If your mother lend you twenty thousand ringgit
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
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4. Since the driver was so exhausted
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
5. Before the examiner entered the hall
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
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Type 2: -ing and to Fragments
Types of Fragments Examples
-ing and to Fragments When an –ing words appear at or near the start of a
word group, a fragment may result.
Fragmented Sentence
I spent almost one hour on the phone
yesterday. Trying to find a petrol station to
fill in the gas for my car. Eventually I ran out
of it and had to stop by the roadside.
It is a fragmented sentence because there is
no subject in trying to find a petrol station to fill
in gas for my car.
Jamie is very happy with the satin gown that
she bought for graduation ball. Not realizing
after a few days later that her best friend
had also bought the same gown.
It is a fragmented sentence because there is
no subject in not realizing after a few days
later that her best friend also bought the same
gown.
She looked forward to be on her own. It being
the only time that she has some peace
from the chaos of her busy life.
It is a fragmented sentence because being is
not the correct form of the word to be used.
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Correcting Fragmented Sentence
I spent almost an hour on the phone
yesterday, trying to find a petrol station to fill in
the gas for my car.
By joining the previous sentence to the
dependent word with –ing, the sentence
becomes a complete thought.
Jamie is very happy with the satin gown that
she bought for graduation ball. She did not
realize after a few days later that her best
friend had also bought the same gown.
By adding the subject ‗she‘, it becomes a
complete sentence.
She looked forward to be on her own. It was
the only time that she had some peace from
the chaos of her busy life.
By changing the verb ‗being‘ to ‗was‘, the
sentence is no longer fragmented.
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Task 8.5
Underline the –ing or to fragment or fragments in each item. Use one of the
methods of correction as shown in the above examples.
1. A mysterious letter arrived under my office door yesterday. Bearing no
sender‘s address. I was shocked to find a book inside.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. Eisha covered herself and went to work in the cold bitter morning. To
attend an important meeting with the business partners from Moscow.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. Looking sad and miserable. The parents waited anxiously outside the
operation theatre. The operation was due to finish in an hour time.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
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4. Planning for a trip. Delia switched on her JPS. She wondered if she could
get there on time since she didn‘t know much about the area.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
5. Hitting the table with his fist. He was upset with the outcome of his hard
work. He should have known who he could trust.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
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Type 3: Added Detail Fragments
Types of Fragments Examples
Added Detail Fragments Added detail fragments lack a subject and a verb.
They often begin with the following words: also,
especially, except, for example, including, such as.
Fragmented Sentence
I love to cook and eat Malaysian food.
Especially nasi lemak and sambal tumis. I
don‘t mind spending time in the kitchen.
Especially nasi lemak and sambal tumis
cannot stand on its own as it is not a
complete sentence.
The meeting always starts late. For example,
yesterday at half past two instead of at
two.
There is a fragment in the second sentence
because there is no subject and a verb.
Faiz scored low marks in a number of papers
in his final examination. Among them
English, Science and Mathematics.
There is a fragment because the dependent
clause cannot stand on its own so the idea is
not complete.
Correcting Fragmented Sentence
I love to cook and eat Malaysian food,
especially nasi lemak and sambal tumis. I
don‘t mind spending time in the kitchen.
When attached to the sentence which
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precedes the fragment, the ideas become
complete.
The meeting always starts late. For example,
yesterday it began at half past two instead of
at two.
The ideas in the fragment become complete
when the subject ‗it‘ and the verb ‗began‘ are
added.
Among the papers that Faiz scored low
marks in his final examination were English,
Science and Mathematics.
By changing the words and the structure of
the sentence that precedes the fragment, the
idea in the sentence becomes complete.
Task 8.6
Underline the fragment in each of the items below. Then make it a sentence by
rewriting it, using the examples shown above.
There are many little things that I hate about this hotel. Especially things
related to bed sheets and towels. I will give the manager a piece of my
mind.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
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I could feel Fitri‘s hatred building listening to his comments. Like a volcano
ready to explode. I was just observing what was to happen next.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
We went hiking without a few essential equipments. Among other things,
our medical supplies and extra sneakers.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
It‘s always hard for me to get back to work. Especially after a long break.
However, I always force myself to be motivated.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
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Shaqira did most of her shopping online through fashion blogs. Especially
the executive apparel blogspot.com.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Jibrel has an enormous energy. For example, the ability to play tennis in
the morning and then go swimming all afternoon.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
One of my greatest satisfaction is life is eating desserts. Such as cheese
cakes, ice-cream and chocolate éclairs. Chocolate fondue drives me
crazy.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
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The grandmother couldn‘t stand to be touched. Except by her own
daughter.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
The finance officer gave her some excellent suggestions for staying out of
debt. Including creating a budget.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Mokhtar is so paranoid he‘s put four locks on his bedroom door. In addition
to installing a security system.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
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Type 3: Missing Subject Fragments
Types of Fragments Examples
Missing subject fragments People usually write missing subject fragments
because they assume that the subject in the sentence
which precedes the fragment has already been
applied.
Fragmented Sentence
Normah eats too much appetizers. And then
realized that, when the main course arrived,
her stomach was already full. The clause is
fragmented because there is no subject.
The tour bus skidded on the snow slick
motorway. But missed a signage on the side
of the road. The clause is fragmented because
it is a dependant clause and therefore cannot
stand on its own.
Correcting Fragmented Sentence
Normah eats too much appetizers. She then
realized that, when the main course arrived,
her stomach was already full.
By adding the subject ‗she‘, the sentence
becomes complete.
The tour bus skidded on the snow slick
motorway but missed a signage on the side of
the road. By joining the fragment with the
preceding sentence, the idea becomes
complete.
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Task 8.7
Underline the missing-subject fragment in each item. Then rewrite the part of the
item needed to correct the fragment.
1. I tried on my blouse that had been hanging in my wardrobe for quite some
time. And discovered, to my surprise, that it was too loose to be worn.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
2. When Aidan had a sore throat, his mom told him to gargle with salt water.
Or suck on an ice cube. The bizarre advice that he got was to stop
swallowing.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. One of my college lecturers annoyed me with her criticism. Also, seated us
in rows from the highest achiever to the lowest achiever. I can imagine
how the student in the last seat must have felt listening to her critiques.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
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8.4 Reviewing for Fragments
How do we help ourselves to check for fragments? The following are some tips.
Read your essay aloud from the beginning until the last sentence. This is
to make sure whether you see or hear that each word group is a complete
thought.
If you feel that a word group is fragment, see whether it contains a subject
and a verb. See also whether it expresses a complete thought.
Be on the lookout of the most common fragments that you have learned.
For instance, the dependent word fragments, the –ing and to fragments,
the added detail fragments and the missing subject fragments.
Task 8.8
Turn each of the following word groups into a complete sentence. Use the
spaces provided.
1. With sweaty face
________________________________________________________
2. Even when it is flooding
________________________________________________________
3. When the alarm went off
________________________________________________________
4. In order to save some money
________________________________________________________
5. We are having a celebration
________________________________________________________
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6. During the holiday season
________________________________________________________
7. The store where I worked
________________________________________________________
8. Before the movie started
___________________________________________________________
9. Down in the basement
___________________________________________________________
10. Feeling very confident
_______________________________________________________________
SELF ASSESSMENT
Test 1
Read the passage carefully and underline the sentence which is a fragment.
Zara wasn‘t watching her plate of barbecue very carefully. So, Ashman, the family
―Denis the Menace‘, took a chicken leg hanging at the edge of the plate. As
baked beans and potato salad slid into her new sandals.
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Test 2
Rewrite the following sentence which contains a subject verb agreement.
There is many reasons as to why I love that man till I die.
___________________________________________________________
Test 3
Rewrite the following sentence so that it doesn’t become a run-on
sentence.
This computer doesn't make sense to me, it came without a manual.
___________________________________________________________
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REFERENCES:
Azar, Betty Schramper. (2003) . Understanding and using English Grammar. New York: Pearson Education. Langan, J. (2002). English Skills with Readings. Boston, USA: Mc Graw Hill. Lannan, J. M. (2001). The Writing Process. 7th. Ed. New York: Longman. Meyers, A. (2003). Writing with Confidence. Writing Effective Sentence and Paragraph. New York: USA. Winkler, A.C. and Mccuen-Metherell, J. R. (2003). Writing Talk : Paragraphs and Short Essays with Readings. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.