11/09/2014 2:15 pm 1
..• HISTORY
• REVIEW OF HEART AND
ELECTRICITY AND MECHANICS
• LEADS APPLICATION
• ECG READING
• MI PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
• ECG IN MI
LUIGI GALVANI
He is a physicist and scientist.
While working in lab, he noticed contraction of leg muscles of frog when he touched the nerve with a scalpel.
Proposed mechanism-ANIMAL ELECTRICITY
This formed the basis of
ELECTRICITY & CONTRACTION OF HEART
SIR HANS CHRISTIAN OERSTED
PLATINUM WIRE HEATING WITH ELECTRICITY CAUSED
MOVEMENT OF COMPASS NEEDLE.
JOHANN SCHWEIGGER
• Proposed that current carrying wire
produces magnetic field.
• He invented GALVANOMETER
1872 –capillary electrometer by GABRIAL
LIPPMANN
Open the chest ,expose the heart and connect
electrodes and measure the rise /fall of potential
AUGUSTUS DESIRE
WALLER -Electrogram
• 1ST person to attempt NON
INVASIVE measuring of heart s
electricity.
• As the voltage in heart is <1 mv he
tried a new technique.
• He shone a light through meniscus
and projected on to a moving
photographic plate
AUGUSTUS DESIRE
WALLER
• ECF surrounding heart acts as a
continuous conducting medium
between heart and skin.
• Postulated that spread of electricity is
from apex to atria
WILLEM EINTHOVEN
• Enhanced electrometer
• Deflections naming as P,q ,r,s,t – followed
RENE DISCARTES, mathematician and
metaphysicist of 17th century who
represented mathematic depictions with p
,q, …..
Einthoven triangle• Based on various permutations and
combinations of placing
electrodes,einthoven finally used 3
leads – LIMB LEADS I, II, III
• LEAD III EQUALS DIFFERENCE
BETWEEN LEAD II AND I
Wilson’ s central terminal
• Wilson incorporated 5 k ohms
resistance to each electrode and
combined 3 electrodes to form
wilson’s central terminal
• Leads-
• VR-R arm paired with average of left
arm and left foot
• VF-left foot paired with average of
right and left arms
• VL-left arm paired with average of
left foot and right arm
Goldberger’s augmented
leads
• He increased the voltages by 50
percent by increasing resistance
• V=IR
• avR, avL, avF……
Applications of ECG
• Cardiac Arrhythmias
• Myocardial ischemia and
infarction
• Pericarditis
• Chamber hypertrophy
• Electrolyte disturbances
• Drug effects and toxicity
ECG BASICS
• ECG /EKG is the graphic recording
of electric potentials generated by
heart.
• Signals are detected by means of
metal eletrodes attached to the
extremities and chest wall and
recorded by electrocardiograph.
• Ecg leads display the instantaneous
differences in potential between the
electrodes.
Electocardiograph is a
sophisticated galvanometer
• Heart is at the center of electric
field generated by it ,and intensity
of electric field diminishes
algebraically with the distance
from it s center.
ECG BASICS
• Depolarization of heart-the initiating
event for cardiac contraction
• Electric currents-produced by three
components
–Cardiac pace-maker cells
–Specialized conduction tissue
–Heart muscle itself
• ECG, however, records only
depolarization (stimulation) &
repolarization (recovery) potentials
generated by atrial & ventricular
myocardium
GENESIS OF CARDIAC
CONTRACTION• Depolarization stimulus- Sinoatrial (SA) node or
sinus node
– A collection of pacemaker cells
– Fire spontaneously
– Exhibit automaticity
– Fire at maximum rate, hence pace-maker
• First phase of cardiac electrical activation-
spread of depolarization wave through right &
left atria,followed by atrial contraction
• 3 bundles of atrial fibres that has purkinje type
fibres , connect SA to AV node,internodal
tracts
– Anterior BACHMAN
– Middle WENKEBACH
– Posterior THOREL
GENESIS OF CARDIAC
CONTRACTION
Next,the impulse stimulates pacemaker & specialized
conduction tissues in AV nodal & His bundle areas
Together,these two regions constitute AV junction
HIS bundle bifurcates into right & left bundles(actually
continues as right,left arises from main trunk),which
rapidly transmit depolarization wavefronts to right &
left ventricular myocardium by Purkinje fibers
Left main bundle bifurcates into left anterior
fascicle & left posterior fascicle
Depolarization wavefronts then spread through
ventricular wall, from ENDOCARDIUM TO
EPICARDIUM,triggering ventricular contraction
Physiology
• Resting membrane potential of cardiac cell is -90mV
• Depolarization 2 ms
• Plateau phase & repolarization 200 msor more
• Changes in EC potassium concentration affects RMP of cardiac cell
• EC sodium concentration affects magnitude of action potential of cardiac cell
• Factors that decrease slope of
phase 0
– Impairing influx of Na + e.g.,
hyperkalemia, flecainide
– Increase QRS duration
• Conditions that prolong phase 2
–Amiodarone, hypocalcemia etc
– Increase QT interval
• Shortening of ventricular
repolarization (phase 2)
–Digitalis ,hypercalcemia etc
–Shortens QT segment
• Paper speed 25 mm/sec
• 5 large squares =1 sec
• 1 small square =0.04 sec
• Voltage – 1 large square = 0.5 mv
• Small square = 0.1 mv
Wave forms
• HR(beats/min)-from interbeat (R-R) interval
• HR=300/no.of large squares
• Or 1500 /no. small squares between RR
• PR interval –time between atrial & ventricular
depolarization,includes physiologic delay at AV
junction- 120 to 200 ms
• QRS interval-duration of ventricular depolarization-
100 to 110 ms or less
• QT interval
– Includes both ventricular depolarization &
repolarization times
– Varies inversely with heart rate
– A rate corrected QT interval, QTc ( QT/√RR)
– Normally is ≤0.44 s
QT interval
• Bazett formula for measuring QTc– QTc = QT/(Square root of RR
interval)
• Hodges method– QTc = QT + 1.75(HR-60)
• Normal 330 to 440 ms
• As a general rule,with HR 60-100/min,QT should not exceed half the R-R interval
QTc interval
• QT prolongation– Sleep– Drugs– Hypocalcemia– Hypothermia– SAH– Torsades de pointes– Jervel-Lange-Nielson/Romano-ward
syndromes
• QT shortening– Digitalis– Hypercalcemia– Hyperthermia– Vagal stimulation
ECG Leads
Leads are electrodes which measure the
difference in electrical potential between
either:
1. Two different points on the body
(bipolar leads)
2. One point on the body and a virtual
reference point with zero electrical
potential, located in the center of the
heart (unipolar leads)
Augmented voltage leads• aVR-augmented unipolar right arm
lead
– Its oriented to face heart from right shoulder
– Oriented to the cavity of heart
• aVL-augmented unipolar left arm lead
– Face heart from left shoulder
– Oriented to anterolateral/superior surface of LV
• aVF-augmented unipolar left leg lead
– Face heart from below
– Oriented to inferior surface of heart
Leads II,III,aVF –oriented to
inferior surface of heart
Leads I,aVL-oriented to
high/superior left lateral wall
Lead aVR,(V1)-oriented to cavity
of heart
• Anteroseptal leads V1 to V4
• Apical or lateral leads V5 & V6
V1 to V6-oriented to
anterior wall of heart
Dominance of left ventricle
Right ventricle thickness -0.3-0.5 cm
Left ventricle wall thickness -1.3-1.5 cm
Electro cardiologically and electrophysiologically Left ventricle is dominant..
Free wall of right ventricle is anatomical anterior wall of heart .electrocardiological anterior wall of heart is inter ventricular septum
Electrical axisCardinal rules
– If a vector is directed at right angles or
perpendicular to a particular lead axis,then net
impression on that lead is nil/small
equiphasic/null deflexion
– If a vector courses parallel to a particular lead,it
records a maximum deflection on that lead
– If a vector is obliquely oriented to a particular
lead,the voltage obtained will have a lesser
magnitude
Electrical axis
• Paired leads that are perpendicular to each other
–Lead I is perpendicular to aVF
–Lead II is perpendicular to aVL
–Lead III is perpendicular to aVR
Principles of axis Measurement
• Examine the 6 frontal leads
• Determine the most equiphasicdeflection of qrs
• Inspect the perpendicular lead and see the qrs wave in that lead .
• Positive wave /negative will decide the axis.
P WAVE
• Wave form in lead II
–P wave best studied in lead II
–Because,frontal plane P wave axis is directed to positive pole of this lead
–Pyramidal shape with rounded apex
–Duration 0.08 to 0.10 s, no greater than 0.11 s
–Normal amplitude is <2mm,max 2.5mm
P wave
• Wave form in V1
–Here initial & terminal parts of P wave easily identified
–Normally biphasic ,initial positive & terminal negative
• Reason being RA is anterior & LA is posterior
–Duration of P wave 0.05 s
P wave• Frontal plane P wave axis
– Directed to region of +45* to +65*
– Best studied in lead II , because waves most aligned with & directed towards positive pole of this lead
– P wave axis >70* - Right axis deviation
• Here,its most aligned with aVF
• So,best evaluated in aVF
– P wave axis <45* - Left axis deviation
• Here,its most aligned with lead I
• So,best evaluated in lead I
P wave
• Widened,notched(camel-hump) P wave/LA abnormality
– Duration > 0.11 s
– Duration of notch > 0.04 s
– Terminal component deviated more leftward
– Seen in lead II,if axis is +50*
– If axis is deviated leftward,seen in aVL,lead I
– Also seen in V5,v6
P wave in v 1
• MORRIS INDEX-depth of terminal p wave in v1 * duration in seconds
• =/> 0.o8 mm.sec is abnormal.
QRS complex
• QRS complex is subdivided into specific deflections or waves
– Initial QRS deflection in a given lead if negative-Q wave
– First positive deflection-R wave
– A negative deflection after an R wave -S wave
– Subsequent positive or negative waves are labeled R′ & S′, respectively
– Lowercase letters (qrs)-small amplitude waves
Q wave
• Q wave-initial QRS vector directed away from positive electrode
• More likely seen in inferior leads when QRS axis is vertical,& in leads I & aVLwhen QRS axis is horizontal
• Q wave-present in 1 or more of inferior leads (leads II, III, aVF) in >50%of normal adults & in leads I & aVL in < 50%
• Duration-Important in diagnosis of MI
Q wave
• Lead III,duration occasionally as long as 0.04 s,rarely 0.05 s
• This lead accounts for most of erroneous diagnoses of MI
• Amplitude– < 0.4 mV in all limb leads except lead
III,where it may reach 0.5 mV
• Depth – <25% of R wave,exception lead III
• Normal in V5,V6…..abnormal in V1-V3
R wave
• Maximum R wave amplitude in the lead in which axis is most parallel & has same polarity as maximum vector
• Upper Limit for R wave– Lead I 1.5 mV
– Lead aVL 1.0 mV
– Leads II, III,aVF, 1.9 mV
• Amplitude increases from V1 to V4,V5,V6. Larger amplitudes-young subjects
Poor progression of R wave
• Old anterior MI
• Lead misplacement (frequently in obese women)
• LBBB/LAFB
• LVH
• WPW syndrome
• Dextrocardia
• Tension pneumothorax with mediastinal shift
• Congenital heart disease
S wave
• Most prominent in lead aVR,amplitude up to 1.6 mV in young subjects
• Relatively large S wave in leads III & aVL (occasionally) depending on QRS axis,magnitude usually does not exceed 0.9 mV
• In leads I, II & aVF, S wave amplitudes are <0.5 mV
• In general,S waves are large in V1,V2,progressively smaller from V3 to V6
• Chamber hypertrophy
– Progression altered
T wave
• Ventricular repolarisation– Return of stimulated muscle to resting
state
• Always positive in lead II,left sided leads(V4 to V6),negative in aVR
• As a rule
– T wave follows the direction of main QRS deflection
– If positive in any chest lead,it must remain positive in all chest leads to the left of that lead
ROMHILT ESTES CRITERIA
• Criterion• 1. Amplitude {any of the following}: 3• Largest R or S wave in any limb
lead ≥ 20mm• S in V1 or V2 ≥ 30mm• R in V5 or V6 ≥ 30mm• 2. LV strain: Without digoxin: 3 • With digoxin: 1• 3. Left atrial enlargement: 3• 4. Left axis deviation: 2• 5. QRS duration ≥ 90 ms: 1• 6. Intrinsicoid deflection in V5 or V6 ≥ 50
ms :1• (4-PROBABLE• 5 –DEFINITIVE)
Deep T inversions(>3mm)
• Normal variant-early repolarisation/Juvenile T
• Recurrent MI
• Takotsubo cardiomyopathy
• CVA
• LV/RV overload
• Bundle branch blocks,WPW
• Memory T waves
Frontal plane T wave axis
• T wave deflection is nearest to equiphasic in lead III
• Lead perpendicular to III is aVR,hence it will show maximum deflection(negative)
• So,mean T wave axis would be at negative pole of aVR at +30*
• If T wave is not absolutely equiphasic,slight adjustment in resultant value can be made
S-T segment axis
• Normal ST segment is isoelectric,so it has no manifest axis
• Mean manifest frontal plane S-T segment axis is directed towards site of injury
• Inferior wall MI
– S-T axis directed inferior & to right in region of 120*
– hence ST elevation in II,III & aVF & vice versa in I,aVL
• Anterolateral MI
– S-T axis directed superior & to left-30* to -60*
– hence ST elevation in I,aVL & vice versa in III,aVF
U wave
• Normally absent or small wave after ‘T’ wave
• Last phase of ventricular repolarisation
• Prominent in
– Hypokalemia
– Patients on sotalol,phenothiazines
– CVA
U wave
• Prominent U waves can predispose to ventricular arrhythmias
• Same direction as ‘T’ with 10% of its amplitude
• Prominent in V2-V4
• Larger at slower heart rates
• MI,LVH can be associated with negative U & positive T waves
ECG reporting
• Standardisation• Rate- per min• Rhythm- sinus & arrhythmia• P wave morphology• PR interval• QRS complex
– Width– Axis – Configuration(comment on Q,R,S waves)
• ST segment• T wave morphology• U wave morphology• QTc interval• Comments eg: P pulmonale,RAD,1st degree
AV block, AF etc• Conclusions – normal/abnormal ECG
Normal variants
• Persistent Juvenile Pattern
• Early Repolarisation Syndrome(ERPS): the athletes heart-
• prominent j waves
• Concave upwards ,minimally elevated ST segments
• Tall ,symmetrical T waves
• Inverted T waves ,occasionally.
• prominent ,narrow q waves in left oriented leads.
• Tall R in left precordial leads
• Non specific T wave variants.
Prominent mid precordial U waves.
Sinus brady cardia
Non specific T wave variants-
Inversion of T waves may occur in
1 response to anxiety/fear
2 as an orthostatic response
3 as a post prandial response
4 result of hyper ventilation
All features are normalised after administration of Potassium salts
LCX • 97% from LCA• 2% from Separate
Ostium• 1% RCA
Obtuse margin of heart and entire posterior wall. LA, posterior IV septum if PD arises from LCX
OM • 97% LCA Obtuse margin of heart adjacent to LV
Posterolateral branch
• 80% LCA• 20% RCA
Posterior and diaphragm LV wall
PD • 82% RCA• 18% LCA
Posterior IV septum and Diaphragm LV
RCA RA and part of LA, RV, Posteriosuperior IV septum. SN, AV node
Acute Marginal Inferior and diaphragmaticsurface of RV
Conus Branch Outflow track of RV
SN branch RA, LA,SN
RV Branch RV
Atrial Branch Right Atrium
ECG
Ischemia Injury infarction
.
Using ECG one can localize the site of Ischemia / Injury/ Infarction.
Chief diagnostic tool to identify
.
Localization - Left Coronary Artery (LCA)
Left Main (proximal LCA) occlusion
• Extensive Anterior injury
Left Circumflex (LCX) occlusion
• Lateral injury
Left Anterior Descending (LAD) occlusion
• Anteroseptal injury
LocalizationRight Coronary Artery (RCA)
Proximal RCA
occlusion
• Right Ventricle injured
• Posterior wall of left ventricle injured
• Inferior wall of left ventricle injured
Posterior descending
artery (PDA)
occlusion
• Inferior wall of left ventricle injured
Post Ischemic T wave changes
ST elevation MI Non-ST Elevation Infarction
ST depression, peaked T-waves, then T-wave inversion
ST elevation &
appearance of Q-
waves
ST segments and T-
waves return to
normal, but Q-
waves persist
Ischemia
Infarction
Fibrosis
ST
depression
& T-wave
inversion
ST
depression
& T-wave
inversion
ST returns to
baseline, but
T-wave
inversion
persists
Infarcti
on
Fibrosis
Ischemia
Localization
I
Lateral
II Inferior
III Inferior
aVR
aVL Lateral
V1 Septal
aVF Inferior
V2 Septal
V3 Anterior
V4 Anterior
V5 Lateral
V6 Lateral
The changes of ischemia/injury/infarction are seen in the leads
Over lying the area involved
Septum
V1, V2
◦ Along sternal borders
◦ Look through right ventricle & see septal wall
I
II
III
aVR
aVL
aVF
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
PROXIMAL LAD BEFORE S1
• ST ↑ in lead aVR and v1-v4
• Complete RBBB
• ST ↑ in V1 > 2.5 mm
• ST ↓ in V5
• ST ↓ in lead II, lead III > 1mm
• ST ↓ in lead aVF > 2 mm
Lateral Wall
I and aVL
◦ View from Left Arm
◦ lateral wall of left ventricle
I
II
III
aVR
aVL
aVF
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
Lateral Wall
V5 and V6
◦ Left lateral chest
◦ lateral wall of left ventricle
I
II
III
aVR
aVL
aVF
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
Localization - Extensive Anterior MI
. .
Evidence in septal, anterior, and lateral leads
Often from proximal LCA
lesion
Complications common
• Left ventricular failure
• CHF / Pulmonary Edema
• Cardiogenic Shock
.
Inferior Wall
II, III, aVF
◦ View from Left Leg
◦ inferior wall of left ventricle
I
II
III
aVR
aVL
aVF
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
Posterior Leads
• Posterior leads – Posterior Infarct with ST
Depressions and/ tall R wave
– RCA and/or LCX Artery
ST elevation in V7,V8,V9.
• Understand Reciprocal changes
– The posterior aspect of the heart is viewed as a mirror image and therefore depressions versus elevations indicate Mi
Localization - Myocardial Infarct
Localization ST
elevation
Reciprocal
ST depression
Coronary
Artery
Anterior MI V1-V6 None LAD
Septal Mi
V1-V4,
Disappearan
ce of
septum Q in
leads V5,V6
none LAD
Lateral MII, aVL, V5,
V6
II,III, aVF
(inferior leads)LCX
Inferior MI II, III, aVF I, aVL (lateral
lead)
RCA (80%) or
LCX (20%)
Posterior MI V7, V8, V9
high R in V1-V3
with ST
depression V1-
V3 > 2mm
(mirror view)
RCA or LCX
Right Ventricle
MI V1, V4R I, aVL RCA
Atrial MIPTa in
I,V5,V6 PTa in I,II, or III RCA
Sgarbossa criteriaMI in presence of LBBB
• ST elevation >/= 1 mm and concordant with predominantly negative QRS complex ( score 5)
• ST depression in >/= 1 mm in leads v1,v2,v3(score 3 )
• ST Elevation >/=5 mm and discordant with predominantly negative QRS complex (score 2)
• QR complexes in leads I ,V5 ,orv6 or lead II ,III
• Chronic infarction-
• Chronic infarction
• CABRERA SIGN sign- notching of ascending part of a wide s wave in mid precordial leads.
• 0R
• CHAPMAN SIGN-Notching of ascending limb of wide R wave in lead I,Avl,v5 ,or v6
Atrial infarction
• PR elevations in v5 or v6 or inferior leads,changes in p wave morphology
• Atrial arrhythmias
WELLEN S SYNDROME
– Inverted or biphasic T-waves in V2 and V3
– T wave changes may also be present in V1, V4-V6
–Changes appear when pain free
– Little to no ST change
–No loss of precordial R waves
–No pathologic Q waves
• Concern:
–Highly specific for LAD lesions
–At risk for extensive AMI or sudden death
PROGNOSIS IN MI
• The immediate prognosis in patients with AMI is inversely related to the amount of myocardial reserves.(ischaemic area at risk),
ESTIMATING SIZE OF ISCHEMIC MYOCARDIUM AT
RISK
• Sclarovsky-Birnbaum
• Aldrich score:
• % of myocardium at risk=3[0.6(# ST elevation II,III,aVF)+2]
• % of myocardium at risk=3[1.5(#leads with of ST elevation)-0.4]
PROGNOSIS FROM ECG
• Predictors of size of MI
– Presence of Q waves with ST elevation
– Number of leads with ST Elevation
– Sum of ST Elevation in 12 leads
– ST elevation in V4 with Inferior MI
– Abnormal R in V1 (R/S>1) with inferior MI
– Conduction disturbances
• Predictors of in hospital mortality
– Anterior location of MI
– ST elevation in anterior and inferior leads
– Evidence of earlier remote MI
– Marked ventricular ectopic activity
• KILLIP CLASSIFICATION FOR PATIENTS WITH ST-SEGMENT ELEVATION MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION
•
•
• KILLIP CLASS HOSPITAL MORTALITY (%)
• I No congestive heart failure 6
•
• II Mild congestive heart failure, rales, S3, congestion on chest radiograph
• 17
• III Pulmonary edema 38
•
• IV Cardiogenic shock 81
•
•
•
Role of 12 lead ecg in risk stratification in ACS
Normal ecg or T wave inversions in < 5 leads is low risk
ST depression or ST depression and elevation if present indicates highest incidence of death ,highest chance of re infarction,recurrentchest pain.
Infart size proportional to mortality.
Infarct size correlation –a) degree and extent of st elevation
b)Coronary artery involved mortality more if left involved
c)Distortion of terminal qrs complex is indicative of very poor outcome
• Acute anterior wall MI due to proximal LAD occlusion has the worst short and long term prognosis
• In inferior wall MI proximal RCA occlusion carries worst prognosis.
• Reference:Schweitzer P, Keller.
• BETH ISRAEL MEDICAL CENTER,NY,2001
.
References
1 Harrisons internal medicine -18th
edition
2 Marriot ‘s practical electrocardiography 12th edition
3 leo schamroths introduction to electrocardiography 7th edition
4 Braunwald s 9 th edition
5 Hurst The heart ,13th edition .
Treat the patient ,not ecg
. .
• ‘From inability to let well alone
• From too much zeal for the new and contempt for what is old
• From putting knowledge before wisdom, science before art, and
• Cleverness before common sense;
• From treating patients as cases;
• And from making the cure of the disease more grievous than the
• Endurance of the same, Good Lord, deliver us.’ –
SIR ROBERT HUTCHISON