Philosophy of Mind - University of Birmingham · Philosophy of mind is that bit of philosophy where we aim to understand the nature of experience, thoughts and reasoning. Our inquiry

1

Philosophy of Mind

A six-session workshop series based on

project PERFECT themes

Facilitator Pack

2

ContentsIntroduction……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 3

AboutprojectPERFECT…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 4

AboutMindinCamden……………………………………………………………………………………………. 5

Session1extendedfacilitatornotes…………………………………………………………………………. 6

Session1corequestionsandideas…………………………………………………………………………… 9











Thoughtexperimentresources…………………………………………………………………………………. 28

3

IntroductionPhilosophyofmindisthatbitofphilosophywhereweaimtounderstandthenatureofexperience,thoughtsandreasoning.Ourinquirywillfarebetterifwedrawuponaswideadiversityofperspectivesaswecan.

This6-session,discussion-drivenworkshopseriesisforeveryonewithaninterestinmentalhealth:e.g.forpeoplewithlivedexperienceofunusualbeliefsandexperiences;thoseinvolvedinmentalhealthadvocacy;andformentalhealthserviceprovidersandclinicalpractitioners,andbeyond.

Theworkshopserieslookscriticallyat:

• Unusualexperiencesandbeliefswhichdonotreflectsharedreality,andwaysofthinkingwhichseemirrational,andhowthesecognitionscanveryoftenariseinabsenceofanymentalhealthcrisisoranypsychiatricdiagnosis,aswellasalongsidethese.

• Whysomeunusualbeliefsandexperienceshavebeenpathologised,whileothershavenot;andwhysomeinstancesofirrationalityhavebeenidentifiedwith‘madness’,andothershavenot.

• Theclaimthatunusualexperiencesandbeliefsarepredominantlynegative:welookathowthesecognitionscancontributetoknowledge,andexploretheirroleinsupportingaunifiedandcoherentsenseofagency.

Theworkshopsarebestrunwithsmallgroups(of6-10).Thereisaslidedeckforeachsession,containingtheguidingquestions,outlinesofrelevantphilosophicalmodels,examples,andothermaterialtohelpguideandanchorthediscussion.Ideally,thefacilitatorwillspendsometimebecomingfamiliarwiththematerial,andwillbeabletointroducetheguidingquestions,talkthroughthedifferentmodelsandviewpointspresentedontheslidedeck,andencouragediscussionandparticipationfromallgroupmembers.Thesefacilitatornotesarechieflytoguideyouhowtopresentthematerialandhowtosetupgroupdiscussionandparticipation.Thereareafewpointersonfacilitatorpractice,butingeneral,thefacilitatorwillbenefitfromundergoingspecificpeersupportgroupfacilitationtraining,e.g.:http://www.mindincamden.org.uk/services/training

Thisfacilitatorpackincludesextendedguidancetoaccompanythepowerpointslides,andalsoincludesa“corequestionsandideas”sectionforeachsession,ifyouwanttorunamorestripped-downgroup,withouttheslides.

ThisworkshopserieshasbeendevelopedbyDr.SophieStammers,researchfellowatProjectPERFECT,inthephilosophydepartmentoftheUniversityofBirmingham,basedontheproject’sthemes(seenextpage).ItwasconceivedofinpartnershipwithMindinCamden(seepage4),andfirstrunwithpeoplewithlivedexperienceofunusualbeliefsandexperiences,aswellaspeopleworkinginmentalhealthservicesandadvocacy,in2017.

4

AboutprojectPERFECTWeareateamofphilosophersandpsychologistsbasedattheUniversityofBirminghamandAstonUniversity,exploringthePragmaticandEpistemicRoleofFactuallyErroneousCognitionsandThoughts(PERFECT).PERFECTisfundedbytheEuropeanResearchCouncil,andwillrunfrom2014–2019.PERFECTaimstoestablishwhethercognitionsthatareunusualorwhichdonotreflectsharedrealitycanhelpuspractically,psychologicallyorepistemically(contributingtoknowledge).Cancognitionssometimesclassifiedasdelusions,distortedmemories,andconfabulatoryexplanations,(whicharefrequentinthenon-clinicalpopulationandalsolistedassymptomsofpsychiatricconditionssuchasschizophreniaanddementia)haveredeemingfeatures?

Aims• Showthatcognitionscancontributetoknowledgeandself-knowledgewithoutreflecting

sharedreality

• Recognisetheroleofunusualandunsharedcognitionsinsupportingaunifiedandcoherentsenseofagency.

• Proposethatclinicalinterventionsshouldbecompatiblewiththedevelopmentofaself-narrativethatsupportsagency.

• Providestrongtheoreticalreasonstoregardtheso-called‘normal’and‘abnormal’cognitionascontinuous,andchallengethestigmaassociatedwithmentalhealthissues.

projectperfect.eu

epistinnocence

[email protected]

@epistinnocence

imperfectcognitions.com

perfect.mobapp.at

5

AboutMindinCamdenMindinCamdenprovideshighqualitysupportandcapacitybuildingservicestobenefitpeoplewhoarestrugglingwithmentaldistress,including:hearingvoices,extremesofmood,anxiety,unusualbeliefsandpost-traumaticreactions.

ValuesandVision

MindinCamdenseesmentalhealthasacontinuumweareallatdifferentpointsonatdifferenttimesinourlives–thereisno‘us’(=well)and‘them’(=ill).Theorganizationseesexperiencessuchashearingvoices,seeingvisions,havingunusualbeliefsandexperiencinganxiety,hopelessnessorextremesofmoodasresponsestorealevents,feelingsandculturalinfluencesthatpeoplecanidentifyintheirownlives–ratherthanasdelusions,hallucinationsorsymptomsofabio-medical‘disorder’.MindinCamdenrecognizesthatmanypeoplewhoexperiencevoices,visionsandotherunusualexperiencesand/orbeliefsleadhappyandfulfilledlives,andthat,insomecultures,theseexperiencesdonotresultinstigma.

Workingalongsidepeopleofallageswhoareexperiencingdistressthroughvoices,visions,unusualbeliefs,anxiety,hopelessnessandextremesofmood,MindinCamdenwillstimulatechangeanddevelopmentinmentalhealthservicesbyproviding,promotingandpartneringinservicesindiversesettingsthat:• enableselfdefinedrecovery,increaseselfesteemandpromotehope• involveguidedandunguidedselfhelp,co-productionandpeersupport• challengestereotyping,stigma,isolationandsocialexclusion

MainOffice:BarnesHouse,9-15CamdenRoad,London,NW19LQ02079110822,[email protected]:LondonHearingVoicesNetwork:John–[email protected]&BeliefsNetwork:John–[email protected]

6

Session1:IntroductionandphilosophicaltechniquesExtendedfacilitatornotesSupportingmaterial:printoutsofthoughtexperimentsforsmallgroupdiscussion(seep28-31)Inthissession,weintroducesomekeyphilosophicaltechniquesandnotionsthatwillbehelpfulforourdiscussionsthroughoutthefollowingworkshops.Youmaywanttospendsometimeatthestartsettingupthevaluesandprinciplesofthegroupinaccordancewithanyfacilitatortrainingyouhaveundertaken.Thegroupprinciplescanbejointlycreatedandjointlyagreedupon,andreturnedtowhenevernecessaryduringtheensuingsessions.Youcangoaroundthegroup,askingparticipantswhatphilosophymeanstothem,andwhattheyarehopingtogetfromthesessionstoopenthediscussionGuidingquestions:

1) Whatsenseof‘argument’isrelevanttophilosophy?2) Whatisathoughtexperiment,andwhataretheyusedfor?3) What’sthedifferencebetweennormativeanddescriptiveclaims,andwhydoesit

matter?1)Whatsenseof‘argument’isrelevanttophilosophy?SLIDES:“Argument”Itcouldbesaidthatphilosophyproceedsthrougharguments.Butwhatsenseofargumentisrelevant?Thistermcanevokethenotionofcombatandaggression–thosearenotthesenseswe’reinterestedin.Asithappens,lookingattheetymologyoftheterm“argue”isrevealingforourpurposes,asyoucanseeontheaccompanyingslides.Thereisasenseoftheterm“tomakeclear,makeknown”thatwearemoreinterestedin.Philosophyisaboutarticulatingyourpositionclearly,reflectingonwhatyouthink,orfeel,orhowthingsseemtoyou,andarticulatingthatposition,givingreasonsandsupportingstatementswhenappropriate.Actually,itisfromthesameroot(tomakeclear,tomakeknown,toshine,infact!)thatwegetthewordforsilver.Youcanaskifthereareanychemistsintheroomwhoarefamiliarwiththeperiodictable(ifnot,youcansaybrieflywhatthatis)andmovetotheslidewiththesymbolforsilver…Ag!So,thesenseofargumentthatisrelevantforusisthesenseinwhichwearestrivingtoarticulatingourpositionclearly,andlisteningforourpeerstodothesame.Wecandoawaywiththenotionsofcombatandaggressioninthisspace,they’llnotberelevantforwhatwewanttodo.2)Whatisathoughtexperiment,andwhataretheyusedfor?

7

RESOURCES:thoughtexperimenthand-outs,attachedtothebottomofthisdocumentSLIDES:thoughtexperimentsYoucanaskwhetheranyoneinthegrouphasheardof,oreverdone,athoughtexperiment,andgetpeople’sideasonwhattheymightbefor.Inphilosophy,wesometimeswanttoputourideastothetest,reflectonthem,lookatthemfromdifferentangles,becausesometimes,doingthisproducesnewintuitionsabouttheideasinquestion.Thisiswhatthoughtexperimentsallowustodo.Splitparticipantsintogroupsof2-3andgivethemeachaprintoutofoneofthethoughtexperiments(scrolltothebottomofthisdocumenttofindthem)toreadanddiscuss,answeringthefollowingquestions,answerstowhicharepresentedwhenthewholegroupcomesbacktogether.Askthegrouptonominatesomeonetosummarisetheirthoughtexperimenttotherestoftheparticipants.Whatisthephilosophicalissuethatthethoughtexperimentisencouragingustothinkabout?Whatareyourintuitions,whatdoyouthinkitshows?3)What’sthedifferencebetweennormativeanddescriptiveclaims,andwhydoesitmatter?SLIDES:normativevs.descriptiveclaimsItisimportanttodistinguishbetweennormativeanddescriptiveclaims,andthiswillberelevanttoalotofmaterialthatwelaterdiscuss.Normativeclaims:Normativeclaimsmakevaluejudgements,suchasbeinggood,orworthwhile,ornotgood.Sometimestheyprescribewhatshouldbedone(relativetosomesetofvaluesorstandards)Descriptiveclaims:Descriptiveclaimsdonotmakevaluejudgements,theyjustmakeaclaimabouthowsomethingis.Answers:normativeclaimsareunderlined,descriptiveclaimsareitalicized:•SarahwenttothegymnearherhouseandplayedsquashwithSayeedfor45minutes.•Weshouldtrytoget7-8hrssleepanight.•GameofThronesiswatchedbymillionsofpeople.•GameofThronesisagreatTVseries.•Johnbelievesthatcatsaregreat.<-bitofatrickonethis,thecontentofJohn’sbeliefonitsownisnormative,buttheentiresentenceaboutJohn’sbeliefisadescriptiveclaim.•John’sbeliefisweird.•Sarahboughtthecoatfor£30,butitisaveryhigh-qualitycoat,andsheshouldhavepaidmoreforit.

8

•Thebusshouldhavepickedthemupat08:13,buttheywaiteduntil08:43beforeabusarrived.Discussion:Whymightitbeimportanttoknowifaclaimisnormativeordescriptive?Youcanpromptthegrouphere,sayingthatifwewanttoevaluateaclaim,thentherearedifferentwaysofdoingthisdependingonwhetheritisnormativeordescriptive.Ifthelatter,thenwelookattheworldtoseeiftheclaimmatches.Ofcourse,itmaybethatwemayhavedifferentperspectivesonhowtheworldis,sothereisthistocontendwith.Iftheclaimisnormative,thenwehavetorefertotherelevantsetofnorms.Itmaywellbethatwedisagreewiththesenorms!Whenyouhaveanormativeclaim,whodecideswhattherelevantnormsare?Thiswillbedifferentfordifferentclaims.Alwaysworththinkingaboutwhenyoucomeacrossanormativeclaim,itmayhelpyouworkoutwhethertheclaimisagoodoneornot.Ingeneral,beingabletodistinguishbetweennormativeanddescriptiveclaimswillimproveourphilosophicalenquiry,becauseitwillhelpusdeterminewhetherornotweneedtolookjustatthewaytheworldistoevaluateaclaim,orwhetherwealsoneedtothinkaboutwhetherweagreewiththesetofnormsorvaluesthataclaimdefersto.Furtherquestionsandexercises(ifthereistime,ortotakeaway):

- Canparticipantscomeupwiththeirownthoughtexperimentstoilluminateanideaaboutthemind,thinking,oranotheraspectofphilosophy?

- Arethereanynormativeclaimsthathaveyoucomeacrossineverydaylifewhereyouhavecalledintoquestionthenormsthattheyassume?Why?

Readinginpreparationforthenextsession:“Hearingvoices?Don’tassumethatmeansschizophrenia”https://theconversation.com/hearing-voices-dont-assume-that-means-schizophrenia-38616“PerceptionandPerceptualIllusions”https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/theory-knowledge/201305/perception-and-perceptual-illusionsGeneralresourcesforbrowsingorownresearch:ImperfectCognitionsblog:imperfectcognitions.blogspot.co.ukTheStanfordEncylopediaofPhilosophy:plato.stanford.edu

9

Session1:IntroductionandphilosophicaltechniquesCorequestionsandideas

1) Whatdoes‘philosophy’meantoyou?2) Whatdoesitmeantomakeanargument?Ismakinganargumentalwaysaggressive?

Orcanitsometimesbehelpful?3) Aretheregoodandbadwaystomakeanargument?Howcanwetell?4) Doyouthinkourdifferentbeliefsandvaluesaffectourstatementsandarguments?

Isthisgoodorbad?Andhowcanwetell?5) Canwelearnnewanythingbysittingbackandreflectingonourownexperienceof

theworld?Ifyouthinkyes,canyouthinkofanexample?

10

Session2:ExperiencesExtendedfacilitatornotesGuidingquestions:

1) Whatisthe“naïvemodel”ofunusualandunsharedexperiences?2) Howdoweperceivetheworld?Passivelyoractively?3) Whatdothedifferentmodelsofperceptionmeanforthenaïvemodel?

Theaimofthissessionistothinkabouthowdifferenttheoriesofperceptualprocessing(particularly,activeprocessing)mayunderminethenaïvemodelofunusualexperiencesandbeliefs.1.ThenaïvemodelofunusualandunsharedexperiencesSLIDES:NaïvemodelBemindfulthatsomeparticipationswillhavehaddistressingclinicalencounterswherethenaïvemodelisassumed.Someparticipantsmaywanttoquestionthismodelstraightaway,sothefacilitatorcanmakeitclearthattheintentionofthissessionisnottoassumethenaïvemodel,buttoinvitecriticismofit–butitisnecessarytoensureeveryoneintheroomunderstandswhatisbeingsaidfirst,andthat,asagroup,weshoulddiscussthekeyconceptsinvolved(i.e.whatisanexperience?Howdoweperceive?)becausethiswillbetterequipustolevelaneffectivephilosophicalchallengeagainstthenaïvemodellateron.2.GroupdiscussionSLIDES:Groupdiscussion…“Whatisanexperience…”etcAsabove,thisiswherethegroupcancometogethertothinkaboutthenotionsinthenaïvemodel,thiscanbeanopendiscussionsession,butitincludesprompts(i.e.thedress–peoplearegenerallyindisagreementaboutwhetherthispictureshowsawhiteandgolddress,orablueandblackdress).Partofthefacilitator’saimistobringouttheideathatitappearsthatnoteveryonehasthesameexperiencewhenpresentedwithoneandthesameobject.Withthedress,youcanaskwhoisteamwhite-goldandwhoisteamblack-blue,forinstance.Somepeopleintheroomwillwanttotalkaboutobjectivefactsofthematter,andhowexperiencesareeitheraccurateorinaccurateatrepresentingreality.Otherswillprefertotalkaboutexperiencesthataresharedandthosethatareunshared.Asafacilitator,youprobablywanttomakespaceforthemeritsofbothmodels,whilstbeingmindfulthatfactandobjectiverealitytalk,whenusedcarelesslybypeopleinpositionsofpower,cancontributetostigmaandbeingmadetofeelunwelcome.Modelsofperceptualprocessing

11

SLIDES:TwomodelsofperceptualprocessingYoucanintroducethetwomodelsofperceptualprocessing,withouttoomuchgroupdiscussion.Thenyoucanmovetothecreamsodaexample,andposethequestion“Whichmodel,passiveoractiveprocessing,betterexplainsthisexample?”tothegroup.Thereareslidesconsideringhoweachmodeltacklesthequestion.Youcanalsomentionthatingeneralitmightnotbeaneither-orsituationforallperceptualexperience,sometimesperceptualprocessingmaybepassive,othertimesactive.IllusionsSLIDES:Illusion1andIllusion2Theillusionsarefurtherexamplestohelpdemonstratewhenactiveprocessingmaybeoccurring.Youmaywanttoloadthelinksinabrowserpriortothesessionincaseyoudon’thaveinternetwhereyouarefacilitating.Withthedalmationillusion,youcanaskwhetherpeoplecanseewhatitis(askingthosewhoalreadyknowthepicturetokeepittothemselves).Thenyoucanmovetousingthe“Help1”and“Help2”hintsifyouhaveinternetconnectivity,oryoucantracetheoutlineofthedogwithyourfingertohelppeoplepickitup.Nowtheideathatthereisadogthereisplanted,manypeoplewillbeabletoseethedog.Youcaninvitethegrouptothinkaboutwhythismightshowthatactiveprocessingisgoingon.Withtheupside-downfaces,youcanusethefirstexample(RickyGervais)andaskparticipantswhethertheythinkanythingisstrangeabouttheimageontheright,beforemovingtothenextimagewiththeslider,whichrevealsquitehowstrangethesecondpicturelooks-becausethemouthandlipshavebeenflipped!Thoseofusforwhomtheillusionworksonlynoticesomethingisamisswhenthefaceistherightsideupbecauseweexpectfacestobetherightsideupwhenweencounterthem–outinternalmodelofwhatfaceslooklikeshowstheminthisorientation–wearethereforemuchbetteratcomparingthemtoourinternalmodel,andnoticingwhensomethingisoddwhenthefaceisrightsideup!(Beawarethatthisillusiondoesn’tworkforeveryone–thatjustaddstotheideathatwedon’tallperceivethesamethingwhenpresentedwiththesameobject).Youcaninviteanyonewhodidthereadingtoshareideastheymighthavehadfromthat(e.g.hallucinationandotherunsharedperceptualexperiencesoccurregularlyoutsidediagnosis,andnotinconjunctionwithanyexperienceofmentaldistress).Youcouldalsosharethisgififyouhaveinternetconnectivity:https://media.giphy.com/media/5xtDarJY0nvM4bjntHa/giphy.gif(manypeople,regardlessofdiagnosis,heara“thud”inthissilentgif)Participantsmayalsowanttotalkabouttheirownunsharedexperienceswiththegroup,whichwillbevaluableforthediscussionwe’rehaving.3.Returningtothenaïvemodel

12

SLIDES:“3)Whatdothedifferentmodelsofperceptionmeanforthenaïvemodel?”Nowwehavediscussedwhatanexperienceis,whetherweallhavethesameexperiencesinthesamesituation,anddifferentmodelsofperceptualprocessing,wecanreturntoacritiqueofthenaïvemodel.Criticismwilllikelycomeorganicallyfromthegroup,butherearesomeideastohelppromptdiscussion:Claim1)seemswrong.Ifatleastsometimesweuseactiveprocessing,thenourperceptionswillbeinpartshapedbyourexistingideas–andnoteveryonehasthesameexistingideas:soeveryoneregardlessofwhethertheyhaveexperiencedmentalhealthcrisisorhavebeengivenapsychiatricdiagnosiswillhaveexperiencesthatotherswillnotshare.Claim2)alsoseemswrong.Wemayshapeourexperienceswithourexistingideas,butthisdoesn’tseemtoshowthatdoingsoisbadforus,orrestrictsourknowledge.Itmightbethatrelyingonexistingideasinthiswaysometimeshelpsustomakebettersenseofourenvironments(remembertheDalmatianexample).Youcaninvitediscussionofhowthenaïvemodelmightbereplacedwithamodelthatpaysmoreattentiontothephilosophicaldiscussionswe’vebeenhaving,andtolivedexperience.Furtherquestionsandexercises(ifthereistime,ortotakeaway):

- Sometimesinbothpsychiatryandpopularculture,whensomeoneisexperiencingsomethingthatotherscannotsee,orthatisn’tpartofsharedreality,thisitthoughttobeasignofillness.Whatisproblematicaboutthisassumption?Andwhatshouldwe,asphilosophers,tellpeopletoenablethemtoseewhytheassumptionisunwarranted?

- Howelsedoesactiveperceptualprocessinghelpus?Canyouthinkofanyexamplesfurthertothosediscussed?

Readingandlisteninginpreparationforthenextsession:1.CouldBeingUnrealisticActuallyBeGoodForYourMentalHealth?http://www.redonline.co.uk/health-self/could-being-unrealistic-actually-be-good-for-your-mental-health2.WhyFalseBeliefsAreNotAlwaysBadhttps://philosophynow.org/issues/124/Why_False_Beliefs_Are_Not_Always_Bad

13

Session2:ExperiencesCorequestionsandideas

1) Whatisanexperience?2) Whatcausesourexperiences?3) If2peopleareinexactlythesamesituation,dotheyhaveexactlythesame

experience?4) Doourexistingideaseverinfluencethewayweexperiencetheworld?5) Canexperiencesbeusualorunusual?Whatisthedifference?6) Hasanyoneinthegroupeverseenanopticalillusion?Whataretheyandwhatdo

theytellusabouthowweseetheworld?7) Aretheresomeexperiencesthatonlypeoplewithmentaldistressorillnesshave?8) Doyouthinkthatpeoplewithoutmentaldistressorillnesssometimeshaveunusual

experiences?9) Howdoeswhatwe’vediscussedchangeoraddtoyourthinkingaboutexperiences

andmentalhealth?

14

Session3:BeliefsExtendedfacilitatornotesGuidingquestions:

1) Whatisthe“naïvemodel”ofunusualandunsharedbeliefs?2) Howdoweformbeliefs?Andwhataretheyfor?3) Whatdoesourdiscussionabout2,asabove,meanforthenaïvemodel?

1.ThenaïvemodelofunusualandunsharedbeliefsSLIDES:Thenaïvemodel…Youcanacknowledgethatthismodelechoesthatwelookedatlastweekregardingexperiences.Youcanalsobemindfulthatsomeparticipantsmayhavehaddistressingclinicalencounterswheresomethinglikethenaïvemodelwasassumed.Asbefore,theideaistoacknowledgethatthenaïvemodelisoutthere,andthatitisassumedbymanyclinicians(andacademics!)andthatthepurposeofthissessionistocreatesharedphilosophicalresourcesforcritiquingthenaïvemodel.2.Groupdiscussiononbeliefs,presentationofthepossiblesourcesofbeliefsSLIDES:Groupdiscussion,startingwith“Whatisabelief?”Thissectionoftheslidesbeginswithtwoopenendedquestions,andyoucanopenitupfordiscussion.(Thedressisapromptfortheideathatifnoteveryonehasthesameexperiences,thennoteveryonewillhavethesamebeliefs).SLIDES:ThesourcesofbeliefsYoucanpresentthe3models(outerworldassource,outerandinnerworld,andinnerworldonly)andtheninvitemorediscussion,orinvitediscussionasyougo.Thinkofanexampletodemonstratethatone’sinnerworldsometimesmediatesorilluminateshowinformationfromtheouterworldisinterpretedandprocessedtoformanewbelief.Forinstance,Imightlookatapassengerareoplaneinthesky,andformthebeliefthat“thereisaplane”butmyfriend,whoisanaeroplanefanatic,andsohasmuchmoreknowledgetodrawon,mightformthebelief“thatisaBritishAirwaysplane,takingofffromBristolairport,likelyheadingtoAmerica”.Youcanalsoaskparticipantstocontributeexamplesofwhensomeonedrawsonexistinginformationtheyalreadybelieveinordertointerpretnewincominginformation.SLIDES:Whentheworlddoesn’tmatchbeliefs:unrealisticoptimismAftersomemoreopen-endedquestionsforthewholegroup,movetodiscussionof“unrealisticoptimism”thatcameupinthereadings.Thesearecaseswhere,eitherbecauseofmathematicalimpossibility,orotherfeaturesofthestudyinquestion,itisobjectivelythe

15

casethatthebeliefsinvolvedarefalse/donotreflectsharedreality.Youcanlinkthesecasestothediscussionsjusthad–thepeopleinvolvedarelikelyusingexisting(optimistic!)ideastointerprettheirownsituations,aswellastheevidenceavailabletothemfromsharedreality.Andyet,istherenovalueatallinthesebeliefs?Howmighttheybehelpfultothepeopleinquestion?Perhapstheymakeusfeelgood,andinthecaseoftheprofessors,perhapstheyevenhelpthemtokeepworking,andtokeepdiscoveringnewthingsintheirresearch,thusplayingaroleincontributingtoknowledge–eventhoughtheoptimisticbeliefitselfisinaccurate.3.ReassessingthenaïvemodelSLIDES:3.ReassessingthenaïvemodelofunusualandunsharedbeliefsAsinsession2,nowwehavediscussedwhatabeliefis,andthoughtabouthowwesometimesuseexistingideastoformbeliefs,resultinginpositiveoutcomes,eventhoughsometimesthesebeliefsdonotreflectsharedreality.Again,criticismofthenaïvemodelwilllikelycomeorganicallyfromthegroup,butherearesomeideastohelppromptdiscussion:Claim1)seemsfalse.Forinstance,wedon’tsharetheprofessors’beliefsthattheyareallaboveaverage–weknowthatcan’tbethecase!Buttheseunsharedbeliefsappeartobeunrelatedtoanyexperienceofmentaldistressorpotentialdiagnosis.Claim2)alsoseemsfalse.Boththeoptimisticbeliefswelookedatseemtoplayanimportantpsychologicalroleinmakingthepersoninquestionfeelbetter.And,atleastintheexampleoftheprofessors,itmighthelpthemkeepworking,discoveringnewthingsabouttheworld,thuscontributingtotheirknowledge.Wetypicallythinkaboutprofessorsascontributingtoknowledge,butmightotherunsharedorunusualbeliefsalsohelpustokeepgoing,tokeepseekingthingsoutinourenvironment,andtostayintouchwithourworlds?Youcanaskthegroup!Furtherquestionsandexercises(ifthereistime,ortotakeaway):

- Whatotheroverlyoptimisticbeliefsmightwehavethat,whilstinaccurate,canmakeusfeelgood,orwhichhelpuskeepseekingthingsoutinourenvironment,andlearningnewinformation?

- Whataboutotherinaccurateorunsharedbeliefs(notjusttheoptimisticones)?Canyouthinkofanyexamplesthatmighthavebeneficialfunctions?

- Sometimesinbothpsychiatryandpopularculture,whensomeonebelievessomethingthatothersdonot,orthatisn’tpartofsharedreality,thisitthoughttobeasignofillness.Whatisproblematicaboutthisassumption?Andwhatshouldwe,asphilosophers,tellpeopletoenablethemtoseewhytheassumptionisunwarranted?

Readinginpreparationforthenextsession:1.“TheIrrationalityWithinUs”https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/mind-guest-blog/the-irrationality-within-us/

16

2.PhilosophyBitespodcast:“Irrationality”http://traffic.libsyn.com/philosophybites/Lisa_Bortolotti_on_Irrationality.mp33.Cognitivebiascodex(notreally“reading”,buthavealookatthis,andfeelfreetodoaninternetsearchforsomeofthesebiasesiftheyinterestyou)http://www.visualcapitalist.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/cognitive-bias-infographic.html

17

Session3:BeliefsCorequestionsandideas

1) Whatisabelief?2) Whatistherelationbetweenbeliefsandexperiences?3) Doourexistingideasandbeliefsinfluencethenewbeliefsweacquire,ornot?Why?4) Canabeliefbeusualorunusual?Whatmakesthisso?5) Doesanyoneknowwhat“wishfulthinking”is?Inwhatwaysisitgood?Inwhatways

isitbad?6) Aretheresomebeliefsthatonlypeoplewithmentaldistressorillnesshave?7) Doyouthinkthatpeoplewithoutmentaldistressorillnesssometimeshaveunusual

beliefs?8) Howdoeswhatwe’vediscussedchangeoraddtoyourthinkingaboutbeliefsand

mentalhealth?

18

Session4:RationalityExtendedfacilitatornotesGuidingquestions:1)Whatarerationalityandirrationality,andwherearetheseconceptsemployed?2)Shouldirrationalitybeidentifiedwithillness,ormentalhealthcrisis?1)Whatarerationalityandirrationality?SLIDE:“Popularviewinpsychiatry:irrationalityisasignificantsymptomof“mentaldisorders””Asinprevioussessions,theideaistopresentthisview,andtohaveitinthebackgroundaswemovetodiscussionsofwhatrationalityis,knowingthatwewillcomebacktolookcriticallyatitmoreextensivelylateroninthesession.Thenfollowssomeopenquestionsforthegrouptodiscuss.SLIDE:DifferentsensesofrationalityTherearemany,manydifferentsensesof‘rationality’inthephilosophyliterature(aswellasthoseofrelateddisciplines).Therearealsodifferentwaystotaxonomisethesedifferentsenses–anddifferentnamesindifferentdisciplinesforsimilardistinctions.Herewelookatafewdistinctionsthatareofparticularrelevancetoourdiscussion.(Thisisbynomeanstheonlywayoflayingoutthedistinctions,andyoumaywanttomentionthis.Butthereisnoneedtogointoallofthepossibledistinctiontostillbeabletohaveausefulandmeaningfuldiscussion.)Thebelieving/doingdistinctionslinkstosomeofourdiscussionsfromlastsession:beliefscanbesaidtoberationalorirrational,butsocandecisionsandactions–we’relookingatthewholesetofpossibly(ir)rationalthingsthissession.Inparticular,itwillbeworthhighlightingthedistinctionbetweeninstrumentalrationalityandvaluerationality,andlinkingbacktosession1wherewediscussedthedescriptive/normativedistinction.Rationalityisanormativeconcept(itprescribeswhatyoushoulddo)butvaluerationalityisnormativeinthenotablesenseinthattherearesomesetofvaluesorprinciplesthatoneissupposedtoactinaccordancewith.Whatmightthesebe?Orisinstrumentalrationalityallthatmatters?Openthisdiscussionuptothegroup!SLIDE(s):CognitivebiasesYoucantalkthroughthe2examplesontheslides:confirmationbiasinforensicexperts,andsocialbiases.SLIDE:cognitivebiascodex

19

Theideaofincludingthecodexistodemonstratehowmanybiases/deviationsfromrationalityhavebeenidentified,whicharenotrelatedtomentalhealthcrisisordiagnosis.Buttrynottotellthistothegroup,itshouldcomethroughorganically.Therearesomeslidestowalkthroughthis.Youmightwanttosaveaversionofthecognitivebiascodex(creativecommonslicence)ontoyourowncomputersothatyoucanzoomintoseethedifferentsections.SLIDE:cognitivebiasesaffecteveryoneYoucanmovetothisslide,andsubsequentones,toguidethediscussionaftertalkingaboutthecodex.SLIDE:ButifmultiplecasesofirrationalitywhicharenotrelatedtomentalhealthcrisisYoucanleavethisslideupwhilstinvitingopendiscussiononthetopic.Furtherquestionsandexercises(ifthereistime,ortotakeaway):

- Whatarethecostsandbenefitsofthecognitivebiaseswediscussed,andanyyoumighthavecomeacrossinyourownreading?

- Arethereanyrelevantdifferencesbetweentheirrationalityidentifiedintheexamplesofcognitivebiasandtheirrationalitythatsomementalhealthpractitionersseeaspathological?

- Whatshouldwe,asphilosophers,tellpeopletodispeltheideathatirrationalityonlyoccursinmentalhealthcrisis?

Readinginpreparationforthenextsession:“‘ThemandUs’nolonger:mentalhealthconcernsusall’https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/research/impact/thebirminghambrief/items/2015/11/them-and-us-no-longer.aspx“ModelsofMentalHealth:ACritiqueandProspectus”http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/exchange/mentalhealth/modelsofmentalhealth

20

Session4:RationalityCorequestionsandideas

1) Whatisrationality,andwhatdoesitmeantoberational?2) Whatisirrationality,andwhatdoesitmeantobeirrational?3) Doyouthinktherearelotsofdifferentmeaningsof‘rationality’and‘irrationality’or

justtheone?4) Ifyouthinktherearedifferentmeanings,dotheyapplyindifferentsituations?Is

onemeaningbetterthantherest?5) Whatsortofideasandbehavioursarerational,andhowshouldwedecide?6) Whatsortofideasandbehavioursareirrational,andhowshouldwedecide?7) Aretheresomewaysofbeingirrationalthatonlypeoplewithmentaldistressor

illnesshave?8) Doyouthinkthatpeoplewithoutmentaldistressorillnessaresometimesirrational?9) Howdoeswhatwe’vediscussedchangeoraddtoyourthinkingaboutrationalityand

mentalhealth?

21

Session5:ModelsofmentalhealthExtendedfacilitatornotesGuidingquestions1)Howarementalhealthcrisisorillnessandmentalwellbeingrelated?2)Whatshapesmentalhealth,andwhereisillness?Biology,psychologyorsociety?1)Howareillnessandwellbeingrelated?SLIDES:categoricalvscontinuummodelThefirsthalfofthissessiongivesanopportunitytosumupwhatwehavediscussedsofar,andseehowitfeedsintobroaderquestionsaboutmentalhealth,i.e.whetherthecategoricalorcontinuummodelisright.Startwiththecategoricalmodel.Thisholdsthatthereisacleardistinctionbetweenmentalillness/crisisandmentalhealth/wellbeing.Wecandrawalinesothatallcognitionsandsymptomsthatariseininstancesofmentalill-healthfallononesideofthatline(e.g.unusualexperiencesandbeliefs,andirrationality),andallcognitionsandsymptomsofgoodmentalhealthandwellbeingfallontheother(e.g.usualexperiencesandbeliefs,andrationality).Youcanbegintoseehowwhatwediscussedinthelast3sessionschallengesthismodel.SLIDES(s):Summaryofsessions2-4.Thistablemakesthechallengeexplicit.Notethatwhatisexpressedhereisaconditionalclaim.ItdoesnotsayunusualexperiencesandbeliefsDOoccuralongsidecrisisandpsychiatricdiagnosis,andthattheyDOoccurinabsenceofthesethings.Thisisimportant,becausesomeparticipantsmaynotbeonboardwiththecharacterizationofexperienceasusual/unusualatall.Whatwe’redoinghereisnotaskingyoutogetonboardwiththischaracterization.We’resayingevenifoneassumestheusual/unusualcharacterizationisagoodone,itdoesnotcleanlycutacrossthecategoriesofillnessorcrisis/healthorwellbeing.Theconditionalistrue,evenifyoudon’tbuyintotheusual/unusualcharacterization.Thisisapowerfulphilosophicalmove.Whatwe’redoingissaying,“let’sgrantthedominantpsychiatricmodelofmentalhealthitsassumptionthatusual-unusualandrational-irrationalaremeaningfulcategoricaldistinctions,andthenshowthat,evengrantingthatassumption,thatwedonothaveaclean-cutdistinctionthatcharacterisesthosedeemedasmentallyillfromthosedeemedasmentallywell.Thispushesustowardssomethinglikeacontinuummodel.Theslidesshowingthedotsaretoinviteadiscussionofwhetherthecorrectmodelisthat(i)anyoneindividualsitsjustatonepointonthecontinuum,or(ii)maybewecanrateeachofourcognitionsintermsofwheretheylieonthecontinuum.Thiscouldmeanthatforanyoneperson,theyhavesomecognitionsclosertotheillnessend,andothersclosertothewellnessend.It’sthennotthecasethatthewholepersonisill,orthatthewholepersoniswell.Whichinterpretation

22

makessensetoyou?Perhapspeoplethinktherearealternativemodelsbeyondthecategoricalorcontinuumones?Thiscanallbepartofthediscussion.2)Whatshapesmentalhealth,andwhereisillness?Biology,psychologyorsociety?Theremainderofthesessionisaboutwhatshapesmentalhealth.Inparticular,ifwecan’tgetaneatsetofsymptomscitingirrationality(asweconcludedabove,contrarytothedominantmodelinpsychiatry)thenwhatarewetosayaboutwhatshapesandconstitutesmentalill-health?Threemodelsarepresented(thesearenotexhaustive,andyoumaywanttoaskthegroupiftheyhaveanyotherideas).Succinctly,themedicalmodelsaysthatitisgeneticandotherbiologicalfactorsthatcontributetomentalillness.Treatmentfocusesonmedicationandtheassumptionisthattheindividualthemselvesisnotincontrol.Thepsychologicalmodelpointstofactorssuchaspersonalityandtemperament,andthereissometimesanassumptionthatthepersonisnotonlyincontrol,butisblameworthyfortheirownmentalhealthcrisis.Thesocial/societalmodelsuggeststhatcontributoryfactorsarelocatedinpersonalrelationshipsandsociety’sstructuresanddistributionofresources.Thesemodelshavedistinctimplicationsforrecovery/management.Inboththemedicalandpsychologicalmodels,thelocusofrecovery/managementistheindividual,whilstinthesocialmodel,itisfactorsbeyondsimplytheindividual,andcanleadtobigquestionsaboutstructuralinjusticeandunfairnessatthesocietallevel,aswellasmistreatmentbyothersinsomeone’spersonallife.Thebio-psycho-socialmodelcitesamixtureofthesefactors.Therearesomefinalquestionsintheslidesabouttheimplicationsfordiagnosisandstigma.Furtherquestionsandexercises(ifthereistime,ortotakeaway):

- Mentalhealthstigmaisdevastatingandharmfultoindividualsonthereceivingend.Butwiththecontinuumviewwe’vealsoseenthatitisnotphilosophicallywarranted.Howcanwebuildthisideaintothemessagingandcampaignsaroundmentalhealthadvocacy?

- Aretherepracticalorinstrumentalorbenefitsofanyofthemodelsofmentalhealth?Areanyofthem“usefulfictions”andifso,why?

- Arethereinterplaysbetweenthedifferentmodels,andmighttheyexplaindifferentaspectsofmentalhealth?Shouldoftheanyexplanationstakeprecedentoveranyothers?

‘Watching’inpreparationforthenextsession:LisaBortolotti,TEDxtalk:“Thethreestigmasaboutmentalhealthweneedtodeconstruct”:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ui9ZzlldFs0&feature=youtu.be&app=desktop

23

Session5:ModelsofmentalhealthCorequestionsandideas

1) Howismentaldistress/illnessandmentalwellbeingrelated?2) Howdifferentissomeonewhoexperiencesmentaldistresstosomeonewho

experiencesmentalwellbeing?3) Isitpossibletoarrangeallpeopleintotwogroups:thosewithmentaldistress/illness

andthosewithmentalwellbeing?4) Doyouthinkmentaldistress/illnessandmentalwellbeingareonaspectrum?Toput

itanotherway,doyouthinkthereisnosharpdividebetweenthepeoplewhoexperiencementaldistress/illnessandpeoplewhoexperiencementalwellbeing?

5) Howdothediscussionswe’vehadinothersessionschangeoraddtothewayyouthinkaboutthesequestions?

6) Whatshapesmentalhealth?Whydowehavetheexperiencesofmentalhealththatwedo?Somepeoplethinkitisbecauseofourgenes.Somepeoplethinkitisbecauseofourpersonalities.Somepeoplethinkitisbecauseofourrelationshipsandsociety.Somepeoplethinkitisamixofallthree.Whatdoyouthink?

24

Session6:EvaluatingexperiencesandbeliefsExtendedfacilitatornotesGuidingquestions:1)Whatdoourdiscussionsoverthecourseonexperiences(week2),beliefs(week3),rationality(week4)andmodelsofmentalhealth(week5),tellusaboutthenaïvemodel?2)Whataretheimplications?E.g.forphilosophicaltheorising,butalsoforpractice(clinical,mentalhealthadvocacy,activism…etc.)SLIDES:AreminderofthenaïvemodelYoucanencourageparticipantstothinkbacktowhathasbeensaidaboutexperiencesandbeliefs,suchthatclaim1)ofthenaïvemodellooksproblematic-wesawlotsofinstancesofunusualexperiencesandbeliefs,andirrationality,thatarisesinabsenceofmentalhealthcrisisorpsychiatricdiagnosis.Wehavetalkedlessaboutclaim2);thattheseexperiencesarebadforus(althoughcounterargumentstothisclaimmayhavecomeupinyourdiscussions.Thenextpartofthissessionlookstodirectlychallengeclaim2.SLIDESstarting:LilaNotethatthematerialinthissectionistakenfromlastweek’s“watching”“Thethreestigmasaboutmentalhealthweneedtodeconstruct”byLisaBortolottiatTEDxBrum,andyoucanfamiliariseyourselfwithitbywatchingthisafewtimes.IntroducethecasesofLilaandJamie.Eachtellsthestoryastheindividualseesit,andthenoffersinformationhadbypeopleotherthanthatindividual.Thesearecasesinwhichclinicianshavediagnosedmentalillnesses,andtheensuingtreatmentshaveaimedateliminating/reducingtheunsharedexperiencesandbeliefstosomeextent,onthebasisthattheyareinsomewaycostlytotheindividual.Whilstitmaybethatthereisaplacefortheseinterventions,weshouldconsiderthepotentialbenefitstheseunsharedexperiencesandbeliefsbringtheindividualsinquestion,aswellastheircosts–furtherinvestigationofthesecouldwellshapetheinterventionforthebetter.SLIDE:Withsomebackgroundinformation,unusualbeliefsmakesense,appeartosomedegreerationalWeareencouragedtoconsidertheexperiencesandbeliefsinthecontextoftheperson’shistory–somethingthatmayormaynothappeninaclinicalencounter.Inthesecases,doingsogivesusextrainformationthatrendersthecognitionsmoreunderstandable.Istherealsoasenseinwhichtheyarerational?Youcanaskthegroup.

25

SLIDE:UnusualexperiencesandbeliefscanhaveanimportantroletoplayinourmentallivesItseemslikethereareanumberofwaysinwhichJamie’sandLila’sexperiencesandbeliefsarebeneficialtothem.YoumaywanttorefertowhatLisasaysonthesepointsinhervideotogetmoreofasenseofthis.Whatdoesthegroupthink?ItisimportantalsonottoneglectthefactthatLilaandJamie’sbeliefshavecostlyaspectstothem,forinstance,settingupexpectationsthatcannotbefulfilled,inLila’scase,andputtingJamieatriskofharmfulinteractions.Butthisdoesnotdetractfromthepointthattherearebenefitstoeachindividualthataninterventionwhichaimssolelyatremovingtheseusualexperiencesandbeliefswillnotreplicate.Whataretheimplicationsofthis?Youcanrelatethisbacktothenaïvemodel–inparticular,howthissupportscriticismofitssecondclaimthat:

unusualexperiences/beliefsarebadforus.Inparticular,thereare(supposedly):i)Psychologicalcosts:Theseexperiences/beliefsmakeusfeelbad.Notalwaystrue!ii)“Epistemic”(knowledge)costs:Theseexperiences/beliefsdonotdepictreality.Sotheyharmourknowledgeofourselvesandtheworld.

Neither(i)nor(ii)seemswhollytrue–LilaandJamieshowthat.Therearenumerousimplicationsofthisthatyoucandiscusswiththegroup.Firstly,thischangeshowmanypeopletypicallythinkaboutmentalhealth.Butfurther,thereareimplicationsforhowwerelatetoeachother(recallLisaBortolottistressingtheimportanceoflisteningandtakingseriouslypeoplewhoareinmentalhealthcrisis,becausetheirexperiencesandbeliefsmaybehelpingthemtogivestructuretotheirworld,andcanbedeeplymeaningful).Youcanthenaskthegrouptothinkabouthowthisshouldfeatureinhowwecommunicateaboutmentalhealthinadvocacyandactivismwork,aswellasthechangesthey’dliketoseeinclinicalpractice.Furtherquestionsandexercises(ifthereistime,ortotakeaway):

- Arethereanyimplicationsforself-understandingwhenweconsiderthepotentialbenefitsaswellasthepotentialcostsofunusualbeliefsandexperiences?

- Whatlessonsfromourcritiqueofthenaïvemodelcanwepassontomentalhealthpractitioners,toincorporateintotheirpractice?Howshouldwegetthemessageacross?

26

Session6:EvaluatingexperiencesandbeliefsCorequestionsandideas

1) Howshouldwedecidewhetherourbeliefsandexperiencesaregoodorbad?2) Cananyonebelieforexperiencehavebothgoodbitsandbadbits?3) Canyouthinkofanexample?

i. Anexperiencewithbothgoodbitsandbadbits:whatarethey?ii. Abeliefwithbothgoodbitsandbadbits:whatarethey?

4) Canwedecidetostopthinkingaboutabadexperience,orgetridofadistressingbelief?

5) Iftheexperienceorbeliefhassomegoodbitsaswellasbad,whatdoesthismeanforhowwedealwithit?

6) Canreflectinglikethis,andaskingthesesortsofquestionshelpourself-understanding?

7) Whatlessonsfromourdiscussionscanwepassontomentalhealthpractitioners?Whatcanwedotogetthemessageacross?

27

Forthoughtexperimentresources(session1),scrolldown:

28

ThebridgeOnholiday,youdecidetovisitanewattraction–abridgethatspansawidecanyon,withafloormadeofglasssothatyoucanseethedistantgroundbelow.Youlearnthatthebridgehasbeenguaranteedasstructurallysoundbyseveralengineers,butasyouwalkoutacrossit,yourheartbeatrises,yourlegsgoweak,andyouaresoontremblingwithfear.Whatshouldwecallyournewattitudetowardsthebridge?Afterall,onreadingtheengineers’guarantee,youbelievethebridgeissafe.Doyoualsobelieveit’snotsafe,orisyourstateofmindsomethingotherthanabelief?AdaptedfromTamarSzabóGendlerin:Gendler,T.S.(2008.)‘AliefandBelief,’MindandLanguage23(5):552-585.

29

ThenotebookYouandafriendareinvitedtoadinnerpartybyanotherfriend.Yourfriendhasanexcellentmemoryfordatesandaddresses,butyoudecidetowritedownthedateandaddressofthepartyinyournotebook.Thedayofthedinnerpartycomes,andthereisyourfirstfriend,havingretrievedtheinformationonwhenandwheretogofromhermemory.Youconsultedyournotebooktopromptyouwhereyouneededtogo.Isitcorrecttosaythatyoubothrememberedthedateandaddressoftheparty,orisitonlyyourfriendwhotrulyremembered?Ifweuseexternalobjectstohelpusstoreandretrieveinformationdoesthatcountasthinkingitself?Ifitdoesn’t,what’stherelevantdifferencebetweenthinking“insidethehead”andthinking“outsidethehead”?AdaptedfromAndyClarkandDavidChalmersin:Clark,A.andD.Chalmers.(1998).‘TheExtendedMind,’Analysis58:10-23.

30

ThecitydwellerImagineapersonblindfrombirth,whousedhisothersenses,suchashearing,touch,proprioception,etc.tolearnallaboutthecityhelivedin.Hekneweveryoneinthecity,helearnedaboutthecity’sbuildings,itssidestreets,itsanimals,itsmarkets,andsoon.Nowimaginethatherecoveredhissight.True,thenamesofcolourswouldnotbeknowntohim.Butingeneral,hewouldfindthatnothinginthecitywouldbedifferenttotheideathathehadofitbeforeherecoveredhissight,andhewouldbeabletorecogniseeverythinginthecityasheknewitbefore.Theonlysignificantchangewouldbethathewouldknowhissurroundingswithgreaterclarityandfullness.Doyouagreethiswouldbethecase?AdaptedfromIbnTufaylin:Tufayl,I.(1972)IbnTufayl'sHayyibnYaqzān:aphilosophicaltale.TranslatedwithintroductionandnotesbyLennEvanGoodman,NewYork:Twayne.

31

TheexperiencemachineVirtualrealitytechnologyadvancestoapointwhereyoucanputonaheadsetandbodysuit,andenterintoanexperiencethatisindistinguishablefromreality.Theprogrammershavemadeitsuchthatyoucanliveanylifeexperienceyouwant–traveltheworld,liveinamansion,becomeafamousrockstar–allthewhiletotallybelievingthatitisreallyhappening,havingnomemoryofthemachine.Butthere’sahitch:ifyouwanttousetheexperiencemachine,there’snogoingback.Youcaneitheroptintoyourdreamlifeexperienceforever,ornotgettotryitall.So,whatwouldyoudo?AdaptedfromRobertNozickin:Nozick,R.(1974).Anarchy,state,andutopia,NewYork:BasicBooks,42–45.

Philosophy of Mind - University of Birmingham · Philosophy of mind is that bit of philosophy where we aim to understand the nature of experience, thoughts and reasoning. Our inquiry

Documents