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Activated sludge systems [1] Constructed Soil Filter Advanced Oxidation Process Aerated lagoon Aerobic granular reactor Aerobic treatment system Anaerobic clarigester Anaerobic digestion API oil-water separator Anaerobic lagoon ATP test Bead Filter Belt press Bioconversion of biomass to mixed alcohol fuels Bioreactor Bioretention Biorotor Bioroll [2] Biolytix Carbon filtering Cesspit Chlorine disinfection Combined sewer Composting toilet Constructed wetland Dark fermentation Dissolved air flotation Distillation Desalination EcocyclET systems Electrocoagulation Electrodeionization Electrolysis Electro-Fenton process [3] Expanded granular sludge bed digestion Facultative lagoon Fenton's reagent Flocculation & sedimentation Fluidized Bed Biofilter Flotation process Froth flotation Fuzzy Filter Humanure (composting) Imhoff tank Iodine Ion exchange Life Saver bottle Living machines Maceration (sewage) Membrane bioreactor Nanotechnology NERV (Natural Endogenous Respiration Vessel) N-Viro Parallel plate oil-water separator Recirculating Sand Filter Reed bed Retention basin Reverse osmosis Rotating biological contactor Sand filter Septic tank Sequencing batch reactor Sewage treatment Stabilization pond Submerged aerated filter [4][5] Treatment pond Trickling filter Ultrafiltration (industrial) Ultraviolet disinfection Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket digestion Upflow Sludge Blanket Filtration (USBF) Wet oxidation

API oil-water separatorAn API oil-water separator is a device designed to separate gross amounts of oil and suspended solids from the wastewater effluents of oil refineries, petrochemical plants, chemical plants, natural gas processing plants and other industrial sources. The name is derived from the fact that such separators are designed according to standards published by the American Petroleum Institute (API). [1][2]Description of the design and operationThe API separator is a gravity separation device designed by using Stokes Law to define the rise velocity of oil droplets based on their density and size. The design of the separator is based on the specific gravity difference between the oil and the wastewater because that difference is much smaller than the specific gravity difference between the suspended solids and water. Based on that design criterion, most of the suspended solids will settle to the bottom of the separator as a sediment layer, the oil will rise to top of the separator, and the wastewater will be the middle layer between the oil on top and the solids on the bottom.[2]Typically, the oil layer is skimmed off and subsequently re-processed or disposed of, and the bottom sediment layer is removed by a chain and flight scraper (or similar device) and a sludge pump. The water layer is sent to further treatment consisting usually of a dissolved air flotation (DAF) unit for further removal of any residual oil and then to some type of biological treatment unit for removal of undesirable dissolved chemical compounds.Parallel plate separators are similar to API separators but they include tilted parallel plate assemblies (also known as parallel packs).[2] The underside of each parallel plate provides more surface for suspended oil droplets to coalesce into larger globules. Any sediment slides down the topside of each parallel plate. Such separators still depend upon the specific gravity between the suspended oil and the water. However, the parallel plates enhance the degree of oil-water separation. The result is that a parallel plate separator requires significantly less space than a conventional API separator to achieve the same degree of separation.

Other oil-water separation applicationsThere are other applications requiring oil-water separation. For example: Oily water separators (OWS) for separating oil from the bilge water accumulated in ships as required by the international MARPOL Convention.[3][4] Oil and water separators are commonly used in electrical substations. The transformers found in substations use a large amount of oil for cooling purposes. Moats are constructed surrounding unenclosed substations to catch any leaked oil, but these will also catch rainwater. Oil and water separators therefore provide a quicker and easier cleanup of an oil leak.[5]

Bioconversion of biomass to mixed alcohol fuelsThe bioconversion of biomass to mixed alcohol fuels can be accomplished using the MixAlco process. Through bioconversion of biomass to a mixed alcohol fuel, more energy from the biomass will end up as liquid fuels than in converting biomass to ethanol by yeast fermentation.The process involves a biological/chemical method for converting any biodegradable material (e.g., urban wastes, such as municipal solid waste, biodegradable waste, and sewage sludge, agricultural residues such as corn stover, sugarcane bagasse, cotton gin trash, manure) into useful chemicals, such as carboxylic acids (e.g., acetic, propionic, butyric acid), ketones (e.g., acetone, methyl ethyl ketone, diethyl ketone) and biofuels, such as a mixture of primary alcohols (e.g., ethanol, propanol, butanol) and/or a mixture of secondary alcohols (e.g., isopropanol, 2-butanol, 3-pentanol). Because of the many products that can be economically produced, this process is a true biorefinery[1] [2][3].The process uses a mixed culture of naturally occurring microorganisms found in natural habitats such as the rumen of cattle, termite guts, and marine and terrestrial swamps to anaerobically digest biomass into a mixture of carboxylic acids produced during the acidogenic and acetogenic stages of anaerobic digestion, however with the inhibition of the methanogenic final stage. The more popular methods for production of ethanol and cellulosic ethanol use enzymes that must be isolated first to be added to the biomass and thus convert the starch or cellulose into simple sugars, followed then by yeast fermentation into ethanol. This process does not need the addition of such enzymes as these microorganisms make their own [4].As the microoganisms anaerobically digest the biomass and convert it into a mixture of carboxylic acids, the pH must be controlled. This is done by the addition of a buffering agent (e.g., ammonium bicarbonate, calcium carbonate), thus yielding a mixture of carboxylate salts. Methanogenesis, which, as mentioned, is the natural final stage of anaerobic digestion, is inhibited by the presence of the ammonium ions or by the addition of an inhibitor (e.g., iodoform). The resulting fermentation broth contains the produced carboxylate salts that must be dewatered. This is achieved efficiently by vapor-compression evaporation. Further chemical refining of the dewatered fermentation broth may then take place depending on the final chemical or biofuel product desired.The condensed distilled water from the vapor-compression evaporation system is recycled back to the fermentation. On the other hand, if raw sewage or other waste water with high BOD in need of treatment is used as the water for the fermentation, the condensed distilled water from the evaporation can be recycled back to the city or to the original source of the high-BOD waste water. Thus, this process can also serve as a water treatment facility, while producing valuable chemicals or biofuels.Because the system uses a mixed culture of microorganisms, besides not needing any enzyme addition, the fermentation requires no sterility or aseptic conditions, making this front step in the process more economical than in more popular methods for the production of cellulosic ethanol. These savings in the front end of the process, where volumes are large, allows flexibility for further chemical transformations after dewatering, where volumes are small.

Carboxylic acidsFor more details on this topic, see Carboxylic acid.Carboxylic acids can be regenerated from the carboxylate salts using a process known as "acid springing". This process makes use of a high-molecular-weight tertiary amine (e.g., trioctylamine), which is switched with the cation (e.g., ammonium or calcium). The resulting amine carboxylate can then be thermally decomposed into the amine itself, which is recycled, and the corresponding carboxylic acid. In this way, theoretically, no chemicals are consumed or wastes produced during this step. [5][edit] KetonesFor more details on this topic, see Ketone.There are two methods for making ketones. The first one consists on thermally converting calcium carboxylate salts into the corresponding ketones. This was a common method for making acetone from calcium acetate during World War I[6]. The other method for making ketones consists on converting the vaporized carboxylic acids on a catalytic bed of zirconium oxide [7].[edit] AlcoholsFor more details on this topic, see Alcohol.[edit] Primary alcoholsThe undigested residue from the fermentation may be used in gasification to make hydrogen (H2). This H2 can then be used to hydrogenolyze the esters over a catalyst (e.g., copper chromite)[8], which are produced by esterifying either the ammonium carboxylate salts (e.g., ammonium acetate, propionate, butyrate) or the carboxylic acids (e.g., acetic, propionic, butyric acid) with a high-molecular-weight alcohol (e.g., hexanol, heptanol)[9]. From the hydrogenolysis, the final products are the high-molecular-weight alcohol, which is recycled back to the esterification, and the corresponding primary alcohols (e.g., ethanol, propanol, butanol).[edit] Secondary alcoholsThe secondary alcohols (e.g., isopropanol, 2-butanol, 3-pentanol) are obtained by hydrogenating over a catalyst (e.g., Raney nickel) the corresponding ketones (e.g., acetone, methyl ethyl ketone, diethyl ketone)[10].[edit] Acetic acid versus EthanolCellulosic-ethanol -manufacturing plants are bound to be net exporters of electricity because a large portion of the lignocellulosic biomass, namely lignin, remains undigested and it must be burned, thus producing electricity for the plant and excess electricity for the grid. As the market grows and this technology becomes more widespread, coupling the liquid fuel and the electricity markets will become more and more difficult.Acetic acid, unlike ethanol, is biologically produced from simple sugars without the production of carbon dioxide:C6H12O6 2 CH3CH2OH + 2 CO2 (Biological production of ethanol)C6H12O6 3 CH3COOH (Biological production of acetic acid)Because of this, on a mass basis, the yields will be higher than in ethanol fermentation. If then, the undigested residue (mostly lignin) is used to produce hydrogen by gasification, it is ensured that more energy from the biomass will end up as liquid fuels rather than excess heat/electricity [11].3 CH3COOH + 6 H2 3 CH3CH2OH + 3 H2O (Hydrogenation of acetic acid)C6H12O6 (from cellulose) + 6 H2 (from lignin) 3 CH3CH2OH + 3 H2O (Overall reaction)A more comprehensive description of the economics of each of the fuels is given on the pages alcohol fuel and ethanol fuel, more information about the economics of various systems can be found on the central page biofuel.[edit] Stage of developmentThe system has been in development since 1991, moving from the laboratory scale (10 g/day) to the pilot scale (200 lb/day) in 2001. A small demonstration-scale plant (5 ton/day) is under construction as is expected to be operational mid 2008 and a 100 ton/day demonstration plant is expected in 2009.[edit] See also

BioreactorA bioreactor may refer to any device or system that supports a biologically active environment.[1] In one case, a bioreactor is a vessel in which is carried out a chemical process which involves organisms or biochemically active substances derived from such organisms. This process can either be aerobic or anaerobic. These bioreactors are commonly cylindrical, ranging in size from liters to cubic meters, and are often made of stainless steel.A bioreactor may also refer to a device or system meant to grow cells or tissues in the context of cell culture. These devices are being developed for use in tissue engineering.On the basis of mode of operation, a bioreactor may be classified as batch, fed batch or continuous (e.g. Continuous stirred-tank reactor model). An example of a continuous bioreactor is the chemostat.Organisms growing in bioreactors may be suspended or immobilized. The simplest, where cells are immobilized, is a Petri dish with agar gel. Large scale immobilized cell bioreactors are: moving media packed bed fibrous bed membrane Batch type bioreactor n General structure of bach type bioreactor

Bioreactors are also designed to treat sewage and wastewater. In the most efficient of these systems there is a supply of free-flowing, chemically inert media that acts as a receptacle for the bacteria that breaks down the raw sewage. Examples of these bioreactors often have separate, sequential tanks and a mechanical separator or cyclone to speed the division of water and biosolids. Aerators supply oxygen to the sewage and media further accelerating breakdown. In the process, the liquids Biochemical Oxygen Demand BOD is reduced sufficiently to render the contaminated water fit for reuse. The biosolids can be collected for further processing or dried and used as fertilizer. An extremely simple version of a sewage bioreactor is a septic tank whereby the sewage is left in situ, with or without additional media to house bacteria. In this instance, the biosludge itself is the primary host (activated sludge) for the bacteria. Septic systems are best suited where there is sufficient landmass and the system is not subject to flooding or overly saturated ground and where time and efficiency is not of an essence.In bioreactors where the goal is to grow cells or tissues for experimental or therapeutic purposes, the design is significantly different from industrial bioreactors. Many cells and tissues, especially mammalian ones, must have a surface or other structural support in order to grow, and agitated environments are often destructive to these cell types and tissues. Higher organisms also need more complex growth medium.Composting toiletA composting toilet is an aerobic processing system that treats excreta, typically with no water or small volumes of flush water, via composting or managed aerobic decomposition[1]. This is usually a faster process than the anaerobic decomposition at work in most wastewater systems, such as septic systems.Composting toilets are often used as an alternative to central wastewater treatment plants (sewers) or septic systems. Typically they are chosen (1) to alleviate the need for water to flush toilets, (2) to avoid discharging nutrients and/or potential pathogens into environmentally sensitive areas, or (3) to capture nutrients in human excreta. Several manufactured composting toilet models are on the market, and construct-it-yourself systems are also popular.[2]These should not be confused with pit latrines (see latrine, pit latrine, and arborloo or tree bog), all of which are forms of less controlled decomposition, and may not protect ground water from nutrient or pathogen contamination or provide optimal nutrient recycling.

Manufactured composting toilet systems"Self-contained" composting toilets complete or begin the composting in a container within the receiving fixture. "Remote," "central," or "underfloor" units collect excreta via a toilet stool, either waterless or micro-flush, from which it drains to a composter. "Vacuum-flush systems" can flush horizontally or upward with a small amount of water to the composter. "Micro-flush toilets" use a small amount of water usually 1pint (.5liter) per use."Self-contained" composting toilets are slightly larger than a flush toilet, but use roughly the same floor space. Some units use fans for aeration, and optionally, heating elements to maintain optimum temperatures to hasten the composting process and to evaporate urine and other moisture. Operators of composting toilets commonly add a small amount of absorbent carbon material (such as untreated sawdust, coconut coir, peat moss) after each use to create air pockets for better aerobic processing, to absorb liquid, and to create an odor barrier. This additive is sometimes referred to as "bulking agent." Some owner-operators use microbial "starter" cultures to ensure composting bacteria are in the process, although this is not critical."Remote," "central," and "under-floor" models each feature a chamber below the toilet stool (such as in a basement or outside) where composting takes place. These are typically used for high-volume and year-round applications as well as to serve multiple toilet stools. Several systems are available as well as many build-it-yourself options.In contrast, "desiccating toilets" dry the excreta to destroy pathogens, though one study suggested that drying can result in rehydration of pathogens when in contact with moisture later.[3]The performance testing standard for composting toilets in the United States is American National Standard/NSF International Standard ANSI/NSF 41-1998: Non-Liquid Saturated Treatment Systems.[4] Systems might also be listed with CSA, cETL-US, and other standards Build-it-yourself, site-built, and owner-built designSite-built indoor composting toilet designs vary, ranging from rollaway containers fitted with aerators to large concrete sloped-bottom tanks.These are not to be confused with "direct outdoor composting," which typically uses a collector bucket, where each deposit is covered with sawdust or other dry organic material, with the collector periodically being hand transported to an outdoor composting bin, where it may be added to yard waste or other organic material being composted.Public useIncreasingly, composting toilet systems are commonly used in water closets in public facilities. One example is the three-storey C.K. Choi Building at the University of British Columbia (Canada), which features five composting toilet systems with 12 toilet stools that serve 300 employees. They may also be found in various places around Europe, like many of the roadside facilities in Sweden (see image).Composting toilets greatly reduce the volume of excreta on site through psychrophilic, thermophilic or mesophilic composting and yield a soil amendment that can be used in horticultural or agricultural applications as local regulations allow.Public composting toilet facility on E6 highway in Sweden

Although there are many designs, the process factors at work are the same. Rapid aerobic composting will be thermophilic decomposition in which bacteria that thrive at high temperatures (40-60C / 104-140F) oxidizes (breaks down) the waste into its components, some of which are consumed in the process, reducing volume, and eliminating potential pathogens.Drainage of excess liquid or "leachate" via a separate drain at the bottom of the composter is featured in some manufactured units, as the aerobic composting process requires moisture levels to be controlled (ideally 50% +/-10): too dry, and the mass decomposes slowly or not at all; too wet and anaerobic organisms thrive, creating undesirable odors (cf. Anaerobic digestion). This separated liquid may be diverted to a graywater system or collected for other uses.An approach that is becoming more common is the "dry" toilet, or urine-separating (also: urine-diverting) toilet. Where solar heat is used, this might be called a "solar" toilet.[5] These systems depend on desiccation to achieve sanitation safety goals[6] features systems that make use of the separated liquid fraction for immediate area fertilization.Urine can contain up to 90 percent of the N (nitrogen), up to 50 percent of the P (phosphorus) and up to 70 percent of the K (potassium)) present in human excreta.[7] In healthy individuals it is usually pathogen free, although undiluted it may contain levels of inorganic salts and organic compounds at levels toxic to plants.[8]The other requirement critical for microbial action (as well as drying) is oxygen. Commercial systems provide methods of ventilation that move air from the room, through the waste container, and out a vertical pipe, venting above the enclosure roof. This air movement (via convection or fan forced) will vent carbon dioxide and odors.Most units require manual methods for periodic aeration of the solid mass such as rotating a drum inside the unit or working an "aerator rake" through the mass. Composting toilet brands have different provisions for emptying the "finished product," and supply a range of capacities based on volume of use. Frequency of emptying will depend on the speed of the decomposition process and capacity, from a few months (active hot composting) to years (passive, cold composting). With a properly sized and managed unit, a very small volume (about 10% of inputs) of a humus-like material results, which can be suitable as soil amendment for agriculture, depending on local public health regulations.Constructed wetlandA constructed wetland or wetpark is an artificial marsh or swamp, created for anthropogenic discharge such as wastewater, stormwater runoff or sewage treatment, and as habitat for wildlife, or for land reclamation after mining or other disturbance. Natural wetlands act as biofilter, removing sediments and pollutants such as heavy metals from the water, and constructed wetlands can be designed to emulate these features.Vegetation in a wetland provides a substrate (roots, stems, and leaves) upon which microorganisms can grow as they break down organic materials. This community of microorganisms is known as the periphyton. The periphyton and natural chemical processes are responsible for approximately 90 percent of pollutant removal and waste breakdown. The plants remove about seven to ten percent of pollutants, and act as a carbon source for the microbes when they decay. Different species of aquatic plants have different rates of heavy metal uptake, a consideration for plant selection in a constructed wetland used for water treatment.Constructed wetlands are of two basic types: subsurface-flow and surface-flow wetlands. Subsurface-flow wetlands can be further classified as horizontal flow and vertical flow constructed wetlands. Subsurface-flow wetlands move effluent (agricultural or mining runoff, tannery or meat processing wastes, wastewater from sewage or storm drains, or other water to be cleansed) through a gravel lavastone or sand medium on which plants are rooted; surface-flow wetlands move effluent above the soil in a planted marsh or swamp, and thus can be supported by a wider variety of soil types including bay mud and other silty clays. In subsurface-flow systems, the effluent may move either horizontally, parallel to the surface, or vertically, from the planted layer down through the substrate and out. Subsurface horizontal-flow wetlands are less hospitable to mosquitoes, whose populations can be a problem in constructed wetlands (carnivorous plants have been used to address this problem). Subsurface-flow systems have the advantage of requiring less land area for water treatment, but are not generally as suitable for wildlife habitat as are surface-flow constructed wetlands. Plantings of reedbeds are popular in European constructed wetlands, and plants such as cattails (Typha spp.), sedges, Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) and Pontederia spp. are used worldwide. Recent research in use of constructed wetlands for subarctic regions has shown that buckbeans (Menyanthes trifoliata) and pendant grass (Arctophila fulva) are also useful for metals uptake.Newly Planted Constructed Wetland. The same constructed wetland two years later.

General contaminant removalPhysical, chemical, and biological processes combine in wetlands to remove contaminants from wastewater. An understanding of these processes is fundamental not only to designing wetland systems but to understanding the fate of chemicals once they have entered the wetland. Theoretically, treatment of wastewater within a constructed wetland occurs as it passes through the wetland medium and the plant rhizosphere. A thin aerobic film around each root hair is aerobic due to the leakage of oxygen from the rhizomes, roots, and rootlets.[1] Decomposition of organic matter is facilitated by aerobic and anaerobic micro-organisms present. Microbial nitrification and subsequent denitrification releases nitrogen as gas to the atmosphere. Phosphorus is coprecipitated with iron, aluminium, and calcium compounds located in the root-bed medium.[2][3] Suspended solids are filtered out as they settle in the water column in surface flow wetlands or are physically filtered out by the medium within subsurface flow wetland cells. Harmful bacteria and viruses are reduced by filtration and adsorption by biofilms on the rock media in subsurface flow and vertical flow systems.

ATP testThe ATP test is a process of rapidly measuring actively growing microorganisms through detection of adenosine triphosphate, or ATP.ATP testing methodATP is a molecule found in and around living cells, and as such it gives a direct measure of biological concentration and health. ATP is quantified by measuring the light produced through its reaction with the naturally-occurring firefly enzyme luciferase using a luminometer. The amount of light produced is directly proportional to the amount of living organisms present in the sample. [1]ATP tests can be used to: Control biological treatment reactors Guide biocide dosing programs Determine drinking water cleanliness Manage fermentation processes Assess soil activity Determine corrosion / deposit process type Measure equipment or product sanitationWithin a water sample containing microorganisms, there are two types of ATP: Intracellular ATP ATP contained within living biological cells. Extracellular ATP ATP located outside of biological cells that has been released from dead or stressed organisms.Accurate measurement of these two types of ATP is critical to utilizing ATP-based measurements. Being able to accurately measure these different types of ATP offers the ability to assess biological health and activity, and subsequently control water and wastewater processes.