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515Repertoire and Style • 10.1 Selecting a Core Repertoire for
Study and Practice: Goals and Criteria
• InCh.10.1wewill identify thecriteria for selectinga
corerepertoireoforchestralworks.
•
InCh.10.2wewillgiveguidelinesfortheprocessofbuildingthiscorerepertoireandcreatingastylegrid.
•
InCh.10.3wewillsurveythedifferentstylesoftheorchestralrepertoireandexaminetheiruniquechallenges.
Part 10
Repertoire and Style
10.1 Selecting a Core Repertoire for Study and Practice: Goals
and Criteria
Askanygroupofvioliniststoidentifythekeyworksofthesolorepertoire
thatanaspiringviolinist shouldpracticeandmaster.Most
likelytheywillcomeupwitha list similar tothosepub-lishedby
eminentpedagogues, for instance,
Sassmannshaus2009.Butaskthesamegroupabouttheessentialworksoftheorchestral
repertoirethateveryaspiringorchestralviolinistshouldlearn;mostlikelytherewillbehardlyanyagreementatall.Nosuchlistshavebeenpublishedeither;theavailablelistsoforches-tralrepertoiremerelyincludepassagesinpopularexcerptcollec-tionsorworkssuitableforyouthorchestras(
Smith1966, Biget1996, Adey1998,793–829, Hamann2003,219-20).
Table 10.1a suggests essential orchestral repertoire both
forprivatestudyandforuseinconservatoryorchestrasandorchestra-repertoireclasses.Itincludes•
1 , thirdcolumn,or 2 ,first column( R1 – R39 ): acore
repertoire of roughly threedozen representative,
instructiveworks,listedbelowbygenre
3 twenty-onesymphonicworks4 onesoloconcerto5 fouroperaovertures6
sevenoperas7 twooperettasormusicals8 twooratorios9 twoballets
• 2 ,secondcolumn:asecond
tier,whichexpandsthereper-toiretoaboutthreetimesthesizeofthecorerepertoire
• 2 ,thirdcolumn:athird
tier,whichexpandstherepertoiretoaboutfivetimesthesizeofthecorerepertoire
• 1 ,firstandsecondcolumns:aprimer
repertoireofnineorsixteenpiecesforthoseplayerswhodonothavetimetolearntheentirecorerepertoireorwhowishtodosoinstages.
Thecorerepertoire(oratleasttheprimerrepertoire)includesthepiecesthatorchestralviolinistsshouldmaster,ideallybythetimetheyauditionforanorchestra.Thesecondandthirdtiersrepre-sentthepiecesthattheyshouldmasterafterabouttenandtwentyyearsofwork,respectively.
Asyoulearnthiscorerepertoire,youshouldshouldkeepthreemain
goalsinmind:(1)Learntherepertoirethatbesthelpsyoubecomeawell-round-edorchestralmusicianandbuildyourstylegrid.(2)Learnthemostfrequentlyperformedorchestralrepertoire(3)Learnsomeofthemostfrequentlyusedauditionrepertoire.
(1)Thefirstgoalistolearnrepresentativepiecesthathelpyoutomasterthechallengesoftoday’sorchestralrepertoire—thesein-cludeawiderangeofcompositionalgenres,styles,techniques,andinterpretiveapproaches.Whichrepertoirehasthegreatestmusi-cal
and technical benefitsandgreateststylistic
significance,andisthereforemostessentialtothestylegrid?
Such questions are subjective in nature, and one can spendmuch
time arguing whether learning Figaro, as suggested be-low, has
greater benefits than learning Don Giovanni, whether
©Martin Wulfhorst, The Orchestral Violinist’s Companion, 2012
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516 10 Repertoire and Style • 10.1 Selecting a Core Repertoire
for Study and Practice: Goals and Criteria
Beethoven’sEroica ismore instructive
thanhisFifth,orwheth-erSacre ismore important thanFirebird.Feel
free to
substitutepiecesfromthesecondorthirdtiersforthoseinthefirsttierinthesamecategoryifyouseestrongreasonsfordoingso.Butdonot
bypass pieces or entire genres on the sole ground that
youbelieveyouwillneverplaythem.Becauseofthe“despecialization”oforchestralwork(tobedescribedinCh.11.3),itisimpossibletoknowwhatkindofrepertoirethefutureholdsforanyorchestraandanyorchestralmusician.Further,certainpieces—whetherornotyouwilleverperformthem—arehelpfulforlearningcertainorchestralskillsandstyles:
• ThoughWagner’s Siegfried is produced only at major
operahouses,ithasbeenincludedinthecorerepertoirebecauseitcontainsmanytechniquesandstylesadaptedanddevelopedbygenerationsoflatercomposers.
•
ThoughProkofiev’sBalletCinderellamightneverbeincludedintherepertoireofyourorchestra,studyingthepiecewillhelpyoutomastertheProkofievstyle(probablymoresothananysingleoneofhissymphonicworks).
Table 10.1a: The core repertoire: a list of suggested pieces for
practice and study
Ch.10.3:essentialsecond-violinrepertoire•
Tables11.4aand11.5–11.6:essentialrepertoireforconcertmastersandprincipals•http://www.orch.info/repertoire:markedparts1
Primer repertoire and core repertoire in progressive order
nine-piece primer
repertoire
sixteen-piece primer
repertoire
complete core
repertoire
Bach R1 Suite3R2 St. Matthew Passion
xx
Haydn R3 Symphony104 x x
Mozart R4 Symphony39R5 Ov.FluteR6 Figaro
x xx
xxx
Beethoven R7 Symphony3R8 Ov.Leonore3
x x xx
Rossini R9 Barber x
Verdi R10 Ov.ForzaR11 Traviata
x
x
xx
J.Strauss,Jr. R12 TalesWaltzandVergnügungszugPolkaR13
Fledermaus
xx
Weber R14 Ov.Oberon x
Mendelssohn R15 MidsummerR16 Elijah
x x xx
Schumann R17 Symphony2 x x
Brahms R18 Symphony4 x x
Berlioz R19 Romeo x
Tchaikovsky R20 Symphony4R21 Nutcracker
x x xx
Smetana R22 Ov.Bride x x x
Dvořák R23 Slavonic Dances x
©Martin Wulfhorst, The Orchestral Violinist’s Companion, 2012
(To order the book visit www.orch.info)
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517Repertoire and Style • 10.1 Selecting a Core Repertoire for
Study and Practice: Goals and Criteria
nine-piece primer
repertoire
sixteen-piece primer
repertoire
complete core
repertoire
Wagner R24 TannhäuserR25 Siegfried
x x xx
Bruckner R26 Symphony4 x
Rachmaninoff R27 Paganini x
Puccini R28 Bohème x
Strauss R29 Don JuanR30 Rosenkavalier
x x xx
Mahler R31 Symphony5 x
Ravel R32 Daphnis2 x
Debussy R33 La Mer x x
Bartók R34 Concerto x x
Prokofiev R35 Cinderella x
Shostakovich R36 Symphony5 x
Stravinsky R37 Sacre x x x
Bernstein R38 West Side Story x
Schoenberg R39 VariationsOp.31 x x
2 The core repertoire and comprehensive repertoire: complete
list (cf. the genre lists 3 – 9 )
complete corerepertoire
second-tierrepertoire(after 10 years)
third-tierrepertoire(after 20 years)
Bach R1 Suite3R2 St. Matthew
Brandenburg3,Christmas Oratorio Mass,St. John
Handel Messiah
Haydn R3 Symphony104 Symphony83Creation
Symphony103,TrumpetConcertoSeasons
Mozart R4 Symphony39R5 Ov.Flute
R6 Figaro
Symphonies38,40–41PianoConcerto23Don
Giovanni/vn.2,Flute,Così
Symphonies35–36PianoConcerto27,ClarinetConcerto,Abduction
Beethoven R7 Symphony3R8 Ov.Leonore3
Symphonies7,5,9,6Ov.Egmont,PianoConcerto5Fidelio
Symphonies2,4,8,1PianoConcerto4Missa
Schubert Symphonies9,5,Ov.Rosamunde Symphonies8,3–4
Table 10.1a 1 cont.
©Martin Wulfhorst, The Orchestral Violinist’s Companion, 2012
(To order the book visit www.orch.info)
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518 10 Repertoire and Style • 10.1 Selecting a Core Repertoire
for Study and Practice: Goals and Criteria
complete corerepertoire
second-tierrepertoire(after 10 years)
third-tierrepertoire(after 20 years)
Rossini R9 Barber Ov.Gazza,Ov.TellCenerentola
Ov.Scala,Ov.SemiramideTurco,L’Italiana
Bellini Norma
Donizetti L’elisir Don Pasquale,Lucia,Fille
Verdi R10 Ov.ForzaR11 Traviata
Rigoletto,Trovatore,Requiem Nabucco,
Ballo,Aida,Forza,Otello,Falstaff
Nicolai Ov.Wives
J.Strauss,Jr. R12 TalesWaltzandVergnügungszugPolkaR13
Fledermaus
RosenWaltz,ÉljenPolka,Auf der JagdPolka
DanubeWaltz,EmperorWaltzTritschPolka,AnnenPolka,PizzicatoPolka
Hellmesberger Ball Scene
Delibes Coppélia
Offenbach Hoffmann
Suppé Ov.Poet, Ov.Cavalry Ov.Banditen,Ov.Morgen,Ov.Galathea
Léhar Merry Widow
Weber R14 Ov.Oberon Ov.Euryanthe,Freischütz
Mendelssohn R15 MidsummerR16 Elijah
Symphony4 Symphony3,Ov.HebridesViolinConcerto
Schumann R17 Symphony2 Symphony3,Ov.Manfred
Symphonies1,4,PianoConcerto,CelloConcerto
Brahms R18 Symphony4
Symphonies1,3,HaydnVaria-tions,PianoConcertos1–2
Symphony2,ViolinConcerto,DoubleConcerto,Requiem
Chopin PianoConcerto2
Gounod Faust,Romeo
Franck Symphony
Grieg Peer
Berlioz R19 Romeo Symphonie fantastique
Ov.Corsaire,Ov.Carnival
Saint-Saëns Carnival,CelloConcerto1
Bizet Carmen L’Arlesienne 1–2
Mussorgsky Pictures(Ravel) Night
Glinka Ov.Ruslan
Tchaikovsky R20 Symphony4R21 Nutcracker
Symph.5–6,Ov.Romeo,PianoConc.1Swan Lake
Suite3,ViolinConcerto, RococoVar.Onegin,Beauty
Table 10.1a 2cont.
©Martin Wulfhorst, The Orchestral Violinist’s Companion, 2012
(To order the book visit www.orch.info)
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519Repertoire and Style • 10.1 Selecting a Core Repertoire for
Study and Practice: Goals and Criteria
complete corerepertoire
second-tierrepertoire(after 10 years)
third-tierrepertoire(after 20 years)
Borodin Polovtsian
Rimsky-K. Scheherazade Capriccio esp.,TsarIII/1/Bumble
Smetana R22 Ov.Bride Moldau Bride
Dvořák R23 Slavonic Dances Symphonies8–9,CelloConcerto
Symphony7,Ov.Carnival,ViolinConcerto
Liszt Préludes Faust
Wagner R24 TannhäuserR25 Siegfried
Tristan,Dutchman Siegfried
Idyll,Walküre,Lohengrin,Meistersinger
Schoenberg Verklärte
Bruckner R26 Symphony4 Symphony7 Symphonies6,9,8
Humperdinck Hansel
Elgar EnigmaVariations Falstaff
Reger MozartVariations
Rachmaninoff R27 Paganini Symphony2,PianoConcerto2
SymphonicDances,PianoConcerto3
Scriabin Poéme de l’extase
Dukas Sorcerer
Puccini R28 Bohème Butterfly,Tosca Turandot
Mascagni Pagliacci
Leoncavallo Cavalleria
Strauss R29 Don JuanR30 Rosenkavalier
Till,ZarathustraSalome
Heldenleben,MetamorphosesElektra
Mahler R31 Symphony5 Symphonies1,4 Symphonies2,9
Ravel R32 Daphnis2 Rhapsodie espagnole La Valse
Debussy R33 La Mer Jeux Images 1–3
Enescu RomanianRhapsody1
Sibelius Symphony5,ViolinConcerto Symphonies1–2
DeFalla Hat(ballet)
Vaughan-Williams
Fantasia
Holst Planets
Walton Ov.Portsmouth
Table 10.1a 2cont.
©Martin Wulfhorst, The Orchestral Violinist’s Companion, 2012
(To order the book visit www.orch.info)
-
520 10 Repertoire and Style • 10.1 Selecting a Core Repertoire
for Study and Practice: Goals and Criteria
complete corerepertoire
second-tierrepertoire(after 10 years)
third-tierrepertoire(after 20 years)
Britten Guide BridgeVariations,WarRequiem
Ibert Escales
Honegger Symphonie liturgique
Milhaud Bœuf
Respighi Feste,Fontane,Pini
Martinů Symphony6
Janáček Sinfonietta,Jenůfa Taras,Vixen
Nielsen Symphony4
Bartók R34 Concerto Music Mandarin,PianoConcerto3
Kodály Galánta Hary Janos
Prokofiev R35 Cinderella
Symphony1,Kijé,PianoConcerto 3,Romeo, Peter
Symphony5,Scythian,ViolinConcerto2,Symphony-Concerto
Shostakovich R36 Symphony5 Symphony10,PianoConcerto1
Symphony9,CelloConcerto1,ViolinConcerto1
Hindemith Mathis Symphony
PhilharmonicConcerto,Metamorphorsis
Stravinsky R37 Sacre Firebird Petrushka,Pulcinella
Orff Carmina
Gershwin American
Copland Appalachian Spring,ClarinetConcerto
Symphony3,Rodeo,Salón
Tippett ConcertoforDoubleStringOrchestra
Barber Adagio,Ov.School
Bernstein R38 West Side Story SerenadeforViolin,Ov.Candide
Schoenberg R39 VariationsOp.31 ChamberSymphony2
Webern VariationsOp.30
Berg PiecesOp.6,Wozzeck ViolinConcerto
Ives Unanswered,Three Places HolidaysSymphony,Central Park
Table 10.1a 2cont.
©Martin Wulfhorst, The Orchestral Violinist’s Companion, 2012
(To order the book visit www.orch.info)
-
521Repertoire and Style • 10.1 Selecting a Core Repertoire for
Study and Practice: Goals and Criteria
complete corerepertoire
second-tierrepertoire(after 10 years)
third-tierrepertoire(after 20 years)
Carter Variations
Messiaen Turangalîla
Dutilleux Métaboles
Lutosławski Jeux,Funeral,Concerto
Ligeti Atmosphères
Berio Sinfonia
Varèse Amériques,Arcana
Penderecki Threnody
Cage PianoConcerto
3 Symphonic repertoire (cf. 2 )
Thelistincludesconcertoverturesandballetmusicthatismostoftenperformedinsymphonyconcerts(forinstance,Stravinsky’sSacreorBartok’sMiraculous
Mandarin).Itdoesnotincludegenreslistedbelow:concertos(2)andoperaovertures(3)and*balletsuites(6)
complete corerepertoire
second-tierrepertoire(after 10 years)
third-tierrepertoire(after 20 years)
Bach R1 Suite3 Brandenburg3
Haydn R3 Symphony104 Symphony83 Symphony103
Mozart R4 Symphony39 Symphonies38,40–41 Symphonies35–36
Beethoven R7 Symphony3R8 Ov.Leonore3
Symphonies7,5,9,6Ov.Egmont
Symphonies2,4,8,1
Schubert Symphonies9,5,Ov.Rosamunde Symphonies8,3–4
J.Strauss,Jr. R12 TalesWaltzVergnügungszugPolka
Rosen WaltzÉljen PolkaAuf der JagdPolka
Danube Waltz,Emperor
WaltzTritschPolka,AnnenPolkaPizzicatoPolka
Hellmesberger BallScene
Mendelssohn R15 Midsummer Symphony4 Symphony3,Ov.Hebrides
Schumann R17 Symphony2 Symphonies3,Ov.Manfred Symphonies3–4
Brahms R18 Symphony4 Symphonies1,3HaydnVariations
Symphony2
Franck Symphony
Grieg Peer
Table 10.1a 2cont.
©Martin Wulfhorst, The Orchestral Violinist’s Companion, 2012
(To order the book visit www.orch.info)
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522 10 Repertoire and Style • 10.1 Selecting a Core Repertoire
for Study and Practice: Goals and Criteria
complete corerepertoire
second-tierrepertoire(after 10 years)
third-tierrepertoire(after 20 years)
Berlioz R19 Romeo Symphonie fantastique
Ov.Corsaire,Ov.Carnival
Saint-Saëns Carnival
Bizet L’Arlesienne 1–2
Mussorgsky Pictures(Ravel) Night
Tchaikovsky R20 Symphony4 Symphonies5–6,Ov.Romeo Suite3
Borodin Polovtsian
Rimsky-K. Scheherazade Capriccio esp.,TsarIII/1/Bumble
Smetana Moldau
Dvořák R23 Slavonic Dances Symphonies8–9
Symphony7,Ov.Carnival
Liszt Préludes Faust
Wagner Siegfried Idyll
Schoenberg Verklärte
Bruckner R26 Symphony4 Symphony7 Symphonies6,9,8
Elgar EnigmaVariations Falstaff
Reger MozartVariations
Rachmaninoff Symphony2 SymphonicDances
Scriabin Poéme de l’extase
Dukas Sorcerer
Strauss R29 Don Juan Till,Zarathustra Heldenleben,
Metamorphoses
Mahler R31 Symphony5 Symphony1,4 Symphony2,9
Ravel R32 Daphnis2 Rhapsodie espagnole La Valse
Debussy R33 La Mer Jeux Images 1–3
Enescu RomanianRhapsody1
Sibelius Symphony5 Symphonies1–2
Vaughan-Williams
Fantasia
Holst Planets
Walton Ov.Portsmouth
Table 10.1a 3cont.
©Martin Wulfhorst, The Orchestral Violinist’s Companion, 2012
(To order the book visit www.orch.info)
-
523Repertoire and Style • 10.1 Selecting a Core Repertoire for
Study and Practice: Goals and Criteria
complete corerepertoire
second-tierrepertoire(after 10 years)
third-tierrepertoire(after 20 years)
Britten Guide BridgeVariations
Ibert Escales
Honegger Symphonie liturgique
Milhaud Bœuf
Respighi Feste,Fontane,Pini
Martinů Symphony6
Janáček Sinfonietta Taras
Nielsen Symphony4
Bartók R34 Concerto Music Mandarin
Kodály Galánta Hary Janos
Prokofiev Symphony1,Kijé, Peter Symphony5,Scythian
Shostakovich R36 Symphony5 Symphony10 Symphony9
Hindemith Mathis Symphony
PhilharmonicConcerto,Metamorphorsis
Stravinsky R37 Sacre Firebird Petrushka,Pulcinella
Gershwin American
Copland Appalachian Spring Symphony3,Rodeo,Salón
Tippett ConcertoforDoubleStringOrchestra
Barber Adagio,Ov.School
Schoenberg R39 VariationsOp.31 ChamberSymphony2
Webern VariationsOp.30
Berg PiecesOp.6
Ives Unanswered,Three Places HolidaysSymphony,Central Park
Carter Variations
Messiaen Turangalîla
Dutilleux Métaboles
Table 10.1a 3cont.
©Martin Wulfhorst, The Orchestral Violinist’s Companion, 2012
(To order the book visit www.orch.info)
-
524 10 Repertoire and Style • 10.1 Selecting a Core Repertoire
for Study and Practice: Goals and Criteria
complete corerepertoire
second-tierrepertoire(after 10 years)
third-tierrepertoire(after 20 years)
Lutosławski Jeux,Funeral,Concerto
Ligeti Atmosphères
Berio Sinfonia
Varèse Amériques,Arcana
Penderecki Threnody
4 Concertos andotherworksforsoloinstrumentsandorchestra(cf. 2
)
Haydn Trumpet
Mozart Piano23 Piano27,Clarinet
Beethoven Piano5 Piano4
Mendelssohn Violin
Schumann Piano,Cello
Brahms Piano1–2 Violin,Double
Chopin Piano2
Saint-Saëns Cello1
Tchaikovsky Piano1 Violin,RococoVariations
Dvořák Cello Violin
Rachmaninoff R27 Paganini Piano2 Piano3
Sibelius Violin
Bartók Piano3
Prokofiev Piano3 Violin2,Symphony-ConcertoforCello
Shostakovich Piano1 Cello1,Violin1
Copland Clarinet
Bernstein SerenadeforViolin
Berg Violin
Cage PianoConcerto
Table 10.1a 3cont.
©Martin Wulfhorst, The Orchestral Violinist’s Companion, 2012
(To order the book visit www.orch.info)
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525Repertoire and Style • 10.1 Selecting a Core Repertoire for
Study and Practice: Goals and Criteria
5 Overtures to operas and musicals (cf. 2 )
Mozart R5 Ov.Flute
Rossini Ov.Gazza,Ov.Tell Ov.Scala,Ov.Semiramide
Verdi R10 Ov.Forza
Nicolai Ov.Wives
Suppé Ov.Poet, Ov.Cavalry Ov.Banditen,Ov.Morgen,Ov.Galathea
Weber R14 Ov.Oberon Ov.Euryanthe
Glinka Ov.Ruslan
Smetana R22 Ov.Bride
Bernstein Ov.Candide
6 Operas (cf. 2 )
Mozart R6 Figaro Don Giovanni/vn.2,Flute,Così Abduction
Beethoven Fidelio
Rossini R9 Barber Cenerentola Turco,L’Italiana
Bellini Norma
Donizetti L’elisir Don Pasquale,Lucia,Fille
Verdi R11 Traviata Rigoletto,Trovatore, Otello
Nabucco,Aida,Ballo,Forza, Falstaff
Weber Freischütz
Gounod Faust,Romeo
Bizet Carmen
Tchaikovsky Onegin
Smetana Bride
Wagner R24 TannhäuserR25 Siegfried
Tristan,Dutchman Walküre,Lohengrin,Meistersinger
Humperdinck Hansel
Puccini R28 Bohème Butterfly,Tosca Turandot
Mascagni Pagliacci
Leoncavallo Cavalleria
Strauss R30 Rosenkavalier Salome Elektra
©Martin Wulfhorst, The Orchestral Violinist’s Companion, 2012
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526 10 Repertoire and Style • 10.1 Selecting a Core Repertoire
for Study and Practice: Goals and Criteria
Janáček Jenůfa Vixen
Berg Wozzeck
7 Operettas and musicals (cf. 2 )
J.Strauss,Jr. R13 Fledermaus
Offenbach Hoffmann*
Lehár Merry Widow
Bernstein R38 West Side
Story*Thoughtechnicallynotanoperetta,forstylisticreasonsOffenbach’sTales
of Hoffmannhasbeenclassifiedasanoperettahere.
8 Oratorios and other choral works (cf. 2 )
Bach R2 St. Matthew Christmas Oratorio Mass,St. John
Handel Messiah
Haydn Creation Seasons
Beethoven Missa
Verdi Requiem
Mendelssohn R16 Elijah
Brahms Requiem
Britten War Requiem
Orff Carmina
9 Ballets
(worksperformedprimarilyasconcertpiecesratherthanasballetssuchasStravinsky’sSacreorBartók’sMiraculous
Mandarinarelistedunder 3 )
Delibes Coppélia
Tchaikovsky R21 Nutcracker Swan Lake Beauty
DeFalla Hat
Prokofiev R35 Cinderella Romeo
(2) Naturally, a second goal in learning a core repertoire
issimplytomasterpiecesthatareespeciallypopular.Unfortunately,statistics
concerning frequency of performance are difficult
tocompile.ThedatasummarizedinTable10.1b•
coveronlytwocountries,theU.S.andGermany•
includeonlyperformancesgivenbyaselectgroupofinstitu-
tionssuchasmemberorchestrasoftheLAOorcertainoperahousespolledforsurveys
• cover only certain segments of the repertoire, in
particularsymphonicmusicandopera.
Largeportionsoftheorchestrarepertoirearenotaccountedfor(for
instance, the repertoireof choral societies andballet com-panies),
andneither themusicperformedby semi-professional
orchestrasnorrecordingsareconsideredhere.Further,inspiteoftheglobalizationoftheclassicalrepertoire,individualcountriesandregionsstillhavetheirspecifictastesandprofiles.BarberismorefrequentlyperformedintheU.S.,justasVaughanWilliamsand
Reger are popular in England and Germany,
respectively.Whenitcomestomusicbylivingcomposers,thetastesareevenmorediversefromcountrytocountry.Thisiswhythesuggestionsforpost-WorldWarIIrepertoireinTable10.1a/2
aretentative.
Neverthelesstheavailabledatasuggestthatthesimilaritiesbe-tweenrepertoireindifferentcountriesareconsiderable:compare,forinstance,theAmericanandGermanstatisticsforoperaticper-formances,juxtaposedinTable10.1b/4
–5 .
©Martin Wulfhorst, The Orchestral Violinist’s Companion, 2012
(To order the book visit www.orch.info)
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527Repertoire and Style • 10.1 Selecting a Core Repertoire for
Study and Practice: Goals and Criteria
(3) The third goal of learning the core
repertoire—learningrepertoire that is frequently required for
auditions—is
givenlessimportancehere.Thereisgreatinstructionalvalueinstudyingsomeoftheorchestralrepertoirerequiredforauditions,and,nat-urally,practicingpopularauditionexcerptsfrom
Table11.6/Dislikelytohelpyoutowinauditions.Buttheworksfromwhichthemostpopularexcerptsaretakendonotadduptoabalancedrepertoirethatfillsthecriteriadescribedabove.
Whetheryouareplanningtoworkasafirstorsecondviolin-ist,practicethefirst-violinpartsformostpiecesandthesecond-violin
parts forafewworks,particularlyClassicalpiecessuchasDon
Giovanni.Onlyifyouarealreadyworkingasafirstorsecondviolinistanddeterminedtostayinthatpositionshouldyoulimityourpracticing
to theappropriateparts.—Thecore
repertoireofsolosforconcertmastersandprincipalsislargelyidenticaltotherepertoirerequestedtypicallyatauditions(Table11.6/A–C).
Table 10.1b: The most frequently performed orchestral
repertoire
Baroquerepertoireisexcluded.Alllists,withtheexceptionof4
,arebasedonthenumberofperformances.Alllistsareorganizedindescendingorderoffrequency.
1 Symphonic composers most frequently performed by American
orchestrasThislistisbasedon
LAO2000–10.Therankingwithineachofthesixgroupsisapproximate.
Beethoven,MozartTchaikovsky,BrahmsStrauss,Ravel,Dvořák,ProkofievHaydn,Stravinsky,Shostakovich,RachmaninoffMendelssohn,MahlerSibelius,Copland,Schubert,Schumann,Bartók,Berlioz,
Debussy,Bernstein,Janáček,Rimsky-Korsakov
2 Symphonic works most frequently performed by Ameri-can
orchestrasThislistisbasedon LAO2000–10.
symphonic
repertoireBeethoven:Symphonies3,5,7,6,9Tchaikovsky:Symphonies6,5,4Brahms:Symphonies2,4,1Dvořák:Symphonies9,8Mussorgsky(Ravel):PicturesRimsky-K.:ScheherazadeDebussy:La
Mer
piano concertosRachmaninoff2Beethoven3–5Tchaikovsky1Grieg
violin concertosTchaikovskyBeethovenBrahms
3 –5 Most frequently performed operas (and
operettas)Theworksaregroupedintiersaccordingtotheirpopularity.
3 Stages worldwide in 2005–9This list is based on the number of
performances as listed
athttp://www.operabase.com/top.cg?lang=en&.
Mozart:FluteVerdi:TraviataBizet:CarmenPuccini:BohèmeMozart:FigaroPuccini:ToscaMozart:Don
GiovanniPuccini:ButterflyRossini:BarberVerdi:RigolettoMozart:Così
Donizetti:L’elisirVerdi:AidaHumperdinck:HanselPuccini:TurandotJ.Strauss,Jr.:FledermausVerdi:NabuccoTchaikovsky:OneginDonizetti:LuciaMozart:AbductionLehár:WidowVerdi:TrovatoreVerdi:FalstaffWagner:DutchmanVerdi:BalloMascagni:CavalleriaVerdi:OtelloRossini:CenerentolaOffenbach:HoffmannVerdi:MacbethStrauss:SalomeWagner:RheingoldBeethoven:FidelioGounod:Faust
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528 10 Repertoire and Style • 10.1 Selecting a Core Repertoire
for Study and Practice: Goals and Criteria
4 North-American stages in
1981–2008Thislistisbasedontheaveragenumberofproductionsaslistedin
OperaAmerica1981-2007.
Puccini:ButterflyPuccini:BohèmeVerdi:TraviataBizet:Carmen
Rossini:BarberMozart:FigaroPuccini:ToscaVerdi:RigolettoMozart:Don
GiovanniMozart:FluteJ.Strauss,Jr.:Fledermaus
Donizetti:LuciaMozart:CosìPuccini:TurandotGounod:FaustVerdi:AidaLeoncavallo:PagliacciDonizetti:L’Elisir
Offenbach:HoffmannRossini:CenerentolaLehár:WidowVerdi:TrovatoreGounod:RomeoHumperdinck:HanselDonizetti:Don
PasqualeSullivan:MikadoStrauss:SalomeGershwin:PorgyVerdi:FalstaffMascagni:CavalleriaWagner:Dutchman
5 German stages in
2000–5Thislistisbasedontheaveragenumberofperformancesaslistedin
Mertens2006and MIZ2008.
Mozart:FluteHumperdinck:HanselBizet:CarmenMozart:AbductionMozart:FigaroVerdi:TraviataPuccini:BohèmeMozart:CosìWeber:FreischützMozart:Don
GiovanniRossini:BarberPuccini:ButterflyVerdi:RigolettoOffenbach:Hoffmann
Puccini: ToscaBeethoven:FidelioWagner: DutchmanRossini:
CenerentolaMascagni: CavalleriaVerdi: AidaLeoncavallo:
PagliacciStrauss: RosenkavalierVerdi: Don CarloSmetana:
BrideWagner: TannhäuserPuccini: TurandotDonizetti: Lucia
Ch.3.4/ G5
:establishingperformancegoalsbymeansofthestylegridLearning
strategies•Learneachpiecethoroughlyaccordingtothe seven-step
schemedescribed inCh. 3.3–3.10 and
summa-rizedinTable3.2(p.18).Learneachpieceentirelyon your
own.Indoingthis, testandrefineyourpracticestrategiesandmakethem as
efficient as possible. Consult an experienced
musicianonlyafteryouhavefirsttriedbyyourself.
Order•Thebestorderforbuildingyourcorerepertoireandstylegridistheprogressiveorderofcomposersandgroupsofcom-posersshowninTable10.1a/2
andpresentedinCh.10.3.Thesuggestedpathbeginswith theBaroque style;
each
consecutiveselectionintroducesacertainnumberofnewtechnicalandmusi-cal
elements for study andmastery.The suggestedorder strikes
abalancebetweencompositionalchronology,on
theonehand,andthestyleofinstrumentalwriting,ontheother.Forinstance,becausethestringwritingofRossini,Verdi,orJ.Strauss,Jr.,isdi-rectlyderivedfromVienneseClassicism,itmakessensetopracticeworks
by these composers immediately after practicing
Haydn,Mozart,Beethoven,andSchubert.Forthesamereason,itcanalsobeefficienttopracticeworksofdifferentgenresside-by-side:forex-ample,youshouldpracticeaMozartopera(
R5 – R6 )rightafteroneofhis symphonies ( R4
),andaTchaikovsky’sballet ( R21 )rightafteroneofhissymphonies( R20
).
Style grid •Askanexperiencedorchestralmusician, for in-stance,
about Schubert’s early symphonies, Tchaikovsky’s bal-lets, or
theVerdi’smiddle-period operas. This will
immediatelyevokeclearimagesinhisorherhead—apreciseideaofhowthese
10.2 Building Your Core Repertoire and Style Grid
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52910 Repertoire and Style • 10.2 Building Your Core Repertoire
and Style Grid
compositions sound and feel, of the challenges they pose,
andoftherangeofcommonperformancestyles.Howdoyouestab-lishsuchaclear,refinedstylegrid?—Whileyouworkyourwaythroughthecorerepertoire,filleachindividual“tile”or“coordi-nate”ofyourstylegridwiththefollowinginformation:•
elementsofcompositionalstyle:typicalmelodic,harmonic,and
rhythmic patterns, typical colors (including
instrumentation,dynamics,articulation,andsoon),typicalformsandstructuralcharacteristics
(including motivic development and
melody-plus-accompanimenttextures),typicalexpressivecharacters
• technicalchallenges•
elementsofperformancestyle:typicaltempos(tempogrid,p.
344),rhythmicmodifications,ornaments,dynamics,articula-tion,andtimbres(seetherepresentativeexcerptsinEx.5.1c–dand5.2i–m).
Thegoalinestablishingsuch“tiles”istounderstandthemusi-cal craft
and spiritof eachcomposerand tohaveaclear ideaofhowperformers
generally approach each style.There is noshortcut to thiswork. It
requires spendingagreat amountoftimewith scores (including
scoresofpieces innon-orchestralgenres), recordings, books,
articles, and web documents. Fol-low the reading suggestions in
Chapter 12.4 and look
foressentialmaterialsathttp://www.orch.info/parts, for
instance,downloadableeditionsofthecorerepertoire.
Two examples shall illustrate how the material from
Parts5–9ofthisbookaswellasotherresourcescanaidinthisprocess(pp.21–23).Ex.
3.4a•Figaro( R6 )exemplifiesanespeciallyimportant“tile”:
Mozart’s mature style. Read both Einstein’s
authoritativemonograph( 1945)andRatner’sstudyonClassical formand
phrase structure ( 1985), and review the sections
inChapters9.11–9.15and9.20aboutClassicalornamentationandarticulation.Oneoftheprincipalcompositionalelementsofthisstyleisaphrase
structurethatrequiresappropriateshap-ingfromtheperformer(Ex.9.20k–l).EachofthetwophrasesinEx.3.4a/3–4and5–6showsacharacteristicshapewithanapexon
thedownbeatof the secondmeasure: this iswhereyouhearthemost
intenseharmonies—a4–3suspensioninm.4anda2–1suspensioninm.6.Theperformerisexpectedtoexpresssuchshapeswithvibrato,bowspeed,andbowpres-sure—eveniftherearenomarkingsinthepartandeveniftheconductordoesnotexplicitlyrequestsuchshapes.AnothercharacteristicofMozart’smaturestyleishishighlydif-ferentiatedarticulations,whicharenotatedmorepreciselythaninother18th-centurypartsbutstillrelyconsiderablyontheper-former’sknowledgeandfeelingforstyle.Usegentlearticulationforthetwo-noteslursinmm.34–35,andshortenallindividuallong-notevaluesinmm.1,7,9,and13–14,addingdiminuendi.ButinlateMozartsuchmodificationsmustbenomorethanslight,forthecomposeralreadyusedacomparativelypreciseno-tation:compare
inm.1to inm.2andcompare inm.25to
inm.13.Ingeneral,allarticulationmustbegentlebecauseanythingelsewasdifficulttoachievewiththebowsofthelate18thcentury.Thenoteswithdotsinm.10,forinstance,requireasmooth,portato-likequality.
StillanothercomponentofMozart’smaturestylewasaspe-cifictypeofornamentation.
•
Theupbeattrillsinmm.7and9areonthesamepitchesasthepreviousnotesandthereforeshouldstartwiththeuppernote.
•
Thetrillsinm.14,bycontrast,servetointensifyprominentpitch-esonastrongbeatandthereforeshouldstartonthemainnote.Finally,
even thoughMozart’smatureworks are character-izedbyadepthof
emotionand
strongdramaticqualities,theyneverleavetherealmofClassicalexpression.Eventhefshouldneverbeharsh.Thesoundmayneverloseitsnoble,polished,smooth,crystallinequality,especiallybecausethetransparenttexturesexposeandmagnifyeveryblemish.Lis-tentoperformancesandrecordingsofMozart’slateoperas,symphonies,concertos,andchambermusicinordertogainabetterunderstandingofthismusicalworld.
Ex. 3.4b • The style of Strauss’s tone poems and operas( R29 –
R30 ) represents another important “tile” in
thestylegrid.StudythefullscoreofDon
Juan,readLenau’spoemthatprovidedtheprogramforthepiece,andread
DelMar1962/I,65–77.Analyzethestructureandtextureofthepieceandgetafeelingforitsspiritandcharacter.Strauss’sstyleshowsamixtureofenergy,brilliance,exuberance,andelegance—witha
slight irony characteristicof thefin de siècle.TheharmonyinDon
Juan,asinmostofStrauss,isstilltonalbutliesonthefringeof
themajor-minor system—which createsoneof
themaintechnicalchallengesofhismusic.Thecharactersarealsoextremeandsometimesrequiregreatcreativity
fromtheper-former:flebile(plaintive)inm.48ismatchedbyheuchlerisch
schmachtend(fakepining)orkeifend(scolding,cackling)inthefamousviolincadenzainHeldenleben/23
+4and30 +6.TheperformerofStraussisinaverydifferentpositionthanthe
performer of Mozart. The appropriate performancetradition is still
aliveand isdocumentedonnumerous re-cordings.AfterexploringDon
Juanonyourown, listentosome performances and recordings. Compare R.
Strauss’sown1929 recordingoroneofhisother recordings to
thelandmarkrecordingsofthelasthalf-century,particularlytoKarajan’s(perhapsunsurpassed)1974readingwiththeBer-linPhilharmonic(andlistentorecordingsofStrauss’sothersymphonic
poems and operas). Analyze the technical
fea-turesoftheseperformances,andexaminehowtheperform-erscopewiththeextremelycomplex,layeredtexturesofhismusic.
In the most convincing renditions, Strauss’s
musicsoundslusciousandsensuousbuttransparent—eveninthethickesttexture.Exuberanceandbrillianceneverturnintolackofpolish.Inspiteofthewealthofdetailsandbreath-takingorchestralvirtuosity,Strauss’sownrecordingshaveacertainsimplicityaboutthemandanabsenceofindulgence,coupled
with nobility and elegant irony. He performedhismusicatabriskpace—h
=92inthefirstsectionofDon Juan—and his tempo was “more flexible
than the metro-nomemarkings in the score.”As a conductor,
Straussputgreatemphasisonstrongarticulation:“TheopeningofDon Juan
isplayedwithimpressiveclarityofrhythmcomparedwithmanyrecordingsofthe1920s.Thedottedrhythmsare
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530 10 Repertoire and Style • 10.3 Individual Styles of
Orchestral String Writing and Their Challenges
generallyquiteclearandincisive,”andthehalfandquarternotesinmm.29–31areclearlyseparated(
Philip1992,31and83).Incidentally,thesamequalitiesthatStraussstressedinhisownperformancesarealsoevidentinPreucil’sbrilliantplaying,whichprovidesstillanothermodelforyourStraussperformance(
1998).Thisbrillianceisgeneratedparticu-
larlywithstrongleft-handarticulation,goodbowcontact,andstrong“clicks.”
Studyotherpiecesinthecorerepertoireinthesamemanner.Thiswillallowyoutobuildupastylegridthatwillhelpyoutodefineperformance-practicegoalsforyourorchestralrepertoireandtoplaythemintheappropriatestyle.
10.3 Individual Styles of Orchestral String Writing and Their
Challenges: A Brief Historical Survey
Part9:performancepractice•
Ch.12.4/d–h:literatureThefollowingoverviewisintended• tomapout
thebest order for building your core repertoire
andstylegrid•
toidentifythecharacteristicsandchallengesofeachimpor-
tantstyle•
tohelpyouseetheindividualpiecesofthecorerepertoirein
theproperhistoricalcontext.(ComposerswhosenamesappearinboldfaceareincludedintherepertoirelistsinTable10.1a.)
MusicoftheBaroqueposesfewchallengesforthelefthandbutdemands a
very specific bowing technique adapted to the Ba-roque bow (Ch.
9.14). Most importantly, it requires intimatefamiliarity•
withvariousissuesofperformancepractice:phrasingandar-
ticulation,metricandrhythmicmodification(hemiolas,dou-ble-dotting,
assimilation of dotted to triplet rhythms),
andornaments(Ch.9.7,9.11–9.15,and9.20)
•
withcertaintypicalidioms:forinstance,Frenchoverturestyleandvariousdances
inBach’sorchestral suites ( R1 ),or
thechoralestyleandaccompanied-recitativestyleintheSt. Mat-thew
Passion( R2 ).
Foranyindividualviolinistaswellasforanystringsection,theViennese
Classical
repertoireistheprovinggroundthatallowsyoutotrainandtestyourtechniqueandplayingstyle.Thoughthemusicrarelyascendsbeyondthefifthposition,thechallengesforthebowarmareconsiderableandremainedunsurpassedduringthe19thcentury:therepertoirerequiresawiderangeofoff-the-string
strokes and infinite nuances of articulation. The
greatestchallengeisachievingthenecessarycrystallineclarity:thetrans-parent
writing mercilessly exposes the slightest intonation
slip,anyinsecureoroilyshift,thetiniestrhythmicunsteadinessoren-sembleproblem,thesmallesttraceofunpolishedsoundquality,andtheslightestlackofclarity,elegance,orhomogeneoussection-alsound.ThisiswhymostworksofHaydn,Mozart,Beethoven,Schubert,andtheircontemporariesremainchallengingevenafterasectionhasrehearsedandperformedthemmanytimes.
Mozart’sstyle—theepitomeofthisclear,elegantidiom—canbestudiedbestinhisoperas(
R5 – R6
),whichofferawidervari-etyofexpressivecharactersandmorevirtuosicwritingthanfoundin
the symphonies ( R4 ). Similar virtuosity is also
requiredbysomeofhisdivertimentosandserenadesandbymanyofHaydn’sfirst-violinparts(
R3 ).
Beethoven’sversionoftheClassicalstringidiomshowsanin-creasingdisregardforrewardinginstrumentalwritingandfortheplayer’s
comfort. Challenging dynamics, awkward
articulation,andarhythmicstructurethatmakesensembleplayingextremelydifficultalwaystendtoleavetheimpressionthataperfectrendi-tion
of Beethoven is near-impossible, even for the best orches-tras and
conductors ( R7 – R8 ). Because the string parts
wereconceivedwithoutmuchconsiderationforcontemporaryplayingtechnique,
violinists should not hesitate to apply playing tech-niques that
some period-instrument specialists might
consideranachronistic—anuancedarticulationtechnique,avarietyofoff-the-stringbowings,andasophisticatedvibratotechnique.
SchubertaddedmorevirtuositytotheClassicalstyle,particu-larlyinthetarantellafinalesofSymphonies3and9.
The19th
century•ThemodelforSchubert’sorchestralvir-tuositywasRossini,thefirstmajorcomposerofthebel
cantostyle.WhatRossini( R9 ),Bellini,Donizetti,andVerdi(R10 – R11
)addedtotheClassicalViennesestyleofstringwritingwasbril-liance
(especially in fast, high passages that require great
left-handfacility)—incombinationwithrhythmicdrive,extremelycrisparticulation,andravishinglyricism.Butatthesametime,their
music still demanded the same crystalline quality as
themusicofVienneseClassicalcomposers.Onefactorthatmakestheiroperasrelativelyeasytolearn,however,isthattheyrarelyabandoned
the regular phrase structure and diatonic basis
ofClassicism—eventhoughVerdiaddedsomechromaticspiceinhis
lateoperas.—Among themanycomposers influencedbyRossini’s
stringwritingwere theprotagonistsofGerman
lightopera(Lortzing,Nicolai,Flotow).
Another direct extension of the Classical style is the style
of19th-centuryViennese ländler,waltzes,polkas,marches,
andop-erettas ( R12 – R13 ). In themusic ofLanner, the Strauss
fam-ily,Zeller,andMillöcker,wefindthesameelegance,clarity,andexposed
writing as in Haydn, Mozart, and Schubert. A specialchallenge inall
theseworks is rendering
thearticulationgracefulyetnotharshortinny—adifficulttaskwiththesmallstringsec-tionscommonlyusedforthisrepertoire.Theviolinistfacessimilarchallengesintheoncepopularopéras
comiquesbyBoieldieu,Auber,Hérold,andAdam,inFrenchballets(Delibes),andintheoperettasofOffenbach,whichprecededtheirViennesecounterparts.SuppéimbuedtheVienneseoperettastylewithRossini’sbrilliance,andinthe20thcenturyLehármergeditwithPuccini’slusciousmelodiesandharmonies,whichmakesformorerewardingstringwriting.
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53110 Repertoire and Style • 10.3 Individual Styles of
Orchestral String Writing and Their Challenges
Using Viennese Classicism as their model, German Ro-mantic
composersadoptedacleanstringwritingstyle,addingvirtuosic
andexpressive elements.Weberdemandedespeciallyhigh facility from
his violinists ( R14 )—a style continued byMendelssohn ( R15 – R16
). Schumann ( R17 ) and Brahms( R18
)builtonthisidiom,but,astheywerenotstringplayers,theywrotemanypassagesthatareawkwardfortheviolin—Schu-mannespeciallyinhisfastrepetitionsandBrahmsintrickyleft-handpatternsandjumps.Additionally,Brahms’smusicrequiresa
delicate balance between clarity and expressivity: the
dangersofsoundingtoodryandthinorsoundingtooslushyareequallystrong.ThestringwritingofGermanRomanticcomposersinflu-encedespeciallyChopin,Gounod,Franck,andGrieg.
AtthebeginningofFrench
Romanticismstandsauniquefig-ure,Berlioz,whoemulatedBeethovenbothinhissearchfornewmodesofexpressionandinhisdisregardforinstrumentalcomfort(
R19 ).AllofBerlioz’smusic includesnovel,unidiomatic,
andoftenextremeinstrumentaleffectsthatrequireingenuityandex-perimentationfromtheplayerandpavethewayforfuturecom-posers
(suchasMussorgsky).Berliozalsobegantoexploreele-gant,lightstringcolorsthatbecametypicalofmanyotherFrenchcomposerswhootherwiseadheredtothestring-writingidiomofVienneseClassicism,Rossini,andMendelssohn.IntothisgroupbelongparticularlySaint-SaënsandBizet.
Beginning with Glinka, most Slavic Romantics were
in-spiredintheirstringwritingbytheVienneseClassicalcompos-ers,too,aswellasbytheGermanRomanticcomposersandItal-ianopera.Tchaikovsky’srewardingviolinpartsaddednonewright-hand
challenges, while the extremely fast, high
passages(particularlyinhisballets)requiregreatleft-handfacility(
R20– R21 ).The samebrilliancealsocharacterizes the
stringwrit-ingofBorodinandRimsky-Korsakov.EvenmoredemandingfortheviolinsaretheworksofSmetana
( R22 )andDvořák.WorkssuchastheSlavonic
Dancesarefullofexposedpassageswithtrickyleft-handpatterns( R23
).
Except for that of Berlioz, the 19th-century instrumentalstyles
considered so far were largely derived from theVienneseClassicism.
The composer who turned string writing in a newdirectionwasWagner (
R23 – R25
),whosepointofdepartureweremainlythecompositionsofBeethoven,Berlioz,andMeyer-beer(andwhosharedsomestring-writingtechniqueswithLiszt).The
complex pitch patterns of Wagner’s operas, resulting
fromtheexplorationofchromaticism,bringthedifficultyofhisviolinpartstoanextremelevelinwhichitisnearlyimpossibletoplayallthenotescleanly.Noristhisevenalwaysintended:theidealWagneriansoundisasmoothblend,asdiscussedinChapter3.11.
Legionsoflate-Romanticcomposers,includingyoungSchoen-berg,wereinspiredbyWagner’stonallanguageandstringwriting.ThemusicofBrucknerrequiresthesamekindofchromaticplay-ingyetusuallyatslowerspeeds;heoftenextendsWagner’stremolopassagestoextremelengths(
R26
).HumperdinckandElgarputWagnerianchromaticpatternsintoamorerevealing,challengingtexture.
Reger carriedWagner’s chromaticism and
counterpointtoextremes.AlsothekeyfiguresoflateRussianRomanticism—Rachmaninoff(
R27 ),Glazunov,Scriabin—showedWagnerian
influenceintheirlusciouschromaticism,butotherwisecontinuedTchaikovsky’sandRimsky-Korsakov’sstyleofstringwriting.AlsomanyFrenchcomposers—notablyDukasandChabrier—werein-fluencedheavilybyWagnerintheirstringwriting.Italianverismocomposers,
particularly Puccini ( R28 ), Mascagni, and
Leon-cavallo,mergedchromaticharmonywithrewarding,opulentlyri-calwriting,inatexturethatdemandsutmostrhythmicflexibility.Theirstylebecamethemodelforthelowerspectrumoftheaes-theticsphere—lateoperettas,musicals,andmanyfilmscores.
Strauss’s tonepoemsandoperas( R29 – R30 ),whilebasedon Wagner’s
chromatic language, carried the virtuosity of thestring writing to
an unprecedented level and required a
clarity,brilliance,anddiversityofcolorsnotfoundintheworksofanyofhispredecessors.AnadditionalchallengeoftheorchestralscoresofStrauss,hiscontemporaries,andhisfollowersarethefrequentsolopassagesassignednotonlytotheprincipalsbuteventoindi-vidualsectionplayers.
The20th
century•AcombinationofWagnerianwritingwithaforward-lookingexplorationofnewtimbrescharacterizesbothMahler’ssymphoniesandtheorchestralmusicofRavelandDe-bussy.Mahler
required extremes indynamics and colors, oftenchallenging for the
violinist ( R31 ). The French impressionistsRavel ( R32 )andDebussy
( R33
)createdaworldofdelicate,magicalhues—antitheticaltoGermanicmonumentalism.ThesecolorsdominatedmuchofFrenchmusicthroughMessiaen.Theconcern
with timbre brought composers to forge a new,
moreacribicnotationalstyle:Debussy’shabittoaddsignsfordynam-ics,articulation,andexpressionvirtually
toeverynote
inmanypassagesrequiresfromtheplayersafargreaterprecisionfortheperformanceofthesecompositionalaspects.ThisnotationalstylewasadoptedbycomposersasdiverseasSchoenbergandEnescu.
Inaddition to theexplorationof timbre, the second inno-vation of
post-Wagnerian music—especially challenging forthe orchestral
string player—was the increased individualiza-tion of tonal
language. True, many composers continued tocultivate more
accessible harmonic styles based on traditionalnational
idioms—among them Sibelius, Spanish and
Latin-AmericancomposerssuchasDe Falla,Britishcomposerssuchas
Vaughan-Williams, Holst, Walton, and Britten and neo-Classical
composers such as Ibert, Honegger, Milhaud,
Res-pighi,andMartinů.Butanumberofcomposersorgroupsofcomposerscreatedtheirown,adventuroustonalsystems,devi-ating
substantially frommajor-minor tonality anddemandingtheir own
left-hand techniques—often virtuosic or even
awk-ward.ParticularlychallengingarethepitchpatternsinthemusicofJanáček,Nielsen,Bartók(
R34 ),Kodály,Prokofiev( R35 ),Shostakovich( R36 ),andHindemith.
A third challenge emerged with the exploration of
rhythm.IrregularmeterswereexploitedinthemusicofStravinsky(R37
)andhavesincebecomeacommonplaceinClassicalandpopularmusic.AmericanandBritishcomposersmergedthisstylewithjazz
rhythms—in particular, Gershwin, Copland,
Tippett,Barber,andBernstein( R38 ).
Meanwhile,theemancipationfromthetraditionaltonalsys-tem reached
extremes. Especially far removed from traditional
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532 10 Repertoire and Style • 10.3 Individual Styles of
Orchestral String Writing and Their Challenges
string technique were compositions in free atonality from
the1910s and early 1920s by Schoenberg, Webern, and Berg,
aswellastheirlatertwelve-toneworks( R39 ).
Theextremelycomplex,densestructureisthemainchallengein many
20th-century compositions. This is true not only
forSchoenberg’sfollowerswhoextendedserialtechniquestorhythmandtimbre(Nono,Boulez,Dallapiccola)butalsoformanyothercomposers
who wrote without comparable “systems.” Ives andCarter increased
especially the level of rhythmic complexity
totheextreme.Othercomposersintroducedasimilarcomplexitytoallcompositionalparameters:Messiaen,Dutilleux,Lutosławski,Ligeti,andBerio.
Acompletebreaknotonlywithtraditionalstringtechniquebutalsowiththetraditionalaestheticsof“beautiful”stringsoundcameinthemusicofVarèseandinavant-gardeworksofthepost-WorldWarIIera.Stockhausen,Penderecki,andahostofothercomposersbegantoexplorenon-traditionalplayingstyles.Theyalsopromotedanothernew
trend: theybrokewith
theClassic-Romanticconceptofthe“workofart”byintroducingimprovisa-tionalandaleatoricelements,whichrequiretheplayerstoplayamoreactiveroleinimportantperformancechoices.Thistendencywascarriedevenfurtherincompositionsassociatedwithindeter-minacy,notablythosebyCage.
Duringthepastdecades,however,othercomposershavere-introducedamoretraditionalconceptofperformanceandmoretraditionalstylesofstringwriting,lesschallengingfortheplayer.
Theyinclude:•
minimalistcomposers(Glass,Reich,Adams,Pärt,Taverner)• composers
associated with “neo-romanticism” (Del Tredici,
Corigliano,Rouse,Higdon)or“newsimplicity”(Rihm)• composers who
cultivate a moderate form of modernism
(Birtwistle,Harbison)• “polystylists”(Schnittke)• composers who
abandoned experimental styles in favor of
more accessible idioms (Takemitsu, Penderecki,
Davies,Lachenmann).
Musicals,film scores,“pops” pieces,andcommercial
musichavelargelybeenbasedontraditionalstyles(forinstance,PucciniandStravinsky),aswellasonjazzidiom.Themainchallengeofthismusic
is rathermundane:manyparts arehandwritten
anddifficulttoread(Ch.9.1).
The second violins were still largely relegated to
repetitiveaccompanimentsinmanyClassicalworksaswellasinbel
cantooperas,Viennesewaltzes andoperettas, andmanyballet
scores.Someaccompanimentalpatterns—notablythoseinMozart’sDon
Giovanni, Figaro, and Così, and in Rossini’s operas—require
apolishedspecializedbowingtechnique.Extendedpassagesonthelowerstringsrequiretrickystringcrossingsandcoordination.Thisposesspecialchallenges:•
youmust achieve the smoothness that is expected fromanac-
companyingpartwithoutsacrificingclarity(Ex.5.30a,k–m,dd)•
youmustcopewithexhaustingliftsforyourrightarm(Ch.4.14).Duringthe19thcentury,however,thesecondviolinsweregrad-ually
emancipated and elevated to an equal position with
thefirsts.Oftentheywereassignedanindependentorleadingrole.InmanyscoressinceBrahms,Wagner,Mahler,andStrauss,thechallengesforthesecondshavebeensimilartothoseofthefirsts(exceptfortheexplorationofthetopregister).
©Martin Wulfhorst, The Orchestral Violinist’s Companion, 2012
(To order the book visit www.orch.info)