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6This is a copy of the article from printed version of
electronic journal
Folklore Vol. 18&19
ISSN 1406-0957Editors Mare Kiva & Andres Kuperjanov &
Vino Poikalainen & Enn ErnitsPublished by the Folk Belief and
Media Group of ELM
Electronic Journal of Folklore
Electronic version ISSN 1406-0949 is available
fromhttp://haldjas.folklore.ee/folklore
Its free but do give us credit when you cite! Folk Belief and
Media Group of ELM, Andres Kuperjanov
Tartu 2001
PALAEOLITHIC ART FROM THEDANUBE TO LAKE BAIKAL
Vino Poikalainen
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7PALAEOLITHIC ART FROM THEDANUBE TO LAKE BAIKAL
Vino Poikalainen
The ancient history of humankind has been divided into three
dis-proportionate periods based on material used for making tools:
theStone Age, the Bronze Age and the Iron Age. Bronze came into
useonly about 5000 years ago. The Stone Age extended over the
long-est period of prehistoric times that lasted for nearly two
millionyears and it is therefore subdivided into the Palaeolithic
(the earlyphase of the Stone Age), Mesolithic (the intermediate
phase of theStone Age) and Neolithic (the last phase of the Stone
Age) periods.On the Estonian territory the Neolithic is estimated
into the period4,9001,500 (Cal1) BC and the Mesolithic into the
period 9,0004,900(Cal) BC (Kriiska 2001). The Palaeolithic Period
extended to theend of the last Ice Age (20010 millennia ago) and
several subspe-cies of humans (homo) have left traces into these
cultural strata.The modern man, or the sc. Cro-Magnon man (Homo
sapiens sapi-ens) was preceded by the Neanderthal man (Homo
sapiensneanderthalensis, 20030 millennia ago), Homo erectus 1.6
millions 200,000 years ago and Homo habilis 21.5 million years ago
(Lam-bert 1991).
Relying on the 130150 millennia old sculls discovered most
re-cently in South Africa and Ethiopia we can agree that Africa
wasthe cradle of modern (Cro-Magnon) man. Corresponding
anthropo-logical finds from the Middle East date back to 90100
millennia.Migration to Europe that was inhabited by the
Neanderthals maytherefore have taken place via the Middle East.
Newcomers broughtalong a new archaeological culture (lifestyle,
tools and methods)some 4540 millennia ago to Central Europe, more
than 36 millen-nia ago to Eastern Europe and 3632 millennia ago to
Western Eu-rope (Anikovich 1999).
These changes took place in the last period of the Palaeolithic,
alsoreferred to as the Upper Palaeolithic. The end of the
Palaeolithicperiod has in turn been subdivided by typical object
finds into corre-sponding archaeological periods. In Western Europe
these are calledthe Mousterian, Aurignacian, Gravettian, Solutrean
and Magdale-
http://haldjas.folklore.ee/folklore/vol18&19/paleoart.pdf
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8nien periods. In Eastern Europe, however, a four-stage
periodisationof the Upper Palaeolithic is used: the earlier phase
5038 millen-nia ago (Mousterian), the early phase 3727 millennia
ago (Auri-gnacian), the intermediate phase 2620 millennia ago
(Gravettian)and the late phase 2011 millennia ago (Solutrean and
Magdalenien)(Sinitsyn 1999).
Development of material culture was rather conservative
duringthe Palaeolithic. The most significant changes in living
occurredonly in the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods, when
aggressive sub-sistence (hunting, fishing and foraging in the wild)
was abandonedfor the sake of cattle breeding and tillage. This
break was precededby intensive progress in intellectual culture,
best examples of whichare findings of prehistoric art originating
from the end of thePleistocene Epoch (and the Palaeolithic).
GEOGRAPHICAL SITUATION AT THE END OF THE LASTICE AGE. THEORIES
OF ORIGIN OF FINNO-UGRICPRIMAL TRIBES
The last sc. Valdai (Wrm) glaciating of the Pleistocene Epoch,
whichoccurred about 7010 thousand years ago, is often perceived as
aconstant process during which the gradual cooling of weather
con-ditions prompted the maximum formation of glaciers about
20,000years (22,500 Cal) ago. This process was followed by a
gradual re-treat of ice sheet due to the warming of climate. In
fact, severalextensive and lengthy temperature fluctuations took
place also be-fore and after the glacial maximum. A relatively long
interglacialperiod occurred 4822 millennia ago (Figure 1). With the
retreat ofthe ice sheet to the far North, human population settled
even tothe Pechora watershed (PSSSR 1984: 186).
Most discoveries of prehistoric art discussed in this article
origi-nate in the interglacial period preceding the glacial
maximum, i.e.about 2422 millennia ago; it may well be considered a
period whenthe Palaeolithic plastic art in Central and Eastern
Europe flour-ished. Major locations of this period lie within an
arched belt stretch-ing from the Upper Danube to the Upper Volga
River. Art of thisperiod, especially representation of humans, is
relatively similaron the whole European territory. The distribution
of stout female
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9Figure 1. Temperature fluctuations during the Valdai (Wrm)
glaciating (PSSSR1984: 31), periods and major sites of prehistoric
art.
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figures from Western Europe to the East-Russian plateaux
indicatesthe mobility of humans and the spread of similar beliefs
in most ofEurope. The Baltic Sea region may have been populated at
thattime as well, although there are no finds to prove this. The
extantpaleogeographical and archaeological material, scarce as it
is, doesnot allow us to reconstruct the dynamics of human
population ofthis period in a sufficiently convincing manner.
The new onset of continental glaciers repelled human
populationfrom the previously populated areas of the belt; some
regions, how-ever, remained very thinly populated. Glaciers moving
southwardsfrom Scandinavia and northwards from the Alps rendered
the cen-tral part of Europe unsuitable for living, dividing human
populationin two. Contacts between West- and East-European
populationgroups became complicated or even impossible for several
millen-nia, exerting disintegrating influence on European
languages, cul-tures, prehistoric art, etc.
Paleogeographical situation underwent considerable changes
againat the end of the Upper Palaeolithic period. Retreating masses
ofice formed new relief forms and the ground rapidly began to
rise.Environmental conditions were determined also by huge
remnantglaciers, vast inland bodies of water, formed from the
melting ice,and powerful rivers running south- and westwards.
Figure 2 dem-onstrates the position of the largest inland bodies of
water in Eu-rope and Siberia, riverbeds of the largest rivers and
the shifting ofcontinental ice sheet from the glacial maximum to
the formation ofthe Baltic glacial lake about 10 millennia ago.
Settlements and discoveries of prehistoric artefacts originating
inthe Upper Palaeolithic Central and Eastern Europe (east of the
Alps),the Urals and Siberia, have partly been determined by the
contem-porary aquatorium of inland waters. In Western Siberia
noPalaeolithic finds have been discovered due to the fact that the
area
Figure 2 (right). Paleogeographic situation in the late
Pleistocene: A at theglacial maximum; B about 13 millennia ago; C
about 10.5 millennia ago: 1 continental (a) and maritime (b)
glaciers, 2 open sea, 3 lakes, 4 elongatedelevations, 5 courses of
waterways, 6 primeval valleys (Grosvald 1983: 9697) and major sites
of prehistoric art before (A) and after (B, C) the
glacialmaximum.
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was under a vast glacial lake. Inland waters, no doubt,
influencedthe remigration of humans to the areas cleared of ice at
the end ofthe glacial period. The predominantly east to west course
of watersmay have exerted influence on the moving of flora and
fauna in thesame direction.
Human population arrived back at the formerly settled areas
mil-lennia after the glacial maximum. For instance, new
populationsettled in Molodova some 17 millennia ago, and in the
Konstenki-Borshevo region more than 13 millennia ago (PSSSR 1984:
223225). Contacts between the population of Eastern and Western
Eu-rope were not re-established until the end of the glacial
period,when human population settled on the southern coast of the
BalticSea. Migration to the East-Polish and Lithuanian territories
origi-nated in the east and resulted in the emergence of the Swidry
cul-ture. Fosterers of the neighbouring Arensburg culture (who
hadsettled to the West-Polish and North-German areas), however,
wereof western origin (Carpelan 2000). The Swidry culture
developedinto the Early Mesolithic Kunda culture, which in its turn
spreadfurther north and east and later gave rise to the Mesolithic
Volga-Oka culture (PSSSR 1984: 223225).
Thus far there is no established connection between primary
Finno-Ugric tribes and specific Palaeolithic cultures. Still, we
can be cer-tain that during the last glacial maximum nearly all the
present-day territories of the Finno-Ugric people were either
covered withice or were unsuitable for living. The later occupation
of these ar-eas by the ancestors of Uralic or Finno-Ugric language
familiescould not have taken place before the areas were cleared of
gla-ciers. Several theories have been postulated on the origin of
settle-ments and the formation of the language family, the earlier
of whichare based on the sc. Finno-Ugric Uralic original home and
the east-to-west migration proceeding from it. The hypothesis of
the Finno-Ugric origin of prehistoric pit-comb ceramic culture
connected lin-guistic and archaeological material and laid the
foundation for fu-ture allegation that the predecessors of
Balto-Finnic tribes arrivedfrom the Volga-Oka region at the Baltic
coast during the last phaseof the Stone Age, i.e. during the
Neolithic. Relying on modern dat-ing results it must have happened
some 6,000 years ago, 45 mil-lennia after the end of the Ice
Age.
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Certain inconsistency between linguistic and archaeological
mate-rial and the scarcity of objective information has prompted
the schol-ars increasing interest in the subject. According to the
latest hy-pothesis the migration of Finno-Ugrians to their present
territo-ries originated mostly from south and occurred almost
simultane-ously with the retreat of glacial sheet (Julku 1997; Nues
1997). Inthis light we cannot speak about the Finno-Ugric Uralic
originalhome, for in that case the Finno-Ugric and also the
ancestors ofBalto-Finnic tribes would have been living on their
present-day ter-ritory since the end of the glacial period, and
would have been, atthe same time, the successors of the Swidry
culture. Also, hypoth-esis concerning the Uralic original home
allows us to associate Finno-Ugrians with this culture, for one of
the reasons for the emergenceof the Mesolithic Volga-Oka culture is
believed to be the eastwardexpansion of the Swidry culture. The
Volga-Oka areas, in their turn,have transmitted cultural influences
back to the Baltic coast, Fin-land and East-Karelia throughout the
whole post-glacial prehistoricera in the Mesolithic Period,
Neolithic Period and Bronze and IronAge (Carpelan 2000).
It appears that most objects originating in the prime of
Palaeolithicart cannot be associated with the ancestral tribes of a
specific lan-guage family. Time lapse would be too long for that.
But at thesame time we can be certain that the upholders of Upper
Palaeolithiccultures in Europe and possibly also in Siberia may
partly havefunctioned as a substratum for primary Finno-Ugric
tribes. Thus itwould be wise to start by following the early
development of prehis-toric Finno-Ugric art on the area extending
from Siberia to CentralEurope.
PREHISTORIC ART: ORIGIN, FORMS ANDDEVELOPMENT
The origin of prehistoric art has been associated with the
period ofthe Upper Palaeolithic when the Cro-Magnon man settled in
Eu-rope and gradually outlived or repelled the Neanderthal man
(seeFigure 1). Only preliminary and primitive forms of prehistoric
artare known from the earlier stage of the period. In his works A.
D.Stoliar has thoroughly treated the preliminary phase of
prehistoric
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art. According to his theory artistic creation was prompted by
natu-ral animal-like representations (Stoliar 1985). Adding certain
ele-ments these representations were formed into natural models
andused for ritual purposes (Figure 3). The gradual elaboration of
thesenatural models into animal-like representations led to
man-madesculptures, figures and paintings.
The earliest figurative representations in Eastern Europe are
boneengravings more than 40 thousand years old, dating back to
theend of the Mousterian phase (Chernysh 1978; Sytnik 1983).
Duringthe following Aurignacian and Gravettian phases, that still
precededthe glacial maximum, numerous miniature objects of plastic
artwere created. Cave art (paintings, engravings, sculptures and
bas-reliefs) became widely spread during the Solutrean and
Magdalenienphases after the glacial maximum. Locations with
abundant findsof Palaeolithic cave art have been discovered in
Franco-Cantabria(Southern France and Northern Spain). Until the
discovery of cavepaintings in the Urals in 1959, cave art was
considered as some-thing characteristic of Western Europe only
(Riumin 1961).
So far no all-inclusive generalising theory has been postulated
onthe development of East-European and Asian prehistoric art.
InWestern countries and especially in France, however, the issue
hasbeen a subject of long-term discussion. Western authors argue
thatin Europe Palaeolithic art developed from primitive to the
moreelaborate (Figure 4). Prototypes of animal representations
createdduring the Aurignacian phase are barely identifiable. Later,
during
Figure 3. A natural model: the bodymade of stalagmite with the
headof a cave bear.After A. Stoliar (1985: 191).
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the Gravettian and Solutrean phases, art became more
expressiveand detailed, where the fauna of glacial era are clearly
recognis-able. The prehistoric art of Western Europe reached its
peak withpolychromatic cave paintings and elaborate bone figurines
and en-gravings of the Franco-Cantabria region during the
Magdalenienphase, about 15 millennia ago.
The best examples of anthropomorphic and zoomorphic
represen-tations of East-European Palaeolithic art originate in the
periodpreceding the glacial maximum, when plastic art in mammoth
ivoryand stone was fostered. After glacial maximum the
representation
Figure 4. The genesis of Paleolithic art in Western Europe: A
after Leroi-Gourhan, B after Lumley (Masson 1996: 5253).
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of humans and animals became less common, while diverse
orna-ment became widespread. Almost no anthropomorphic or
zoomorphicrepresentations from the last phase of the Upper
Palaeolithic havebeen discovered, yet the number of known ornaments
originatingin the same period is quite large. Very few Mesolithic
miniaturesculptures comparable in artistic technique with
Palaeolithic crea-tion have been found as well. A unique exception
here are the mag-nificent horn and bone artefacts from the
Mesolithic Oleni Islandburial ground of Lake Onega (Stolyar
2000).
MAJOR SITES OF PREHISTORIC ART
Siberia
The Urals
Central Russia
The Ukraine
Central-Europe
GEOGRAPHICAL SITUATIONPREHISTORIC ARTMAJOR SITESCentral
EuropeThe UkraineCentral RussiaThe UralsSiberiaCONCLUSION &
COMMENTS