Overview of Periods of Early English History Pre-History—1066 A. D. 1. Pre-Rome/Pre-History up to 55 B. C. 2. Roman Occupation 55 B. C. – 410 A. D.

Early English History and Language

Pre-History – 1066 A.D.

Overview of Periods of Early English History

Pre-History—1066 A. D.

1. Pre-Rome/Pre-History up to 55 B. C.

2. Roman Occupation 55 B. C. – 410 A. D.

3. Anglo-Saxon Period 410 – 787 A. D.

4. Viking Invasions 787 – 1066 A. D.5. Norman Conquest begins in 1066

Pre-Historic / Pre-Roman??-55 B.C.

Stonehenge circa 3100 BC

A towering circle of ancient

stones, draped in the mistof centuries. The clatter

of horses’ hooves, the clash

ofswords and spears. A tiny

island whose motley tongue

would become the language of the world, and whose

laws, customs, and literature would help form Western

civilization. This is England, and the story begins here.

McDougal Littell, p 18

The islands we know as Great Britain have been occupied by man since the Paleolithic Period [Old Stone Age]. We have archeological evidence dating back 40,000 years of nomadic peoples living in what is now England and Wales.

© Dane Degenhardt, Monde Dane, 2009. www.wordinfo.info/.../Eng-hist-2-Celts-Brit.gif

Centuries of Invasion

The Dark Ages, as the Anglo-Saxon period is often called, was a time of bloody conflicts, ignorance, violence, and barbarism. Life was difficult, and the literature of the period reflects that reality. Little imagery of the brief English summers appears in this literature; winter prevails, and spring comes slowly, if at all. The people were serious minded, and the reader finds scarce humor in their literature. Indeed, many of the stories and poems present heroic struggles in which only the strong survive. And no wonder.

McDougal Littell, p 19

Chief among the earliest actual cultures was a group of loosely related tribes called Celts which inhabited most

of central Europe. It is not known when the Celts entered Great Britain; but according to Julius Caesar, it was likely before 200 BC.

The Celtic tribe which entered Great Britain was called the Brythons [which became Britons from which we get the term Britain]. The Celts were great story-tellers, great drinkers and great fighters - with a liking for single combat, after which the victor proudly displays the severed head of his opponent. Their religion was polytheistic [from the Greek roots polys-many; theos-god].

The Celts in Europe began to trouble their very different neighbors, the sober and disciplined Romans during the first century B.C.

http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?groupid=831&HistoryID=aa84&gtrack=pthc#ixzz0ukMiW6rF

The first person ever to write about England may have been the Roman general Julius Caesar, who in 55 B.C attempted to conquer the British Isles. Put off by fierce Celtic warriors, Caesar hastily claimed victory for Rome and returned to Europe, leaving the Britons (as the people were known) and their neighbors to the north and west,the Picts and Gaels, in peace.

McDougal Littell, p 19Fosse Way- Built in 47 AD by the

Emperor Claudius , it is the only road remaining from the initial Roman invasion.

geograph.org.uk

A century later, however, the Roman army returned in force and made good Caesar’s claim. Britain became a province of the great Roman Empire, and the Romans introduced cities, roads, written scholarship, and eventually Christianity to the island. Their rule lasted more than three hundred years.

“Romanized” Britons adapted to an urban lifestyle, living in villas and frequenting public baths, and came to depend on the Roman military for protection. Then, early in the fifth century,

the Romans pulled out of Britain, called home to help defend their beleaguered empire against hordes of invaders.

With no central government or army,

it was not long before Britain, too, became a target for invasion.

McDougal Littell, p 19

www.hadrians.com/.../roman_soldiers_clothes.html

Summary of the Roman Occupation

Julius Caesar began the invasion/occupation of Britain in 55 B.C. His visits planted the seeds for trade and diplomacy that made possible the later occupation by Claudius. Tacitus, Agricola 13

The occupation was completed by the Emperor Claudius from 43 to 50 A.D.

The Romans left in 410 A.D. because the Visigoths attacked Rome and the fall of the empire began. By 476 there was no longer a western Roman Empire.

St. Augustine landed in Kent in 597 and converted King Aethelbert (king of Kent, the oldest Saxon settlement) to Christianity; he became the first Archbishop of Canterbury.

Hadrian’s Wall built about 122 A.D.

Roman baths at Bath, Englandwww.travelpod.com/.../tpod.html

www.travlang.com

Roman architecture found in England today.

www.english-heritage.org.uk/.../

Cultural and Historical Results of the Roman Occupation in Britain

Military Celts were pushed into Wales and Ireland. Romans prevented Vikings from raiding for several

hundred years: C. Warren Hollister writes, “Rome’s greatest gift to Britain was peace” (15).

Infrastructure The Romans built a strong government (fell apart when

the Romans left). Architectural structures were built: Roads, walls, cities,

villas, public baths (some remains still exist) Language and Writing

Latin became the official language The practice of recording history led to the earliest

English “literature” being documentary [Venerable Bede 672-735: Ecclesiastical History of the English People].

Religion Christianity began to take hold, especially after St.

Augustine converted King Aethelbertwww.classjump.com/.../Anglo-Saxon%20%20Old%20English%20History%20and%20Literature%201.ppt

The Most Important Results of the Roman Occupation

Latin heavily influenced the English language.

Relative peace prevailed. Christianity began to take hold in

England (but did not fully displace Paganism for several hundred years).

The Anglo-Saxon Period410-787

Jutes-JutlandAngles-Anglii

Saxons-Southern Jutland

www.classjump.com

The Angles and Saxons, along with other Germanic tribes,

began arriving from northern Europe around 449 AD.

The Britons—perhaps led by a Celtic chieftain named

Arthur (likely the genesis of the legendary King Arthur of

myth and folklore)—fought a series of battles against the

invaders. Eventually, however, the Britons were driven to

The west (Cornwall and Wales), the north (Scotland), and

across the English Channel to an area of France that

became known as Brittany.

McDougal Littell, p 19

Settled by the Anglo-Saxons, the main part of

Britain took on a new name: Angle-land, or

England. Anglo-Saxon culture became the basis

For English culture, and their gutteral, vigorous

language became the spoken language of the

people, the language now known as Old English.

McDougal Littell, p 19http://www.phancocks.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/localhistory/germanic.htm

Important Events in the Anglo-Saxon Period

From 410- 450, Angles and Saxons invaded from Baltic shores of Germany, and the Jutes invaded from the Jutland peninsula in Denmark.

[The Geats, a tribe from Jutland, appear in the epic Beowulf.]

Nine Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms eventually became the Anglo-Saxon heptarchy (England was not unified), or “Seven Sovereign Kingdoms.”www.classjump.com

Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy[hept=7 arch=government, rule]

Heptarchy = Seven Kingdoms

[England-to-be]

1. Kent2. Essex (East Saxon)3. Sussex (South Saxon)4. East Anglia5. Northumbria6. Mercia7. Wessex (West Saxon)Do you recognize any of these names?

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Scotland-to-be

Wales-to-be

www.classjump.com

Viking Invasions 787-1066

home.online.no/~joeolavl/viking/osebergskipet.htm

The 790s brought the next wave of

invaders, a fearsome group of seafaring

marauders from the rocky, windswept

coasts of Denmark and Norway: the

Vikings. Shrieking wildly and waving

giant battle-axes, Viking raiders looted,

killed, and burned down entire villages.

At first, they hit and ran; later, finding

England a more pleasant spot to spend

the winter than their icy homeland, the

Danish invaders set up camps and

gradually gained control of much of the

north and east of the country.

McDougall-Littell, p 20

The first Viking raids in the British Isles were in 793. For the next 30-40 years, the Vikings engaged in hit-and-run raids where they landed a small number of ships at a settlement, spent a few days pillaging and burning it before heading back to Scandanavia to sell their booty. The Vikings were after two types of booty - riches and slaves - which they carried off to sell. They soon found that the monasteries were the richest sources of both goods and this is why monasteries suffered so much. However, the Vikings also attacked a lot of grád Fhéne (commoner's) dwellings.

www.wesleyjohnston.com/.../vikings.html getasword.com/.../

However, the Vikings were soon to improve their methods of pillaging. Instead of landing 3 or 4 boats, raiding nearby settlements and going back to Scandanavia, they decided to scale-up. They brought between 50 and 100 boats of Viking warriors, landed, and set up a camp. From this base they then raided extensively into the surrounding countryside for a period of several months. They pillaged monasteries, churches, the fortresses, and farms.

www.wesleyjohnston.com/.../vikings.html

Picture by Ray PritchardPicturesOfEngland.com

In the south, the Danes finally met defeat at the

hands of a powerfulAnglo-Saxon king known as

Alfred the Great. Alfred unified the English, and under his rule,

learning and culture flourished. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a record of

English history, was initiated at his bidding.

McDougall-Littell, p 20

A sidebar about the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle

is one of the most important documents that has come down to us from the middle ages. It was originally compiled on the orders of King Alfred the Great in approximately A.D. 890, and subsequently maintained and added to by generations of anonymous scribes until the middle of the 12th Century. The original language was Anglo-Saxon (Old English), but later entries were probably made in an early form of Middle English.

http://www.britannia.com/history/docs/asintro2.html

We like to think of this document as the ultimate timeline of British history from its beginnings up to the end of the reign of King Stephen in 1154. The Chronicle certainly does not present us with a complete history of those times and is probably not 100% accurate, either, but that doesn't diminish its enormous value in helping us to arrive at a clearer picture of what actually happened in Britain over a thousand years ago.

The entire Chronicle runs to almost 100,000 words. Seven of the nine surviving manuscripts and fragments now reside in the British Library. The remaining two are in the at Oxford and Cambridge universities.

http://www.britannia.com/history/docs/asintro2.html

Important Results of the Anglo-Saxon and Viking Invasions

Politically and Culturally Continued political instability and conflict (i.e.,

tribal war): there was no central government or church

The Anglo-Saxon code (more on this when we read Beowulf)

Linguistically The English language is “born” during the first

millennium and is known as Old English (OE). Anglo-Saxon is the term for the culture.

Old English is mainly Germanic the core of our modern English is vastly influenced by this early linguistic “DNA”

MANY dialects of Old-English, as one might imagine. This is because there were five or six different cultures: Angles, Saxons, Frisians, Jutes, Danes, and Swedes

*Alfred the Great (ruled from approx. 871-899 A.D.) was one of the first Anglo-Saxon kings to push Vikings back; in fact, he was one of the first kings to begin consolidating power, unifying several of the separate Anglo-Saxon kingdoms.

www.classjump.com

Huh?(we better boil those important results

down!) Lots of ongoing tribal feuds and

wars led to . . . Lots of intermingling of similar but

different Germanic languages . . . interrupted by . . .

MORE Viking invasions, which gave way to . . .

Some political unification (Alfred) . . .

. . . Which led to . . . OLD ENGLISH, the earliest form of

our language!!

www.classjump.com

The Norman Conquest1066

In 1042, a descendant of Alfred’s took the throne, the

deeply religious Edward the Confessor. Edward, who had

no children, had once sworn an oath making his French

cousin William, duke of Normandy, his heir—or so William

claimed. When Edward died, however, a council of nobles

and church officials chose an English earl named Harold to

succeed him. Incensed, William led his Norman army in

what was to be the last successful invasion of the island of

Britain: the Norman Conquest.

McDougal Littell, p 20

Harold was killed at the Battle of Hastings in 1066,

and on Christmas Day of that year, William the Conqueror

was crowned King of England.

The Norman Conquestended Anglo-Saxon dominance in England.Losing their land to theConquerors, noble Scale model of the

Battle of Hastings

families sank into the peasantry, and a new class of

privileged Normans took their place.McDougal Littell,

p 20

A Voice from the Times

William returned to Hastings,and waited there to knowwhether the people would submitto him. But when he found thatthey would not come to him, hewent up with all his force thatwas left and that came since tohim from over sea, and ravagedall the country. . . .—Anglo-Saxon Chronicle

Edward the Confessor in his coffinBayeux Tapestry

Harold receives arrow in his eye at the Battle of Hastings and dies.Bayeux Tapestry

www.historic-uk.com/.../NormanConquest.htm

A Sidebar on the Bayeux TapestryThe Bayeux Tapestry is an embroidery, 1.6

by 230 ft, made in the 11th century. The origin of the tapestry is unknown. The earliest known written reference to it is a 1476 inventory of Bayeaux Cathedral.. It is on display today in Bayeaux, Normandy, France.

Celebrating the conquest of England by William, Duke of Normandy, this linen canvas was probably created after the Battle of Hastings on October 14th, 1066 in the south of England by Anglo-Saxon embroiderers as their work was well-known throughout Europe.

Legendary animals, ships, Vikings, Norman and Saxon cavalries illustrate the exploits of William and his opponent Harold, another pretender to the throne of England.

http://www.tapestry-bayeux.com/index.php?id=3

The tapestry: 18 inches high and 230 feet longSection depicting Halley’s Comet.

Normans sailing to HastingsDeath of King Harold

Early England Created by Three Invasions

1. Roman Occupation 55 B.C.-410 A.D.

2. Anglo-Saxon and Viking Invasions 410 – 1066 A.D.

3. The Norman Invasion (The Battle of Hastings) in 1066 A.D.

LATIN (Roman)

GERMAN(IC)

FRENCHwww.classjump.com

Results of the Norman Conquest

Two Most Important Effects: French becomes official language of

politics and power and exerts enormous influence on Old English

England begins unifying under a French political system, much of which is still with us (even in the U.S.) today

The Spread of Christianity

Like all cultures, that of the Anglo-Saxons changed over time. The early invaders were seafaring wanderers whose lives were bleak, violent, and short. Their pagan religion was marked by a strong belief in wyrd, or fate, and they saved their admiration for heroic warriors whose fate it was to prevail in battle. As the Anglo-Saxons settled into their new land, however, they became an agricultural people— less violent, more secure, more civilized.

The bleak fatalism of the Anglo-Saxons’ early beliefs may have reflected the reality of their lives, but itoffered little hope. Life was harsh, it taught, and the only certainty was that it would end in death. Christianity opened up a bright new possibility: that the suffering of this world was merely a prelude to the eternal happiness of heaven. Early Anglo-Saxon literature

reflected a fatalistic worldview, while later works were influenced by rapidly spreading Christianity.

Christianity takes hold No one knows exactly when the first

Christian missionaries arrived in Britain, but by a.d. 300 the number of Christians on the island was significant. Over the next two centuries, Christianity spread to Ireland and Scotland, and from Scotland to the Picts and Angles in the north. In 597, a Roman missionary named Augustine arrived in the kingdom of Kent, where he established a monastery at Canterbury.

From there, Christianity spread so rapidly that by 690 all of Britain was at least nominally Christian, thoughmany held on to some pagan traditions and beliefs. McDougall Littell p. 21

Monasteries became centers of intellectual, literary, artistic, and social activity. At a time when schools and libraries were completely unknown, monasteries offered the only opportunity for education. Monastic scholars imported books from the Continent, which were then painstakingly copied. In addition, original works were written, mostly in scholarly Latin, but later in Old English. The earliest recorded history of the English people came from the clergy at the monasteries.

McDougall Littell p. 21

The greatest of these monks was the Venerable Bede (c. 673–735), author of A History of the English Church and People.

When Vikings invaded in the late eighth and ninth centuries, they plundered monasteries and threatened to obliterate all traces of cultural refinement. Yet Christianity continued as a dominant cultural force for more than a thousand years to come. McDougall Littell p. 21

The Venerable Bede (673-735),

regarded as the father of English history, lived and worked in a monastery in northern Britain during the late seventh and early eighth centuries. His most famous work, A History of theEnglish Church and People, is a major source of information about life in Britain from the first successful Roman invasion (about a.d. 46) to a.d. 731. The bookcontains many stories about the spread of Christianity among the English.

A Sidebar on the Venerable Bede

McDougall Littell, p. 92

http://www.religionfacts.com/christianity/people/bede.htm

First page of Bede’s History, this written in 800

At the age of seven, Bede was taken by his parents to amonastery at Wearmouth, on the northeast coast of Britain, where he was leftin the care of theabbot, Benedict Biscop. It is not known why the boy’s parents lefthim or whether he ever saw them again. When he was nine, Bede moved a short distance to a new monastery at Jarrow, where hespent the rest of his life.

Raised By Monks

Picture by Ray PritchardPicturesOfEngland.com

McDougall Littell, p. 92

Multitalented Scholar

Bede was a brilliantscholar and a gifted writer and teacher. Hewas also a careful and thorough historian.He sought out original documents andreliable eyewitness accounts on whichto base his writing. Working in a chilly,damp, poorly lit cell in the monastery,Bede managed to write about 40 books,including works on spelling, grammar,science, history, and religion.

McDougall Littell p. 21

A Bookish Boy

Bede seems to have beena naturally devout and studious child. Heread widely in the monastery libraries andparticipated fully in the religious life of themonastery. He was exposed to the art andlearning of Europe through the paintings,books, and religious objects brought fromRome by Abbot Biscop. Bede became adeacon of the church at the age of 19—sixyears earlier than was usual—and wasordained to the priesthood when he was 30.

McDougall Littell p. 21

Still Venerable Today Bede’s reputationas a scholar and a devout monk spreadthroughout Europe during his lifetimeand in the centuries following. (Thehonorific title “Venerable” was probablyfirst applied to him during the centuryafter his death, as an acknowledgment ofhis achievements.) Although Bede wasinfluenced by the outlook of his time—asis evident in the miracle stories he includedin his History—his carefulness andintegrity are still respected and valued byscholars today, almost 1,300 years later.

McDougall Littell p. 21

The tomb of the Venerable Bede

Interesting facts:• Bede is the only Englishman that Dante names in the Paradiso.

• From Bede’s era came the idea of dating everything from the birth of Christ (AD). Thus, the letters BC (before Christ) may have been started by him.

• Bede was the first person to use footnotes---thus they are his invention.

• It is believed that the library at his monastery had between 300-500 books, making it one of the largest in England and a center

for education and culture.• The word Venerable was first attached to his name in the 9th century. It means that his holiness is recognized by the church.

The Epic Tradition

Anglo-Saxon literature often focused on greatHeroes such as Beowulf, though sometimes it addressed everyday concerns.

The early literature of the Anglo-Saxon period mostly took the form of lengthy epic poems praising the deeds of heroic warriors. These poemsreflected the reality of life at this time, which was often brutal. However, the context in which these poems were delivered was certainly not grim.

McDougall Littell p. 21

In the great mead halls of kings and nobles, Anglo-Saxons would gather on special occasions to celebrate in style. They feasted on pies and roastedmeats heaped high on platters, warmed themselves before a roaring fire, and listened to scops—professional poets—bring the epic poems to life.

on special occasions to celebrate in style. They feasted on pies and roastedmeats heaped high on platters, warmed themselves before a roaring fire,and listened to scops—professional poets—bring the epic poems to life.

on special occasions to celebrate in style. They feasted on pies and roastedmeats heaped high on platters, warmed themselves before a roaring fire,And poems to life.

In poets—bring the epic poems to life.

McDougall Littell p. 21

heorot.dk

Strumming a harp, the scop would chant in a clear voice that

carried overthe shouts and laughter of the

crowd, captivating them for hours on

endwith tales of

courage, high drama, and tragedy.

McDougall Littell p. 21

matherart.com

adventuresindailyliving.blogspot.com

To the Anglo-Saxons, these epic poems were far more than simple entertainment. The scop’s performance was a history lesson, moral sermon, and pep talk rolled into one, instilling cultural pride and teaching how a true hero

should behave. At the same time, in true Anglo-Saxon fashion, the scop reminded his listeners that they were helpless in the hands of fate and that all human ambition would end in death. With no hope for an afterlife, only an epic poem could provide a measure of immortality. McDougall Littell p.

regia.org

These epic poems were an oral art form: memorized and performed, not written down. Later, as Christianity spread through Britain, literacy spread too, and poems were more likely to be recorded. In this age before printing presses, however,manuscripts had to be written out by hand, copied slowly and laboriously by scribes.

illuminatedleaves.com

McDougall Littell p.

Thus, only a fraction of Anglo-Saxon poetryhas survived, in manuscripts produced centuries after the poems were originally composed. The most famous survivor is the epic Beowulf, about a legendary hero of the northern European past. In more than 3,000 lines, Beowulf relates the tale of a heroic warrior who battles monsters and dragons to protect the people.Yet Beowulf, while performing superhuman deeds, is not immortal. His death comes from wounds incurred in his final, great fight.

McDougall Littell p.

Reflections of Common Life

While epics such as Beowulf gave Anglo-Saxons a taste of glory, scops also sang shorter, lyric poems, such as “The Seafarer,” that reflected a more everyday reality: the wretchedness of a cold, wet sailor clinging to his storm-tossed boat; the misery and resentment of his wife, left alone for months or years, not knowing if her husband would ever return.

McDougall Littell p.

languageisavirus.com

Some of these poems mourn loss and death in the mood of grim fatalism typical of early Anglo-Saxon times; others, written after the advent of Christianity, express religious faith or offer moral instruction. A manuscript known as the Exeter Book, produced by a single scribe around a.d. 950, contains many ofthe surviving Anglo-Saxon

lyrics, including nearly 100 riddles, religious verse, and a heroic narrative. It is the largest collection of Old English poetry in existence.

.McDougall Littell p98.

Early Authors Most Old English poems are anonymous. One of the few poets known by name was a monk called Caedmon, described by the Venerable Bede in his famous history of England. Like most scholars of his day, Bede wrote in Latin, the language of the church. It was not until the reign of Alfred the Great that writing in English began to be widespread; in addition to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which was written in the language of the people, Alfred encouraged English translations of the Bible and other Latin works.

McDougall Littell p98

As England moved into the Middle Ages, its literature continued to capture the rhythms of everyday life. The medieval period was one of social turbulence and unrest, and several works give modern readers a glimpse ofthe individual hopes and fears of people of the time. Margery Kempe, forexample, describes a crisis of faith brought on by childbirth; the letters ofMargaret Paston and her family mainly deal with issues of marriage andmanaging the family estate. McDougall Littell p98

A Short History of Our Language

—or—“How English got to be so hard to

study, but is still so beautiful to hear and read”

www.classjump.com/.../

Quick History of English Language

Old English (OE) dates from approximately* 400 A.D. to 1066

Middle English (ME) dates from approximately 1066-1485

They are quite different to the eye and ear. Old English is nearly impossible to read or understand without studying it much like and English speaker today would study French, Latin, or Chinese

*The dating of the beginnings of OE is difficult; scholars only have written texts in OE beginning in around 700 A.D., but peoples in England must have been speaking a version of OE prior to works being written in the vernacular (as opposed to Latin)

www.classjump.com/.../

Just as Britain’s fifth-century invaderseventually united into a nation calledEngland, their closely related Germanicdialects evolved over time into adistinct language called English—today called Old English to distinguishit from later forms of the language.

McDougall Littell p98

A Different Language:

Old English was very different from the languagewe know today. Though about half of our basic vocabulary comes from the Anglo-Saxon language, a modern English speaker would find the harshsounds impossible to understand.Some words can still be recognized in writing, though the spelling is a little unfamiliar: for instance, sc¯oh (shoe), hunig (honey), milc (milk), and faeder (father). Other words have disappearedentirely, such as hatheart (angry) and gleowian (joke).

Another Way of Looking at the History of English

Old English 400-1066

Beowulf (from Beowulf!)

“Gaæþ a wyrd swa hio scel” (OE)=“Fate goes ever as it must” (MnE)

Middle English

1066-1485

Chaucer(from CT)

“Whan that Aprille with his shoures soote . . . ” (ME) =“When that April with its sweet showers . . .” (MnE)

Early Modern English

1485-1800

Shakespeare (from KL)

“Sir, I loue you more than words can weild ye matter” (EMnE) =“Sir, I love you more than word can wield the matter” (MnE)

Modern English

1800-present

Austen(from P&P)

It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife.

OE=Old English ME=Middle English EMnE=Early Modern English MnE=Modern English

Old English

A page from the manuscript of Beowulf, reproduced from William J. Long, English Literature: Its History and Its Significance for the Life of the English Speaking World (Boston: Ginn and Co, 1919; repr. as The Project Gutenberg EBook of English Literature, by William J. Long (Project Gutenburg, 2004), http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/0/6/0/10609/10609-h/10609-h.htm#el003)

Whan that Apryll with his shoures soote its showers sweetThe droghte of March hath perced to the roote, draftsAnd bathed every veyne in swich licour vine (root) such liquidOf which vertu engendred is the flour;Whan Zephirus eek with his sweete breeth West Wind alsoInspired hath in every holt and heeth gover and fieldThe tender croppes, and the yonge sonne young sun (Spring sun)Hath in the Ram his half cours yronne, Ram (Aries) his course has

runAnd smale foweles maken melodye, small fowls (little birds)That slepen al the nyght with open ye sleep open eye(So priketh hem Nature in hir corages), pricks (spurs) spiritsThanne longen folk to goon on pilgrimages, ThenAnd palmeres for to seken straunge strondes, palmers (pilgrims) strange

shoresTo ferne halwes, kowthe in sondry londes; famous halls? foreign

shrines? known in (distant) lands

And specially from every shires ende shire (country)Of Engeland to Cauterbury they wende, wend (go)The hooly blisful martir for to seke, martir (martyr) seke

(seekThat hem hath holpen whan that they were seeke. Holpen (helped)

seeke (sick)

Middle English

Grammatically, the language wasmore complex than modern English,with words changing form to indicatedifferent functions, so that word orderwas more flexible than it is now.

McDougall Littell p98

The Growth of English

The most valuable characteristic of Old English,

however, was its ability to change and grow, to

adopt new words as the need arose. While

Christianity brought Latin words such as cloister,

priest, and candle into the Anglo-Saxon vocabulary,

encounters with the Vikings brought skull, die,

crawl, and rotten. The arrival of the Normans in

1066 would stretch the language even farther, with

thousands of words from the French. McDougall Littell p98

English = ?

Celtic (from 1700 or 400 B.C. to 55 B.C.) +

Latin (from 55 B. C. to 410 A. D.) + German (from 410 A.D. to 1066 A.D.)

+French (from 1066 A.D. to 1485 A.D.)

=OLD ENGLISH and MIDDLE

ENGLISHVERY DIFFICULT LANGUAGE, BUT

ONE PERFECT FOR LIMITLESS AND BEAUTIFUL EXPRESSION

Transition to Beowulf We study English history to understand the

context of the epic, Beowulf; and we study Beowulf to understand the world which was Old England.

It is the story of a Scandinavian (Geat) “thane” (warrior or knight) who comes to help a neighboring tribe, the Danes, that is being attacked by a monster.

According to Venerable Bede, the Britons called the Romans for help when the Picts and Scots were attacking them (B.C.). Hundreds of years later, the Britons called the Saxons to help them when the Romans couldn’t. The Saxons came “from parts beyond the sea” (qtd. in Pyles and Algeo 96).

This journey of Germanic peoples to England “from parts beyond the sea” is the prototypical story for the first millennium of England’s history. It formulates much of their cultural mindset and clearly influences their stories. Be sure to consider how it plays a role in Beowulf.

Bibliography Abrams, M. H., and Stephen Greenblatt, Eds. Introduction.

The Norton Anthology of English Literature, seventh ed., vol. 1. New York: W.W. Norton, 2000. 1-22, 29-32.

Anderson, Robert, et al. Eds. Elements of Literature, Sixth Course, Literature of Britain. Austin: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1993. 2-42.

Burrow, J. A. “Old and Middle English Literature, c. 700-1485.” The Oxford Illustrated History of English Literature. Ed. Pat Rogers. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1987.

Grant, Neil. Kings and Queens. Glasgow: Harper Collins, 1999.

Hollister, C. Warren. The Making of England, 55 B.C. to 1399. 6th ed. Lexington, Mass.: D.C. Heath, 1988

McDougall Littell, Literature. Houghton Miflin. 2009. Pyles, Thomas and John Algeo. The Origins and

Development of the English Language. 4th Ed. Fort Worth: Harcourt, 1993.