ORINA NEWfinal

APPLICATION OF GENDER POLICIES IN

APPOINTMENT OF HEAD TEACHERS IN KENYA

PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOLS. A STUDY OF

KISAUNI DIVISION, MOMBASA COUNTY.

BY

JOSEPHAT ONYIEGO ORINA

ADMIN. NO. APP/111/1005.

A RESEARCH PROPOSAL SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL

FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE

AWARD OF A MASTER OF EDUCATION DEGREE IN

EDUCATIONAL PLANNING, MANAGEMENT AND

ADMNISTRATION OF MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY

JULY 2012

TABLE OF CONTENTS

i

DECLARATION

This research proposal is my original work and has not been presented for the award of

degree in any other University.

Signature………………………………………..…date………………………………..

Josephat Onyiego Orina

APP/111/1005

This research proposal has been submitted for examination with my approval as University

supervisor.

Signature………………………………………..…date…………………………………

Dr. Githui Kimamo

This research proposal has been submitted for examination with my approval as University

supervisor.

Signature…………………………………………….date……………………………….

Mr. Kimotho Nderitu

ii

DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to my mother for her untiring parental love, inspiration and prayers

that she has always provided to my educational endeavors and success.

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My sincere gratitude and appreciation go to my university supervisors, Dr. Githui and Mr.

Kimotho for their useful ideas, expertise, encouragement, patience and total commitment in

guiding me into this work. A word of special appreciation goes to my wife, Elizabeth

Gesare for her encouragement and support throughout my studies. I appreciate my friend

and colleague at Memon High School, Mr. George Okello for great work of proof reading

and typesetting of this proposal. I would like to thank my mother Prisca Kerebi for instilling

in me that girls can do anything as well as boys and there no such thing as ‘‘woman’s

work’’. She planted in my mind the seed of gender equity. I now look for it wherever I go

and am concern about the places in which it cannot be found. Lastly, special regards go to

all my relatives and friends whole have played a significant role in making my studies a

success.

iv

ABBREVIATIONS

BPFA: Beijing Platform For Africa

CEO: Chief Executive Officer

DEO: District Education Officer

DECECE: District Centre for Early Childhood Education

GOK: Government of Kenya

ICPDoA: International Conference on Population and Development Program of Action

ILO: International Labor Organization

MDG: Millennium Development Goals

SMC: School Management Committee

SPSS: Statistical Package for Social Sciences

TSC: Teachers Service commission

UN: United Nations

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ABSTRACT

Although women are the majority in the world, research indicates that they are greatly

underrepresented in educational management at all levels worldwide. In Kenya, although the

Teachers Service Commission (TSC) employs and promotes teachers on equal terms without

gender discrimination, male teachers tend to dominate headship positions in public primary

schools. This study will investigate and analyze the gender policies and women

advancement to headship positions in Kenya public primary schools. The study will employ

mixed design method combining case study and cross sectional survey designs. The study

population will comprise of all teachers, the District Education Officer (DEO) and the

School Management Committee (SMC) chairpersons from all the 28 primary schools in

Kisauni division. The objectives of this study will be to find out: implementation of gender

policies in appointment of head teachers; perceptions of female teachers on appointments to

headship; challenges women teachers face in ascending to headship; strategies by women

and stakeholders to increase their numbers in headship. The research questions will aim at

establishing the extent to which: gender policies have been applied in the appointments of

head teachers, impact of teachers perceptions on heads appointments influence women’s

desire into headship; various strategies by women and other stakeholders increased women

awareness on their rights to leadership. Detailed questionnaires and in-depth face to face

interview guides will be used to collect data. Quantitative data will be analyzed using

Statistical Packages for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 11.5 and data presentation done

using frequency tables and percentages, while qualitative data will be analyzed and

presented in themes.

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CHAPTER ONE: Introduction

1.0 Background of the Problem

Gender is generally defined as the social and cultural construction and allocation of roles in

the basis of biologically determined category of male and female (Sifuna, 2006). According

to Bravo-Baumann (2000), he argues that gender roles are considered as the social definition

of women and men in society and they differ among different societies with regards to

religious, culture, classes, values and beliefs. Hence, the definition of gender should not be

understood only as being the promotion of women.

The National Policy on Gender and Development (GOK, 2000) provides a framework for

the state to reduce gender imbalance and inequality. The Sessional Paper no.2 (2006) on

gender, equality and development provides framework for Operationalization of gender

mainstreaming in policy, planning and programming in Kenya.

Both national policy and Sessional paper no.2 recognizes that it is the right of women, men,

girls and boys to participate and benefit equally from development initiatives. The policy

framework recognizes that equity between men and women is a matter of human rights,

development and a condition for social justices.

The policy captures and reiterates Kenya’s commitment to the Beijing Platform for Africa

action (BPFA), the convention of elimination for all forms of discrimination against women

(EDAW), the international conference on population and development program of action

(ICPDPoA) and millennium development goals, all of which Kenya signed for their

potential as mutually supporting processes for the advancement of gender equality.

The National Commission on Gender and Development was set by an act of parliament in

2004. It is mandated to coordinate, implement and facilitate gender mainstreaming in

1

national development and to advice the government on gender concerns. Article 27(3) in the

constitution of Kenya (2010), ensures that men and women have the right to equal treatment

and opportunities in political, economic and social spheres without discrimination.

On the other hand, the Kenya Constitution (2010), has also provided for the affirmative

action which provides for 30 percent representation of women in all public sector

appointments and a recent presidential degree which directed public institutions to ensure 30

percent representation for women in all cadres.

In spite of the advances made in many areas of public service appointments in the past two

decades, women still have a long way to go in participating on equal footing as men. Male

colleagues heavily out number them. The global picture is one of men outnumbering women

at about 20:1 at senior management levels (Acker, 2000). One explanation might be that

equality of opportunities goes unnoticed by decision makers, or is not an issue of concern

and it is therefore not acted upon (Aledejana, 2005).

Some employers discriminate against women by refusing to hire them even when

opportunities existed. Most employers prefer to hire men who had the necessary education

and skills than women because they fear that female employees will not concentrate on their

jobs because of their family responsibilities (Avalos, 2003).

In Kenya, gender equity has taken centre stage. This has resulted in the development and

enactment of various legal and policy interventions including enactment of the National

Commission on Gender and Development Act in 2003 (GOK,2005). In the same year the

National Commission on Gender and Development was established. Introduction of gender

desks in key parastatals and police stations, the introduction of the women’s enterprise fund,

the passing of the National policy on Gender and Development in 2006, and the 30%

2

presidential decree on affirmative action in public appointments (GOK, 2010) are among the

policies which will guide this research.

Kenya’s vision 2030, in its social pillar recognizes achievements of gender equality as a

prerequisite for fast and sustainable economic growth and proposes changes in opportunity,

empowerment, capabilities and vulnerabilities (G.O.K., 2007). Various strategies have been

put in place to promote gender equality and empower women.

According to Avalos (2003), the interventions include provision of free primary education

and free day secondary education that has accorded equal basic education opportunities to

the girls and boys, Operationalization of Sessional Paper no.1 of the policy framework for

education, training and research which will increase the proportion of women in teaching,

administration and research at all levels of education, implementation of affirmative action

on admission of female students to public universities, allowing girls who drop out of

primary and secondary schools due to pregnancies to be re-admitted and complete their

education and for the new recruitment and appointment in the public sector.

Closing the leadership gap between men and women is one of the central challenges of this

century. Women are underrepresented in educational management at all levels world-wide.

In Kenya, although the TSC employs all teachers on equal terms, without discrimination on

the basis of gender, male teachers seem to dominate headship positions in primary schools.

The Teacher’s Service Commission (TSC) admits that for a long time, there has been no

clear, transparent, and documented policy on the appointment and deployment of head

teachers to schools. This had created loopholes for personal interest at the expense of

effective institutional management. At the moment TSC has managed to develop a policy

guiding the appointment of principals to post primary institutions. At the moment the

3

appointment and deployment of primary schools heads is based on good classroom teaching,

active participation in co-curricular activities, and teaching experience. Prospective head

teachers are identified by persons and agents like; TSC, heads of institutions, sponsors,

County Directors of Education and District/Municipal Education Officers. The above

scenario does not emphases much on academic qualification.

Following the above gaps, TSC has developed a new policy that is going to be applied on

the identification and deployment of Headmasters, District Centre for Early Childhood

Education (DICECE), Program Officers and Teacher Advisory Centre (TAC) tutors. This

information is contained in a circular dated April 4, 2011. The policy requires those primary

school teachers on job group “k” and above be posted to primary schools as heads. The

current Non-Graduate scheme of service states that P1 teachers who acquire degrees should

be promoted to job group “k” once TSC recognizes their certificates, while Diploma holders

joining service at job group “J” are eligible for promotion to job group “k” after three years

of consistent service.

According to Education News (2011), it is argued that the new policy is in line with the

Sessional paper 1 of 2005 on education, training and research which is currently under

implementation stages. The policy is meant to ensure there is strengthened capacity for

teachers serving in primary schools and hence better learning for the pupils. The circular is

titled, Appointment and Development of Primary School Heads.

Exploring the lives and careers of women head teachers in developing countries that allow

being involved in leadership positions in school would, in addition tell us about the

experiences these women under go on their way to leadership positions. Gender disparities

are a real challenge to development. Despite their growing participation in the work-place,

4

there are still few women in the top echelons of the public decision and policy making

positions in Kenya (Suda, 2002). This is much the same in school headship.

Research on gender and leadership conducted in the United States of America (US) indicates

that for the last two decades towards the year 2010, women have been entering the

professional and managerial ranks in the US corporations at about the same rate as men. Yet

they remain underrepresented at senior levels. By 2010, women constituted only 2.2 percent

of Fortune 500 Chief Executive Officers (C.E.Os) (Catalyst, 2011). The gap widened for

women of color, who accounted for about twelve percent of managerial and professional

labor force (Catalyst, 2011), but a scant three percent of Fortune 500 directors (Catalyst,

2002); only three of the 500 C.E.Os are women of color.

Women have fared no better in Europe, where they make up about a third of managerial

positions but still only 1.8 percent of C.E.Os and about 10 percent of board seats of financial

Times 500 Companies (Catalyst, 2010) and in India, just eleven percent of large-company

chief executives are women. Furthermore, progress in women’s advancement achieved over

several decades has slowed considerably in recent years (Carter & Silva, 2010).

As a member of United Nations (UN) and the International Labor Organization (ILO), the

Kenya government is obliged to align its policies with the international standards and

requirements on gender. The government has initiated policies to reduce the gender gap, but

it is not clear as to the outcome of these initiatives. The purpose of this study is therefore to

analyze the policy framework in relation to the advancement of women into headship

positions in Kenya using a case study of Kisauni division, Mombasa County in the republic

of Kenya.

5

1.1 Statement of the Problem

Gender disparity in headship public primary schools has been an issue of concern among

policy makers, trade unionist and academicians for a long time. However, the current head

teacher appointment policy framework for primary schools does not seem to offer a lasting

solution to the problem. This would be as a result of lack of proper understanding in the

implementation of the National Gender Policies in the appointments to leadership positions.

While all the divisions in the county seem to address and comply with the one third gender

representation as provided for in the constitution, Kisauni division has a wide gender gap in

headship among the five divisions. It is against this background that this research seeks to

evaluate the gender policies and their implementation in the appointment of head teachers in

Kenya primary schools.

1.2 Purpose of the Study

The participation of women in leadership of schools is a problem common to many

developing countries which raises issues of social justice and sustainable development. In

many countries around the globe, teaching has represented one of the largest occupational

categories for women. However, despite a strong numerical representation in teaching ranks,

most men occupy the leadership roles in schools (Burgess, 2000).

The purpose of this study is to expose the existing gender imbalances in public primary

school headship, identify the barriers of women to headship positions and provide

recommendations that may lead to addressing the problem by the government and other

stakeholders.

1.3 General Objective of the Study

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To investigate and analyze various gender policies for the advancement of women into

leadership positions in Kenya primary schools.

1.4 Specific Objectives of the Study

i).To examine the application of gender policies in the appointment of head teachers in

Kenya public primary schools.

ii).To find out the perceptions of teachers on the appointment policy of head teachers in

Kenya primary schools.

iii). To find out challenges faced by women teachers in advancing to headship positions in

Kenya.

iv). To find out strategies by women teachers in closing the gender gap and increase their

numbers in headship positions in primary schools Kenya.

1.5Research Questions

i).To what extent are gender policies applied in the appointment of primary school heads in

Kenya public primary schools?

ii).What is the perceptions of teachers on the appointment policy of head teachers in primary

schools?

iii).What policy challenges do women teachers face in their efforts to ascend to headship in

Kenya public primary schools?

iv).What strategies have women teachers put in place to increase their numbers in headship

positions in Kenya public primary?

1.6 Significance of the Study

The research findings from this study would be used by all educational stakeholders in

Mombasa County and Kenya in general to improve on gender balance in primary school

7

headship in Kenya. This would align the county with the constitution requirement of at least

30% appointments of one gender (Kenya constitution, 2010). This would also improve

teachers’ motivation, particularly the female teachers, thus increasing their participation in

leadership. It would also improve on retention of teachers in schools at a period when the

country is facing high level of teacher shortage and many teaching professionals leaving the

teaching service.

The students and the community at large would gain from the motivated teachers who would

improve the quality of education for envisaged in the new constitution and vision 2030

(Republic of Kenya, 2010). It will particularly motivate the young adolescent girls in

primary schools as the female teachers will become their role models. This would also lead

to the achievement of Equal Opportunities for All, as it is envisaged in the Millennium

Development Goals (M.D.G). An educated community would be in a position of interacting

with her environment well for faster economic development.

The study will also help to shade light on the misunderstanding of the policy on the

promotion, appointment and deployment of primary school head teachers that seems to

create confusion among teachers. Finally it would also bring to light the views of the female

teachers on the appointment and deployment policy framework in addressing the gender gap

in primary schools headship in Kenya.

1.7 Limitation of the Study

The study will cover Kisauni division which is a fairly small educational administrative unit

nationally. However, the findings from the study are likely to give a reflection of the

application of gender policy in the appointment of head teachers at grass root level. Access

8

of some schools in the interior of Kisauni may pose a challenge due to poor road net-work in

the division. The research also requires a lot of financial resources, which will limit the

researcher to a fairly small sample of school and respondents. However to obtain a more

representative result, the researcher will sample at least 10% of the total population under

study as recommended by Gilbert (2001).

1.8 Delimitations of the Study

Gender policy is an expansive topic. It affects us in many aspects of our daily life in our

society. This study will be delimited to gender policies and conventions which deal with

gender representations in appointments into leadership positions in Kenya. The study will

also be delimited to registered public primary schools in Kisauni division. Kisauni was

chosen due to its multicultural and cosmopolitan nature to reduce any cultural, political and

economic biases in the research findings.

1.9 The Theoretical Perspective of the Study

In scholarly writing, a theory is an idea that has been tested and is backed by evidence. A

theoretical framework is therefore a collection of interrelated concepts which help a

researcher to determine what to measure and which statistical relationship to look for.

Various theories have been used to contextualize the gender inequality aspect. These range

from socialization theory to hierarchical gender prescriptions. The servant leadership theory

proposed by Greenleaf (1997) and advanced by Bass (2002), seeks to develop individuals

who ensures that others needs are met. It also advocates on a group oriented approach to

decision making as a means of strengthening institutions and society. The major limitation

to this model is that there no agreed standards to measure the attributes of leaders. The

model’s soft approach is unsuited to a competitive environment.

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This study will be guided by the social role theory which was proposed by Mead (1947), and

advanced by Eagly (1997). Social role theory is grounded on the notion that one’s actions,

behaviors, dispositions and desires are determined by a set of specific socially determined

roles. The theory argues that men and women behave differently in social situations and take

different roles, due to the expectations that society puts upon them. This includes women

taking positions of lower power, meeting glass ceilings having home-making roles. Three

common patterns emerge, that is; women take on more domestic tasks, women and men

have different occupational roles, and finally in occupations, women often have lower status.

This theory perfectly explains why more women teachers remain as class-room teachers

with very few in headship positions. Social role theory implies that individuals might

question the capacity of women in particular positions, such as leadership roles. That is men

who are regarded as agentic often occupy leadership roles. As a consequence, individuals

often assume that leadership demands these manifestations of an assertive, agentic

personality (Peters, Kinsey & Malloy, 2004). Gender differences in power are perceived to

be eroding. As women gain more access to positions typically associated with power, the

society see them as social misfits (Dlekman, Goodfriend & Goodwin, 2004).

Perhaps the most telling implication of the social role theory is that the individuals who

violate gender stereotypes are often perceived unfavorably (Heilman & Tamkins, 2004). For

this reason women have kept a low profile when it comes to headship of schools. That is

gender stereotypes are perceived as prescriptive not only descriptive (Rudman & Glick,

2001), delineating how male and females should behave. Both men and women demonstrate

these biases against female who violate social stereotypes (Heilman & Tamkins, 2004).

10

Social role theory proposes that the social structure is the underlying force for the gender

differences. According to Norrander (2008), Social role theory proposes that sex

differentiated behavior is driven by division of labor between two sexes within a society.

These socially constructed gender roles are considered to be hierarchical and characterized

as a male-advantaged hierarchy (Wood & Eargly, 2002). For these reasons women will be

confined to reproductive activities and thus more involved in a range of social activities.

Social role theory is often seen as a form of “social determinism whereby individuals are

trapped into stereotypes, which people then choose to maintain as customs or “Social

determinism” (Zurbriggen, 2010). Wood & Eagly (2002) argues that men and women are

also subjected to different expectations for behavior. Societal expectations for proper or

socially condoned activities lead to different behavior on the part of men and women for

example “men are expected to be more assertive and women are expected to be more

communal”.

Therefore women and men will strive to fulfill these expectations, or social roles in various

facets of social interactions (Diekman & Eagly (2008). Norrander (2008) notes that, social

role theory suggests that women are likely to be penalized for acting assertively or in other

ways that are counter to stereotypical expectations. And this has confined women to class-

room teachers leaving headship position to men.

1.9.1 The Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework for this study will be adapted from the Discrepancy Model

(Malusa, 1990). The framework postulates that if the Teachers Service Commission applies

all gender policies as stipulated in the Kenya constitution and other international

conventions on equal opportunities, there will be gender equity in headship among public

11

primary schools in Kenya. The model notes that the goal of discrepancy investigation is to

look for gaps between what was intended and what actually happened and or their aspects of

the program which is in agreement.

The model will help interrogate the government’s gender goals and why gender gaps are

persistent in Kenya’s primary schools headship positions. According to this model, the main

areas to look for in discrepancy in gender imbalance in school headship are: teacher

promotion policy on one hand and actual policy implementation on the other hand; planned

objectives verses actual outcomes; differences between assumptions and realities; and the

discrepancy between different aspects of the policy.

This conceptual framework will help the researcher focus on the variables of the study and

in addition provide a feedback to the problem under investigation in this study. The

dependent variable in this research therefore is the appointment of head teachers in public

primary schools in Kenya. On the other hand, the independent variables will include the

socio-cultural barriers, political interferences, male dominated selection panel, lack of

interest among female teachers in headship positions and lack of clear information and

awareness when the positions arise. The independent variables can be summed up into three

categories as; individual, organizational, and social-cultural factors.

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Dependent variable Independent variable

feedback

Fig (1). A conceptual framework, showing factors that hinder women from advancing into

headship positions in primary schools.

Individual factors

. Fear of transfers

. Attending seminars

. Family chores

. Leadership skills

Socio-cultural barriers

. Political interferences

. Male dominated panel

. Socialization process

Organizational factors

. Promotion policy

. Policy implementation

Appointment of head teachers in public primary schools.

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1.9.2 Operational Definitions of Terms

Appointment: Refers to issuance of letters to teachers upon recruitment, promotion and

deployment.

Bias: Refers to a set of assumptions made regarding the abilities and or handicaps of a group

or groups.

County: Refers to second level of governance in Kenya, after the national government.

There are 47 counties in Kenya.

Deployment: Refers to the process of posting teachers to areas where they are best qualified

to perform.

Gender: refers to sexual identity, male or female, as it relates to culture and society.

Gender balance: Refers to the representation of women or men in a course or post degree

equal to their representation in the population of the corresponding institution.

Gender imbalance: Refers to a state where one gender dominates the social and economic

fabrics of the society.

Gender equity: Refers to fair treatment and equal opportunities for both men and women in

the society.

Head teacher: Refers to heads of primary school institutions in Kenya.

Policy: Refers to the rules and principles which guide the appointment of head teachers in

schools.

CHAPTER TWO: Review of Related Literature

2.0 Introduction

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This chapter is a review of the available literature related to educational policy on the

appointment and deployment of primary school head teachers. It also includes a review of

researches which have been done in Kenya and other parts of the world, on issues of gender

imbalance in school leadership and management.

2.1 Review of Related Literature

A variety of studies have suggested various explanations to account for the low

representation of women in leadership positions in educational systems of developed and

developing countries. Among this are cultural scripts that identify feminine attributes as

contributing to ineffective leadership (Dauglas,2003), latent discrimination

(Coleman,2002),and male dominance in educational administration ,which in turn, hinders

the leadership opportunities for many women(Degraaf, Tilly & Nael, 2001).

Male dominance of leadership positions is likely to lead to recruiting head teachers who

resemble their sponsors in attitude, philosophy deed and appearance, hobbies and club

membership i.e. men (Rey, 2005). Women’s underrepresentation in leadership positions

may be attributed also to women’s own decision not to apply for promotion in education for

a variety of reasons, such as lack of necessary aspirations, lack of awareness of the

promotion system and a lack of confidence that they will succeed, gender based

socialization, fear of failure, and lack of competitiveness (Diekman & Eargly, 2000).

In the education job market, the rate of women participation diminishes as we climb the

academic ladder with few women in the management positions in schools. In the USA 86%

of all the school superintendents, 65% of all the assistant superintendents, 72% of all the

principals and 63% of vice principals in schools are men (Grant, 2005). In central America,

Mexico and Panama there is unequal access to school leadership positions on the women’s

15

promotions is impeded (Dimmock & Walker, 2005), noted that women represents only 18%

of the nation’s superintendents in comparison to 75% of the nation’s teaching force. In

Alberta women hold 43.5% of the headship appointments in elementary schools (Hatch,

2008).

Although there are various patterns of representation in school leadership both nationally

and internationally, three common trends emerge: educational leaders are predominantly

male at all levels in virtually all countries, women are underrepresented at managerial levels

and that the proportion of women employed in teaching declines as the age of students rise

(Burns & Verba, 2001). Data analysis from international researches in Britain and USA

indicates that, women teachers have fewer chances of promotion than their male

counterparts and are particularly non-existent in top academic administrative positions

(Guidmond, 2008).

Sifuna (2006), argues that there is so much gender conditioning and sex stereotyping that

takes place at the family. Generally the modes of socialization that children are subjected to

from their infancy are influenced by cultural definitions and ascriptions to ones sex. Culture

has assigned various norms and statuses to people of different sexes. The way children are

socialized into these norms and statuses is sometimes biased and subjective to the extent that

it affects a child’s educational life chances in later life.

2.2 Gender Issues in the Appointment of Primary School Head

Teachers

The absence of a clear, transparent, and documented policy on appointment and deployment

of primary school head teachers has created loopholes for personal interests at the expense

of effective institutional management (TSC,2007), which is critical for the realization of

16

quality education. In order to ensure high quality in the management of educational

institutions in the country, it is important to identify, select and train the right people to head

institutions. This is expected to enhance good performance in our education institutions and

minimize discontent and unrest.

The policy for appointment of primary school heads is not clear as is with the selection and

appointment of post primary institutions (TSC, 2007). At the moment the appointment and

deployment of primary institution heads is based on good classroom teaching, active

participation in co-curriculum activities and teaching experience. The identifying persons

and agents include: Teachers Service Commission, heads of institutions, sponsors,

Provincial Directors of Education and District/Municipal Education Officers.

The above scenario has led to a number of challenges in institutional management which

include, among others: External interference in the appointment and deployment of heads of

institutions; Promotion based on non-professional considerations; Protection of heads of

institutions by influential personalities even when such heads deserve to be disciplined;

Localization of appointment and deployment of heads of institutions to serve in their home

District or Communities; Rampant cases of mismanagement and misappropriation of

institutional funds and property, and frequent absenteeism due to personal and other

interests.

2.3 Women in School Management Positions

Even though the majority of teachers in schools in many countries are female, only a small

percentage of these are school head teachers. For primary schools in the United States of

America, the digest of education statistics reports that 12% of primary school head teachers

are women in recent years. In European primary education the general percentage is about

17

20%, while in Netherlands, it is less than 7% (Obura, 2000). This underrepresentation of

women could be called ‘quantitative gender inequality’ which can be noticed due to the fact

that head teachers, teachers and pupils, do not work in a gender-neutral environment.

Furthermore, some African governments are not committed to the course of women. Thus,

there is need for deliberate political will by African governments to implement the

conventions and protocols that address gender issues. Strategic Goal number one of the

Beijing platform of 1995, implored governments to commit themselves to establishing the

goals of gender balance in government bodies and committees, public administrative

entities, measures to substantially increase the number of women, to achieve equal

representation of women through positive action in all government and public administration

position (Mouly, 2000). A study carried out USA found out that its fruits were not good as

expected, since the percentages of female head teachers had barely raised due to women’s

belief that the policies are a token gesture that do not reach into the depth and subtle politics,

especially in schools.

Interestingly, from the few reports on women’s leadership styles in developing countries, it

seems that women adopt an ‘androgenic’ style, i.e. a combination of ‘masculine’ and

‘feminine’ leadership styles, that derives, by and large from the strong- male dominant

values in developing nations, coupled with women’s own tendencies and needs. On one

hand, the women leaders in manifest ‘feminine’ leadership style, even though on moderate

level as Celikten (2005) noted. A common line of feminine orientation appeared among

women in different developing countries. For example, a caring attitude is expressed by

female head teachers in Singapore and in the Caribbean (Grant, 2005) with regard to both

staff and students.

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Three major career experiences of women administrators are documented in the research on

women in educational systems of developing countries. First, the family, and especially the

father, has a key role in the career advancement and leadership of women in developing

countries. Cubillo and Brown (2003) showed that parental support was paramount to all

their respondents from nine different countries. All of their study identified their fathers as a

seminal influence in their early education and subsequent careers.

In the same lines, Kenyan teachers saw their own career success not exclusively as an

individual achievement but as something achieved with the support of family and

community on behave of the wider community (Burgess, 2000). Second, female head

teachers reported having difficulty facing their staff, sometimes even the female staff as in

Trinidad and Tobago (Morris, 1999) and in Turkey (Celikten, 2005).

Some Turkish head teachers found them threatening (Cubillo and Brown, 2003). Turkish

female principals said that the most serious difficulty they faced in their jobs was the

reluctance of women teachers to work for women principals (Celikten, 2005).

Third, some career experiences of women principals refer to normal ‘difficulties’ every

manager is supposedly faced with. Research that examined stress levels of female

kindergarten principals in Macau, China, found their work was moderately stressful. The

authors concluded that these principals were coping quite successfully with the demands of

their work in providing an education for young children. The areas of their work they found

to be the most difficult to deal with were the recruiting of a sufficient number of students,

and sustaining a balanced, or surplus budget (Al-Khalif & Migniuolo, 2001). These concerns

were not related to their gender, but to the economic contexts of kindergarten teaching in

that country.

19

Certainly, the role of women in management has become a topic of special interest and

importance in the present decade. It is an era when women have come to limelight in our

society. However, affirmative action and equal opportunities programs have not yet

significantly increased the number of women managers in industries, banks, schools, and so

on. This however is due to marginalization of women in most societies. Women are more

adapted to run the household than man. Therefore the more women will have in the

leadership positions in the world, the more stable and dependable the world will become

(Tedrow, 1999).

Generally, female managers are faced with certain kinds of conflicts. The first real problem

she must to handle is a domestic one. More often than not she is a mother, and a wife with

the responsibilities of the house. New priories at home have to be established at this time

and the person most affected is the husband. The spouse situation is the most difficult of all.

Since the woman manager usually has little encouragements from outsiders, it is imperative

that her spouse must be by her side all the way. If he is not supportive, she has two obvious

choices, either to give up the goal of being a manager or give up the spouse.

Society and societal priories in the past had demanded that women remain in the appropriate

service careers of nursing, secretarial work, home economies or teaching, because the

influences or usefulness of these careers for future homemakers and mothers. Consequently,

women have for the most part chosen these compatible role arrangements. As such moving

out into a profession such as management or administration is considered a precarious

challenge for women (Whitaker, 2008).

2.4 General Cultural and Social Values

20

A major obstacle to women’s access to leadership positions in school refers to the cultural

and social structures that bifurcates the society into male and female arenas. It is

Entrenched and inscribed in the culture of many developing countries such as China and

Islamic countries attribute certain tasks and spheres of responsibility to each gender,

assuming that one must behave in accordance with the societal expectations of one’s

gender(Celiken,2005). Leadership positions in this sense belong to male members of the

society and women should refrain from attempting to attain this kind of position. Otherwise

they are susceptible to sanctions such as, reduced chances to marry.

In the traditional Chinese culture, for illustration, women have always been in the

submissive roles both at home and in society. The cultural and social assumption is that

women are less strong than men and therefore cannot hold managerial positions are common

in many developing countries. Dauglas (2003) explains: In Nepalese society, women are in

many cases still chained to the house, which is seen as the space where they may obtain

ritual and spiritual purity. If a woman obtains this purity, which many still belief to a

significant degree can only be achieved in the home, through domestic activities, then she

can evolve to the next spiritual plane, that is, can be reborn as a man.

The barriers experienced by women in developing countries seem to be determined by

specific cultural and religious beliefs and values that define femininity in terms of marriage,

housekeeping and child-raising. Kenya’s Gender and Governance Program (GoK, 2010),

says that, in the year 2006, the government declared that henceforth, 30% all appointments

in public services were to be served for women. The directive was intended to create equity

in the employment of men and women and promotions to senior positions in public sector. It

is intended to provide equal opportunities to all competing groups in the society, including

21

women. But while it has been hailed as a milestone in eradicating discrimination and

reforming the education sector, its results remain a contested terrain.

Generally speaking, the common denomination for the very few women administrators in

developing nations is their strong beliefs in themselves. For increasing women’s belief and

confidence in their abilities, women were found to need moral support and a sense of trust

from their families (Obura, 2000), as well as extensive mass educational programs coupled

with conscious efforts to change traditional values (Janebova, 2008).

These findings are consistent with reports on African-American women administrators

indicating that family, culture and spiritual experiences in their childhood positively

influenced their advancement (Bloom & Erlandson, 2003). Similarly, firm beliefs in their

competence and abilities to improve education were contributing factors for seeking

administrative posts in the first place among the Hispanic women in US (Guidmond, 2008),

and among Bedouin female principals in Israel (Aburabia-Queder,2006).

Very low girls’ participation in primary and secondary education in many developing

countries make it less plausible for many women to be able to acquire the skills, training and

competencies necessary for professional and managerial positions in education. Education is

seen as having little relevance to the future role envisaged for daughters in developing

countries (Brown & Ralph, 1996).

Women and men with the same educational qualifications reach different levels in

occupational status; the men having easier access to formal sector employment, managerial

and technical jobs or entrepreurship. One reason to this discrimination relates to many men’s

vested interest in holding onto power and authority rather than sharing it with women

(Brown &Ralph, 1996) as well as men’s tendency to hire people who look like them, i.e.

22

male teachers. Similar experiences are reported about minority women administrators in the

US (Enomoto., 2000).

Gender disparity in employment opportunities in Kenya are a real challenge to development.

Despite their growing participation in the work place, there are still few women in the top

echelons of public decisions and policy making positions in Kenya (Suda, 2002). This may

be much the same in school headship. When the majority of teachers in the developing

countries are male, it is hardly surprising that there are so few women in leadership positions

in schools. By 1998, only 15% of heads were female in Kenya (Obura, 2000).

A few writers argued that women’s low confidence and self-esteem with respect to their

management capabilities are likely to stunt their career advancement in school. For instance

Uganda women who have been socialized to adopt family roles were indicated to have low

self-esteem and low confidence in their ability outside the domestic role (Brown & Ralph,

1996).

Similarly, research conducted in Turkey showed that women do not apply to be principals,

even when they are as qualified as male applicants, at least in part because they have a

negative self-perceptions and lack confidence in their qualifications and experiences

(Bianchi, Robinson & Milkie,2006). Aledejana’s (2005) work was insightful in illuminating

this aspect in Asian countries. He showed that gender role stereotypes in educational

materials, in the curriculum and in the school environment transit gendered attitudes towards

the role of girls and boys engender negative self-perceptions in girls that could impede their

personal development.

To some writers, the major barriers to women’s advancement, refers to family

responsibilities that, the majority of women in developing countries hold (Olser, 1997). In

23

traditional societies women are expected to be responsible for their families, including

remaining close to their children, the husband and the extended family. In this sense,

Turkish women do not desire administrative positions that mean long working hours and

difficult conditions, while their husbands’ resistance obviated any career advancement

(Celikten, 2005). Similarly Kenyan women cannot take managerial posts because of the

travel time involved. Likewise, heavy domestic and husband’s resistance are identified by

both male and female teachers in Kenya as barriers to career advancement (Olser, 1997).

CHAPTER THREE: Research Methodology

24

3.0 Introduction

This chapter is structured into Study area; Study population; Sampling procedures; Data

collection methods; Research instruments; Reliability and validity of research instruments;

Data analysis and interpretation.

3.1 Research Design

Creswell (2005), defines research designs as the specific procedures involved in the last

three steps of the research process; data collection, analysis and reporting. This research will

employ a mixed design method encompassing a cross sectional survey and case study. This

is because as stated by Creswell (2005), mixed method research provides more

comprehensive evidence of a research study. He further observed that mixed method design

enables the researcher to use all the tools of data collection. The researcher will use a

questionnaire to gather data from teachers, while different interview guides will be used to

collect data from head teachers, DEO and the SMC chairpersons.

3.2 Location of the study

This study will be carried out in Kisauni division of Mombasa County in the Republic of

Kenya. Kisauni division is found at the coast of Kenya. It is a cosmopolitan division with a

population of 179,243 people (Census report, 2010). The major economic activity in the

division is subsistence farming. The major crops being coconut, mangoes and maize whose

income is low leading to low economic levels, which to some extent has lead to low literacy

level. The locals are predominantly Muslims, with a few Christians, and other religions

including traditionalist.

3.3 Target Population

25

The target population for the study will include 400 teachers, 28 head teachers, 28School

Management Commission (SMC) chairpersons, and one District Education Officer (DEO)

within Kisauni division.

3.4 Sample and Sampling Procedures

The study will employ purposive and stratified random sampling. Stratified sampling will be

used to group schools into those headed by men and those headed women. According to

Nicpa (1997), stratified sampling procedure helps to reduce chance variations between a

sample and a population it represents. Random sampling will be used to select male head

teachers because they are many. Purposive sampling will be used in selecting all the five

female head teachers because they are few and research is more interested with women

advancement. Gilbert (2001) suggests 10% sample of large populations and 20% of small

populations as minimums. He further argues that such a sample represents the highest

variability that can be expected in the population.

Table 1: Table showing sampling procedure.

PARTICIPANTS Total Sampling Percentage Total sample

Headmistresses 5 random 100% 4

Headmasters 23 random 20% 5

Teachers 400 random 20% 80

DEO 1 purposive 100% 1

SMC chairperson 28 random 10% 3

Source: DEOs office Kisauni division

26

3.5 Research Tools

In order to collect the data the following research instruments will be used: A detailed

questionnaire for teachers, and interview guides for head teachers, school management

committee chairpersons, and DEO. Borg and Gall (1996), states that, interviews and

questionnaires are intensively used in nearly all educational researches to collect information

that is not directly observable. He observes further that, questionnaires allow data to be

collected from many respondents within a short period of time. In-depth interviews will be

used to obtain information which respondents would not reveal by any other method of data

collection (Cohen & Marion, 1980). The researcher will develop the questionnaire from the

literature review and by generating questions that the researcher will feel to be relevant to

the study.

3.6 Piloting

To establish reliability of research instruments, a stratified random sample of three schools

will be selected to participate in a pilot study. One school should be headed by a female and

the other two by male. This selection will ensure a 10% representation of the 28 schools in

Kisauni division (Gilbert, 2001). According to Gilbert (2001), the schools used in piloting

should not be included in the final sample schools to be used in the research. The researcher

will distribute the questionnaires to all teachers in the three schools who will be asked to

give their responses. The researcher will conduct interviews with the head teachers and the

chairpersons of the SMCs in same schools using their respective interview guides. The

results obtained will be analyzed to verify their accuracy and consistency. The researcher

will use the obtained results to ensure that ambiguous information is removed and any

weaknesses corrected in the final instruments.

27

3.7 Validity

Validity is the degree to which a test measures what is supposed to measure (Mason &

Bramble, 2000). To ensure content validity of the research instruments, the researcher will

discuss the items in the instruments with one gender expert and two lecturers in the school

of education Mount Kenya University who are also expert in educational research. These

experts will analyze in precise, the specific content universe, objectives, and how the content

universe will be sampled, and advice the researcher accordingly. Nully (2000), notes that,

by using a panel of experts to review the test specification and the selection of the items the

content validity of a test can be improved. The experts will be able to review the items and

comment on whether the items cover a representative sample of the behavior domain.

3.8 Reliability

The reliability of a research instrument concern the extent to which the instruments yields

the same results on repeated trials (Yin, 2003). To test the internal consistency reliability,

this research will employ Croncbach’s alpha. The coefficient alpha is an internal reliability

consistence index designed for use with tests containing items that have no right answers.

This is often the case with attitude instruments that use the Likert scale. Alpha coefficient

ranges in value from 0 to 1 and may be used to describe the reliability of factors extracted

from a multiple formatted questionnaire or scale. The higher the score, the more the reliable

the generalized the scale is. Nully (2000), has indicated 0.7 to be an acceptable reliability

coefficient but lower thresholds are sometimes used. The instrument in these areas often

asks respondents to rate the degree to which they agree or disagree with a statement or a

particular scale. For this reason, a test will be administered to the head teachers and teachers

of the pilot schools, and then the scores will be coded and entered into Cronbach alpha SPSS

28

software for calculations. The results obtained will be used to collect any error and adjust

the research instruments in readiness to collect data from the field.

3.9 Data Collection Procedures

After convincing the experts in the school of education, Mount Kenya University through

this research proposal, the researcher will seek for a research permit from the commission

for research science and technology to carry out a research within the schools in Kisauni

division. The researcher will self administer the Questionnaires to the teachers in the

selected schools. The respondents will be required to read and fill in the questionnaires the

same day within the school and collect them back. This system will ensure that every

respondent supplied with a questionnaire returns it for coding and final analysis. Advance

booking and appointment will be secured with the DEO, the chairpersons of the SMC and

head teachers for the face to face interviews. The researcher will interview the head teachers

and the education officer personally using an interview guide and record the data by note

taking.

3.9.1 Data Analysis

Both qualitative and quantitative approach of data analysis will be used for the study. The

questionnaires from the field will be scored, edited and coded and entered into computer for

analysis using a statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) version 11.5 (Nic, 2000).

Qualitative data obtained from interviews will be transcribed, organized into categories, sub-

categories, and themes as they emerge from the field and presented in prose form and

peoples quoted words according to the themes and objectives of the study. Descriptive

statistics such as frequencies and percentages, means and standard deviations will be used to

29

describe the data. The analyzed data will be presented in form of frequency tables and

graphical presentation.

3.9.2 Ethical Issues and Consideration

The principle of voluntary participation requires that people not be coerced into participating

in research. Prospective research participants will be fully informed about the procedures

and the purpose of the study and give their consent to participate. The research will ensure

confidentiality by strictly adhering to the principle of anonymity. The participants will not

be required to write their names or of their institution anywhere in the questionnaire. The

participants will be assured that the information they will give will not be made available to

anyone who is not directly involved in the study.

Research Gaps

The researcher identified some researches which have been conducted in

Kenya related to the problem in question. They include: Chisikwa (2010),did

a research on influence of social cultural factors on gender imbalance in

appointment of head teachers in mixed secondary schools in vihiga district,

Kenya. Waweru, Administrative challenges facing primary school teachers in

Kamwenge division, Thika district , Kenya. Nyongesa, Ndiku, Mauluko &

Shiundu (2010), looked into factors and processes involved in the

appointment of head teachers for secondary schools in Kenya. Polit ical

concerns. Mugo, researched on factors hindering women teachers from

accessing leadership and management positions in primary schools of

Mpeketoni division, Lamu County. Although all the above studies are geared

towards gender and headship in schools, none of the studies has looked into

the implementation of gender policies in the appointment of head teachers in

30

Kenya. The researches indicates that women are highly underrepresented in

headship positions in Kenya both in primary and secondary schools, but none

of them has interrogated why various gender policies have not streamlined

gender imbalance in headship.

31

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APPENDIX A: RESEARCH BUDGET AND PLAN

Table.2: showing the budget estimates for the research project

ITEM COST (K.SH)

PROPOSAL PREPARATION AND DEVELOPMENT.

Travelling.Typing, printing, and photocopying.Data collection and analysis.Data processing.StationaryProduction of the final document.Miscellaneous. GRAND TOTAL.

5000200005000200020000250020006000K.SH 62500

36

SOURCE: PERSONAL SAVINGS

Table.3: Showing plan of activities, 2012

Feb March April May June July Aug Sept

Proposal writing

Compiling report

Pilot study

Data collection

Data analysis

Compiling report

submission

APPENDIX B: List of Primary Schools in Kisauni Vision

Table.4: Showing list of public primary schools in Kisauni division

1. Maweni

2. Ziwani Boys

3. Shimo-la-tewa Borstal

4. Kashani

5. Frèretown

6. Kisauni

7. Kisauni Baptist

8. Khadija

9. Kongowea

10. Mlaleo

15. Maunguja

16. Mtopanga

17. Majaoni

18. Mwakirunge

19. Marimani

20. Mweza

21. Kiembeni Baptist

22. Utange

23. Concordia

24. Bamburi

37

11. Ziwa la Ng’ombe

12. Fathil Athim

13. Kengeleni

14. Azhar Shariff

25. Kadzandani

26. Shimo la Tewa

27. Kiembeni Estate

28. Pwani Mentally

Source: DEOs office, Kisauni division

APPENDIX C: Questionnaire for Teachers

Mount Kenya University,

P.O Box

Mombasa.

July/ August, 2012.

Dear teacher,

RE: REQUEST TO FILL THE QUETIONNAIRE.

38

I am a post-graduate student in Mount Kenya University pursuing a master’s degree in

Educational Planning, Management and Administration. I am conducting a study on Gender

Policies and Advancement of Women into Headship in Kenya primary schools. I hereby

request you to respond to the questionnaire items attached herewith as honestly as you can,

to the best of your knowledge.

The information you will provide will be treated as confidential as possible and used for

academic purposes only.

DO NOT INCLUDE YOUR NAME OR NAME OF YOUR SCHOOL.

Your cooperation will be highly appreciated.

Thank you.

Josephat O. Orina.

Instructions

Please tick [ ] in the box text for right responses.

SECTION A

PERSONAL INFORMATION

1. Gender: Male [ ] female [ ]

2. Age bracket: below 25 [ ] 25--34 [ ] 35--44 [ ] 45--54 [ ] over 55 [ ]

3. Academic qualification: Masters [ ] Bachelors [ ] Secondary [ ] Primary [ ]

4. Professional qualification: UT [ ] P3 [ ] P2 [ ] P1 [ ] ATs [ ]

5. What is your current designation? Teacher [ ], D/HM [ ]

6. Teaching experience:

0-10 [ ] 10-20 [ ] 20-30 [ ] above30 [ ]

7. What is the gender of the head teacher of your school?

Male [ ] female [ ]

What gender do you prefer to be your head? Male [ ] female [ ] any [ ]

8. Give a reason for your preference above.

a). Have you ever served as the head teacher under TSC?

Yes [ ] No [ ]

39

b). If the answer is yes to the above question, give the reason for your stepping down.

9. a) Given a chance, would you like to become the head teacher now or in future?

Yes [ ], No [ ]

b) If the answer is No to the above question, give a reason.

SECTION B

Please tick the right responses in the questions below.

KEY

S.D= Strongly Disagree, D= Disagree, U=Undecided, A=Agree, S.A=Strongly Agree

S.D D U A S.A

i Is the appointment of teachers to headship positions free

and fair to all teachers?

ii Is the information about the vacancies available for

promotion readily available to all teachers?

iii Does gender influence the appointment of head

teachers?

iv Do Women stand high chances of ascending to headship

than men?

v Do Political connections assist a teacher to be appointed

into headship?

vi The local community prefers male head teachers than

female head teachers?

vii Are male teachers more qualified to take headship

positions than women?

viii Do family and house work chores discourage women

from becoming head teachers?

40

ix Does handling Discipline of pupils and teachers

discourage women from becoming heads?

x Does women fear headship because of the frequent

transfers associated with it?

xi Frequent seminars and travelling associated with

headship is unfriendly to women.

Do some teachers use bribes to be

appointed to headship?

41

APPENDIX D: Interview Guide for Head Teachers

This interview guide will seek the following information from the head teachers.

1. Gender of head teacher: Male [ ], Female [ ]

2. Gender of the deputy head teacher: Male [ ], Female [ ]

3. Number of teachers in your school: [ ]

4. Number of teachers in the school: Male [ ] Female [ ]

5. When did you start your teaching career? And how did you get your promotions up to

headship?

6. How did you learn about the existing vacancies?

6. Were you interviewed for the headship position?

7. How many interviews did you attend for the same positions before you got confirmed

as the head teacher?

8. What was the composition of the interviewing panel in terms of gender?

9. In your opinion, do you think that interviews for headship and promotions are done

fairly and transparent?

11. What were the reception of the SMC and the school community of your first station

as the head teacher in general?

12. Does ones connections with TSC head quarters help in quick promotions to headship?

13. Do local leaders like MPs influence the appointments and transfers of head teachers

from their schools?

42

APPENDIX E: Interview Guide for the D.E.O

1. Gender: Male [ ] Female [ ]

2. Work experience.

3. How long have you worked in Kisauni as the DEO?

4. How many public primary schools do we have in Kisauni division?

5. Number of head teachers: Male [ ], Female [ ].

6. Number of teachers in Kisauni division: Males [ ], Females [ ].

7. As a field agent for TSC, does TSC have a policy on the identification, selection and

appointment of head teachers as it is with post primary institution?

8. What is the position of TSC on gender representation on headship in relation to

affirmative action?

9. Your district has few women in headship than men, far below the 30% constitutional

requirement, what would be the reason behind this?

10. To what extent is TSC addressing the gender in the appointment of head teachers in

Kisauni division and the country at large?

11. What are the roles of the DEOs in the selection and appointments of head teachers of

primary schools?

12. What are the challenges facing the deployment of head teachers within Kisauni

division?

13. What are your immediate plans of ensuring gender equity in the distribution of head

teachers in your district?

14. What is the impact of the gender imbalance in headship in your district on teacher

motivation and academic performance?

15. Some head teachers get rejected from some schools, has it ever happened in your

district?

14. How does TSC protect such head teachers?

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APPENDIX F: Interview Guide for the SMC Chairpersons

1. Gender: Female [ ], Male [ ]

2. How long have you worked as the SMC for your school?

3. How is SMC constituted?

4. What is your general role in the management of the school affairs?

6. What are the requirements for one to qualify as a SCM chairperson?

7. What is the role of SMC in the selection and appointment of deputy head teachers and

head teachers?

8. To what extent does the SMC influence the appointment and transfers of head teachers

from their schools?

9. When did your school start?

10. How many head teachers have the school had since it started? Male [ ] Female [

]

11. What are the major challenges facing the SMC in your school in the efforts of

performing their duties?

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mmm

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