ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF IRRIGATION SCHEMES IN EASTERN AMHARA, ETHIOPIA: IN CASE OF SANKA TRADITIONAL AND GOLINA MODERN IRRIGATION SCHEMES A Project Paper Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Cornell University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MPS in Integrated Watershed Management and Hydrology By Melisew Misker Belay January 2012
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ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF IRRIGATION SCHEMES IN
EASTERN AMHARA, ETHIOPIA: IN CASE OF SANKA TRADITIONAL AND
GOLINA MODERN IRRIGATION SCHEMES
A Project Paper
Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School
of Cornell University
in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
MPS in Integrated Watershed Management and Hydrology
The institutional and support services situation was assessed with the help of
community meetings of all the dwellers and beneficiaries, interviews of sample
community members, interviews with development agents (DAs) and Woreda
Agriculture and Rural Development Office and focus group discussions.
Primary data were collected by surveying the beneficiaries of the irrigation schemes
by conducting a questionnaire with 60 household beneficiaries from the Sanka
irrigation scheme and 60 from the Golina. Among these 20% of the interviews were
female headed households. Various discussions with water users, elders and leaders of
the schemes were conducted using informal tools and semi structured interviews,
22
(Figure 10). Development agents and district agricultural experts also participated in
the interview process. Transect walks and on-farm discussions were employed to get
an overview of the entire scheme. Focus group discussions were held with farmers
who were assumed to be the first, including water fathers or ‘Yewuha’ committees, to
bring new or innovative ideas and practices in designing, operation and maintenance
of irrigation schemes. In addition, secondary data were collected from different
sources about the scheme. Moreover, photos were taken showing general overview of
the schemes and particular innovations within each scheme.
The questionnaire was pre-tested, modified and updated upon piloting. Based on the
feedback received from piloting the questionnaire, further modifications were made
and the questionnaire was translated into the local language (Amharic). The process
from questionnaire preparation to the final survey was fully participatory and this
questionnaire is appended as Appendix B.
Figure 10: Discussion with the beneficiaries of irrigation schemes
23
3.5 Method of Data Analysis
Data collected to evaluate the technical adequacy of the scheme were analyzed
descriptively but separately for both schemes. The data collected through
questionnaires were analyzed descriptively using Statistical Package for Social
Science (SPSS).
24
CHAPTER FOUR
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Technical Efficiency
The prevailing parameters assessed for technical efficiency of the scheme included
conveyance efficiency, application efficiency, dependability of duration and
dependability of irrigation interval for both schemes.
4.1.1 Conveyance efficiency
The conveyance efficiency of the main canal monitored during this study at Golina
and at Sanka is presented in Table 1 and 2, respectively. Loses of irrigation water in
the conveyance system can be a major component of the overall water losses
particularly for farms located at distance from water sources where the main canals are
long, unlined and aligned on hillsides (Appendix A Figure 1, 2, 3 and 4). Overtopping
of canals also was considered in conveyance loss (Appendix A Figure 2). The quantity
of loss depends on quality of operation, and maintenance, and the nature of the soil
that affects the seepage rate.
As seen in Table 1, the conveyance efficiency for Golina modern irrigation scheme
measured at a distance of 600m is 98.3% and 92.6% at the main canal and secondary
canal, respectively. The amount of water lost in the main canal is estimated to be
0.001m3 per second (1L/sec). In the secondary canal the amount of water lost is
0.003m3 per second (3 L/sec) which is higher as compared to the main lined canal.
While the conveyance efficiency in the main canal at Sanka traditional irrigation
scheme is 45.2% and 31.5% on the secondary canal (Table 2). For the 880 m distance
25
main canal the amount of water lost is 0.022m3 per second or 22L/sec. by considering
the figure calculated in the conveyance efficiency (22L/sec), large amount of water is
lost from the system which could have irrigated more than 11 ha with a duty of 2
L/sec/ ha.
Table 1 Computed conveyance efficiency of the upper main (UMC), lower main (LLC), upper secondary (USC) and lower secondary (LSC) canals for Golina modern irrigation scheme
Table 2 Computed conveyance efficiency of the upper main (UMC), lower main (LLC), upper secondary (USC) and lower secondary (LSC) canals for Sanka traditional irrigation scheme
The major crops grown in Golina include maize, tef, sorghum, tomato, onion and
pepper. Tef and maize are grown as rain fed and irrigated crops while sorghum
particularly those long maturing types are exclusively grown under rain fed condition.
Tef is the most important crop among the cereals and ranks first in terms of area and
grain production followed by sorghum. Production of vegetables under rain fed
condition is virtually impossible unless the seasonal rainfall is supplemented with
irrigation water. However during the irrigation season as it is indicated in Table 9
56.7% of the Golina respondents are producing horticultural crops, mainly onion,
pepper and tomato; whereas 11.7% of the respondents choose to grow cereals and
31.7% prefer to grow both cereal and horticultural crops.
Table 9 Type of crop produced using irrigation (Golina irrigation scheme)
crop type Frequency Percent
cereals 7 11.7 horticulture 34 56.7
1 and 2 19 31.7 Total 60 100
30
In Sanka traditional irrigation scheme the major crops grown are maize, wheat, tef,
and potato. Tef, maize and wheat are grown as rain fed and irrigated crops. Similar to
Golina tef is the most important crop among the cereals and ranks first in terms of area
and grain production. Production of vegetables, which needs frequent irrigation, under
irrigated condition is very limited in Sanka. This is because the irrigation interval is
very much extended which is long to grow vegetable crops. As a result only 16% of
the beneficiaries produce vegetables (Table 10). However some wise farmers grow
onion early in the season (before all the land is covered by crops) as a result they get
enough water to irrigate their crop frequently. A few farmers also construct a night
storage structure and by collecting the water use it during their off turn.
Therefore, as it is seen from Table 10, most of the farmers (43.3%) produce cereals.
Next to cereals the other 40% of the beneficiary respondents grow both cereals and
horticultural crops and only 16.7% of them produce only horticultural crops.
Table 10 Type of crop produced using irrigation (Sanka irrigation scheme)
crop type Frequency Percent
cereals 26 43.3 horticulture 10 16.7
1 and 2 24 40 Total 60 100
4.1.5 Irrigation methods
In Golina irrigation scheme Irrigation water is applied to crops in different ways; as it
is indicated in Table 11, 50% of the respondents said furrow is the method of
irrigation used especially for vegetables like onion, tomato and pepper. 15% of the
farmers irrigate their crop by flooding. In this case cereals, all tef and most maize
31
fields, are irrigated by the same method whereas, the rest 35% of the farmers irrigate
using furrow and flooding method.
Table 11 Method of irrigation adopted by farmers (Golina irrigation scheme)
Method of irrigation Frequency Percent
flood 9 15 furrow 30 50 1 and 2 21 35 Total 60 100
At Sanka traditional irrigation scheme for ease of work and to use the time allocated
for irrigation effectively, the majority of the farmers broadcast seeds and practice
flood irrigation (73.3%). However, vegetable crops like onion and potato are irrigated
by furrow (11.7%), but this also after two or three irrigation the furrow will be mixed
and becomes flood irrigation.
Table 12 Method of irrigation adopted by farmers (Sanka irrigation scheme)
Method of irrigation Frequency Percent
Flood 44 73.3 Furrow 7 11.7 1 and 2 9 15 Total 60 100
4.1.6 Sustainability of irrigation
In Golina, the actual irrigated area during the design period was 400 ha. However
currently it is irrigating about 512 ha. This shows that additional 112 ha of land is
irrigated which is not considered in the design. Therefore, this additional land that is
irrigated enhances the sustainability of the irrigation scheme up to 128 percent.
In Sanka, sustainability was not in question for the utilization of this scheme for
irrigation. At the initial use of this scheme, the diversion was used only for the
irrigation of 50 ha of land and for the operation of a water-driven flour mill. However,
32
since 1985EC when the number of farmers wanting to irrigate, the area of the irrigated
fields increased drastically. As a result, the beneficiaries decided to stop diverting
water to the flour mill since it consumed high amounts of water to run the engine.
Therefore the total irrigated land now has increased to 120 ha, thus the sustainability
of the scheme is 240 percent.
4.2 Institutional and Support Service Evaluation
4.2.1 Organization and Management
The Golina Irrigation Water Users Association was established in 2002 with 22 male
and 5 female members. Currently, the members of the cooperative reached 270 out of
which 13 are females. There are more than 1,105 potential beneficiary members in the
scheme. However, about 80% of the beneficiaries have not yet become members of
the association. Irrigation users had not become members of the association because of
a lack of awareness of the association and its functions, the suspicions and mistrust of
governmental cooperatives stemming from their experiences during the “Derg”, a
tyrannical regime of Ethiopia, and limited support from concerned governmental
organizations and local administrations.
The board of directors of the association has 10 members which is accountable to the
general assembly. The controlling committee with three members is included in the
structure of the organization. There are two temporary employees hired to attend to the
structures in the scheme and one store keeper. Women involvement in management
and decision making is nearly nonexistent. There are no articles in the by-law of the
association which encourage taking affirmative action to involve women.
33
The basic financial documents are used by the association. The accounts have been
audited twice by the woreda cooperatives promotion desk auditors since its
establishment. The financial position of the association revealed to members according
to the audit report. The organization has a monthly meeting where all members have a
chance to raise outstanding issues for discussion and decision on time. The board of
directors has also its own weekly meeting to evaluate their progress and plan for the
coming week.
Payment of annual water fee from all water users is the main source of income for the
association. Each beneficiary is expected to pay an annual water use fee. Currently,
users pay 20 birr/ha for water use.
Sanka traditional irrigation scheme is mainly administered by ‘yewuha abates’ or
“water fathers” who are elected by the beneficiaries. They have traditional bylaws
worked for as the age of the scheme. The bylaws are a person who divert water
illegally will pay the estimated price of the crop failed due to lack of water during his
illegal diversion; and a person who is absent during development work will be
penalized his water schedule.
Currently a legal water users’ association is established and comprised of 73 members
out of this 57 are male and 6 females. The total numbers of household beneficiaries
are 530, from which 470 are male headed households and 60 female headed
households.
The board of directors of the association has seven members who have one chair
person, one secretary, one accountant and four members. The controlling committee
with 3 members is included in the structure of the organization but they are
independent. The main duty of the controlling committee is controlling the executive
34
committee whether they are distributing the water equitably and managing the scheme
very well.
4.2.2 Water Distribution and Conflict Management
Division leaders are responsible to distribute irrigation water to their respective team
leaders according to the schedule. Team leaders are also mandated to ensure fair water
distribution among the beneficiaries. There is an internal regulation used by the
association to ensure fair water distribution and to manage conflicts among
beneficiaries. All beneficiaries must obey for this internal regulation whether they are
members of the association or not. Despite of all this rules and regulation, according to
the informants, conflict among users in Sanka irrigation is common and happing in all
the irrigation season. As it is explained by 43% and 33.3% of the respondents the
problem is very severe and severe, respectively. This is because the amount of water
diverted is small to irrigate large area as result upstream farmers are forced to steal
water and sometimes use the irrigation turn of the others.
Table 13 Occurrence of conflict among users at Sanka traditional irrigation scheme
Up and down users conflict Frequency Percent Very Severe 26 43.3
Severe 20 33.3 Medium 3 5
It is not a problem 11 18.3 Total 60 100
Table 14 Occurrence of conflict among water users at Golina irrigation scheme
Up and down users conflict Frequency Percent Very Severe 28 46.7
Severe 3 5 Medium - -
It is not a problem 29 48.3 Total 100 100
35
Similar to Sanka traditional irrigation in Golina irrigation division leaders are
responsible to distribute water. However, conflict due to water share is becoming
problem in Golina also. The problem is serious in the months of April and May. On
July where the onset of monsoon is delayed and farmers’ need for irrigation water is
critical to plant the rain fed onion. This problem is further compounded by the
significant decrease of the river water discharge. Since that time no serious conflict is
observed. The major causes of conflicts identified in both schemes are water scarcity,
unequal water distribution and changing of irrigation schedule.
4.2.3 Training and support service
Farmers were asked if they were given training on irrigation water management or not.
In Golina 25% responded that no such training has been given before. On the other
hand, 75% of them reported that they are being given training in the areas of irrigation
agronomy, on farm water management and crop diversification (Appendix C Table 1).
The training, they said, was offered by KGVDP, Sirinka agricultural research center
and the Wereda Agriculture and Cooperative Offices. But most of the trainees were
members of the WUA.
In Sanka 45% of the respondents said there was no training given before and only 55%
of the respondents get training on irrigation agronomy and water management.
(Appendix C Table 1)
Farmers were requested to identify the kind of support they seek from the government.
They reported this as seen in Table 15 for Golina and Table 16 for Sanka below.
36
Table 15 Government support service type and magnitude to the irrigation scheme (Golina)
In Golina farm structures (gates, division boxes and canals) are constructed with
permanent structure and working very well. Therefore maintenance is required when
canals are broken with unexpected flood, and when there is high siltation on the
diversion weir and the canal. To this effect majority of the farmers needs support on
input delivery and creating market to their produce.
Table 16: Government support service type and magnitude to the irrigation scheme (Sanka)
Support type Frequency Percent
irrigation administration 2 3.3 upgrading 2 3.3
maintenance 33 55 input and credit 1 1.7
All type of support 19 31.7 3 and 4 3 5 Total 60 100
From the respondents, 58% of them stated that they need support to maintain and
upgrade the scheme and 31 percent said they need support in all aspects. Especially in
this scheme identification and construction of the head work site, alignment of canal,
crossing big gullies and other engineering works are done by the farmers themselves
using their local indigenous knowledge and material. As a result of this, there are
occasions which decrease significantly the performance of the scheme. From my field
observation farmers try to cross a big gully (30m wide) with flume. However during
Support type Frequency Percent
Irrigation administration 7 11.6 Upgrading 3 5
Maintenance 10 16.7 Input and credit 27 45
All type of support 13 21.7 Total 60 100
37
the alignment they did not maintain the correct slope consequently a lot of water was
lost overtopping to the canal.
4.3 Food insecurity
The majority of Sanka irrigation scheme households do not cover their annual food
demand from their own production. Only 38% of the respondent households cover
their food demand throughout the year while 55% and 6.7% households cover only for
six and less than six months period, respectively (Appendix C Table 2). Most of the
female headed households cover most of their food demand with off farm activities to
supplement the production from their share crop fields. Majority of households filled
their food deficits in the year through involving nonfarm activities (30%) and borrow
money from others (15%) (Appendix C Table 3).
However most of the respondent households (73.3%) in Golina produce enough food
grains that cover the consumption demand for the whole year. But the reaming 21.7%
and 5% of the farmers what they produce cover the first six months beginning from
rain fed crop harvest (Nov-April) and less than six months respectively. The food
consumption during remaining six months of the year will be covered by purchasing
cereals from nearby markets. The income to buy the grains come from the borrowing
money from others (14.3%) and involving in nonfarm activities (9.5%) sale of
vegetables produced under irrigation (around 52.4%), labor sales & share cropping
(19.0%) and animal sales (14.8%). This indicates that how irrigation is important
venture to accomplish food security (Appendix C Table 3).
38
4.4 Labor demand
The labor demand in agriculture production system varies with production seasons and
gender. The labor division and demand amongst female household wives (FHHW),
female-headed households (FHH) and male-headed households (MHH) are provided
in Figure 11 for Golina and Figure 12 for Sanka. In Golina, generally land preparation,
planting, harvesting, threshing, feeding oxen and water application to irrigated farms
are tasks done by men. In addition to day-to-day household or domestic
responsibilities, agricultural activities such as weeding, planting and hoeing of
vegetables and threshing ground preparation are handled by women. Women also are
actively involved during crop harvesting time. It is the responsibility of the women to
transport crop cuts from the field into central threshing grounds. Women headed
households take part in planting, threshing, feeding oxen, and water application to
irrigated crops as men do in addition to the tasks carried out by women household
wives. Marketing of grain cereals are exclusively done by women.
In dry season irrigation labor demand of female household wives (FHHW) peaks in
March followed by second peaks in February and May and slack in December,
January and April. The first peak concedes with weeding of maize crop planted in
January and weeding and hoeing of vegetable crops planted in February, while the
second peak in May overlap with weeding of late planted vegetables. They also spent
considerable labor in harvesting vegetables in month June. Unlike FHHW, the female-
headed households (FHH) are very busy throughout the irrigation season except in
December and January. Because FHH are responsible for all activities including those
tasks normally done by men such as planting, watering irrigated crops, harvesting and
marketing vegetable produce. The labor demand of male headed households (MHH)
slakes in December, January and April similar to that of FHHW and peaks during
39
February and March where land preparation and planting of most vegetables carried
out. The second peak in month of June coincides with harvesting activity of all most
all dry season irrigated crops.
In Sanka traditional irrigation scheme during the irrigation season the main activity
which requires high labor demand is construction of diversion weir and canal. Thus,
the peak labor demand for the MHH occurs on September, October and November
where there is intensive work of digging, and collecting stones for the construction of
head work and canal and harvesting of the wet season crops. In February there is a
winter rain as a result it destroys the structure and make them to construct again then
their labor demand increases. However, in May and June only land preparation of the
wet season crops and harvesting of late sown irrigated crops thus labor demand is less
as compared to other months in the irrigation season. Other months where water
application (irrigation), harvesting, land preparation, cultivation, and weeding, sowing
and secondary cultivation have high to medium labor demand.
40
Figure 11: Labor demand of female household wives (FHHW), female headed households (FHH) and male headed households (MHH) in the irrigation season (Golina irrigation scheme)
Female headed households in Sanka highly involved in agricultural practices like in
weeding, cultivation, harvesting, and threshing ground preparation as any rural women
elsewhere in the country. In addition to this they are involved in headwork
construction, canal clearing and other activities (Appendix A Figure 9, 10 and 11).
Therefore the labor demand becomes higher in December, March and September
when harvesting of the wet season crops, sowing of irrigated maize and tef and
headwork and canal construction is undertaken. For the female household wives the
major work is weeding, collecting the harvest and threshing ground preparation. As a
result of this their higher labor demand is from July to September and November and
relatively low during January and February. The following graph shows the labor
demands of MHH, FHH and FHHW for the irrigation season.
D D
D
J
J
J
F
F
FM
M M
A
A
A
M
M
MJ
J
J
0
20
40
60
80
100
FHHW FHH MHH
labo
r de
man
d
41
Figure 12: Labor demand for MHH, FHH and FHHW (Sanka irrigation scheme)
4.5 Participation and sense of ownership of the scheme
Participation is the active involvement of development beneficiaries in the choice,
implementation and management of development projects that are designed to
improve their standards of living. The pre-conditions for effective community
participation are that the community members must understand the problems they
experience and conceptualize the desirable actions to address the problem. The level
of participation is discernible from the farmer’s willingness to contribute to the project
activities in terms of commitment of time, labor and material resources. With respect
to this in Sanka traditional irrigation participation of beneficiary farmers is 100%
(Appendix C Table 4). Their participation ranges from contribution of money,
applying their enormous indigenous knowledge of site identification, weir and canal
construction, canal alignment, gully crossing, scheme management and often times
contribute both money and labor. However in Golina only 31.7% of the respondents
participate in the scheme development through labor contribution and the rest 68.3%
of the respondents said they do not have any contribution either in money or labor.
S
S
S
OO
O
N N
N
D
D
D
J
J
J
F
F
F
M
M
M
A
A
AM
MM
JJ
J
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
MHH FHH FHHW
42
Even though participation of farmers in Sanka traditional irrigation scheme is much
higher than Golina irrigation scheme, this doesn’t result in increased performance.
4.6 Major problems decreasing the efficiency of the scheme
As it is indicated in Table 17, 41.7% of the respondents in Golina said market problem
is their priority problem that makes the scheme to be inefficient. Next to this, 23% and
20% of the respondents agree on their problem to be water and labor shortage
respectively.
There are three main market centers for the community. These are Kobo, Robit and
Aradom towns which are 8 and 15 kms far from the farm. Most of the time farmers
sell their outputs to private traders at site. The irrigation cooperative has limited
financial and business capacity to assemble and market farmers’ produces. The perish
ability and bulkiness nature of the farm products forced farmers to sale their produce
with the price determined by the buyer. Farmers do not have chance to deal with the
price. Accordingly, the net return they get from irrigation becomes low and
discourages farmers and cut down their contribution and effort to make the scheme
more efficient.
Table 16 Major problems that make the scheme inefficient (Golina irrigation scheme)
Identified problems Frequency Percent Labor shortage 12 20 Market problem 25 41.7
Maintenance problem 4 6.7 Water utilization conflict 3 5
Input shortage 2 3.3 Water shortage 14 23.3
Total 60 100
On the other hand in Sanka traditional irrigation the major problems are concentrated
on water shortage, conflict among users as well as upstream and downstream irrigation
43
schemes and maintenance problem as it is expressed by the respondents with 36.7%,
28.3% and 20% respectively.
The main household crop production objective is to produce enough food that covers
the annual household consumption. Even though potato, onion and few fruit crops are
produced most of it is used for home consumption and the remaining product can be
accommodated by the local market. Due to this market is not their major problem
differing to Golina.
Table 17 Major problems that make the scheme inefficient (Sanka irrigation scheme)
Identified problems Frequency Percent man power shortage 6 10
market problem - - maintenance problem 12 20
water utilization conflict 17 28.3 input shortage 3 5 water shortage 22 36.7
Total 60 100
44
CHAPTER FIVE
5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
Based on different performance indices in Sanka traditional irrigation a large quantity
of water is lost during conveyance, approximately 22L/sec over a distance of 880 m
and enough to irrigate about 11 ha on average. According to Amhara Region Water
Resource Development Bureau irrigation inventory report (2005), there are 5,908
traditional irrigation schemes in the Amhara Region, which account for 95% of the
total irrigation schemes. Therefore, if the 11 ha is taken as an average and conveyance
losses could be reduced, it is possible to develop a total of 64,988 ha additional land in
the region. This figure becomes even more significant on a national scale. Therefore,
improving the conveyance efficiency of traditional schemes would be a far better than
developing new modern schemes since indigenous scheme management systems are
already established in traditional schemes. In addition, beneficiary participation and
the sense of ownership by the beneficiaries are much higher within traditional
schemes. Participation of the beneficiaries during establishment and community
ownership are core points for the success of any irrigation project.
45
REFERENCES
ANRSWRB, 2005. Regional irrigation land and resource inventory. Bahir dar,
Ethiopia.
Allen, R. G., Pereira, L. S., Raes, D. and Smith, M. 1998. Crop Evapotranspiration: -
Guideline for Computing Crop Water Requirement. Irrigation and Drainage
Paper, 56. FAO, Rome.
Bos, M.G., 1997. Performance Indicators for Irrigation and Drainage, Irrigation and
Drainage Systems 11: 119-137.
Burt, C.M. and Styles, S.W., 1999. Modern Water Control and Management Practices
in Irrigation: Impact on Performance. Water Reports No. 19. International
Program for Technology and Research in Irrigation and Drainage. The World
Appendix Figure 1: Seepage loss in the canal constructed by beneficiery farmers themselves (Sanka traditional irrigation)
Appendix Figure 2: Overtopping on the main canal (Sanka traditional irrigation)
53
Appendix Figure 3: Canal alignment on the hillside (Sanka traditional irrigation)
Appendix Figure 4: Hillside alignment of the main canal and resultant water loss on (Sanka traditional irrigation)
54
Appendix Figure 5: Google image of Sanka traditional irrigation scheme near Sanka town including its head work site, main canal and command area
Appendix Figure 6: Google image of Golina irrigation scheme including its main and secondary canals and night storage (A) and its headwork site in relation to the main asphalt road and Aradom Village (B)
55
Appendix Figure 7: The main canal crossing an intermittent river before reaching to the command area (Sanka traditional irrigation)
56
Appendix Figure 8: Water spreading over the land since there is no appropriate drop structure and leading canal (Sanka traditional irrigation)
Appendix Figure 9: Farmers cleaning their secondary canal to lead to their farm (Sanka traditional irrigation)
57
Appendix Figure 10: Men, women and children cleaning the canal (Sanka traditional irrigation)
Appendix Figure 11: Protecting water seepage on the canal (Sanka traditional irrigation)
58
Appendix B: Beneficiary Household Questionnaire
I-Personal Data (household Characteristics)
1.1. Indicate the household size ____________
1.2. Sex composition of the household
A. Male B. Female
1.3. Literacy level of the household 0= illiterate ___
A. read and write only ___
B. elementary ___
C. high school complete ___
D. diploma and above ___
1.4. Marital status of the respondent
A. married B. widowed C. divorced D. unmarried
1.5. How do you categorize your household size?
A. small B. enough C. large D. excessive
Household Resources and Means of Livelihood
Agriculture
2.1. Total land size ___________ (you can use hectare or local measurement)
2.2. Land under cultivation ____________
2.3. Fallow land ___________
2.4. Grazing land __________
2.5. Do you possess plots (homestead) 1= yes 2= no
2.6. If yes, explain the size _________
2.7. Explain the agro ecological zone of your Kebele
A. dega B. woina dega C.kola
2.8. How do you evaluate sufficiency of rain fall of the area for crop production?
59
A. excess B. sufficient C. insufficient D. very low
2.9. Patterns of rain fall in the area
A. decrease B. increase C. no difference
2.10. Is there any record of crop failure in the area due to shortage of rain fall?
A. Yes B. No
2.11. If yes, indicate the years _____________________________________________
2.12. What is the major occupation of the household?
A. crop Production B. mixed farming
C. livestock D. vegetable E. others
2.13. Do you have additional incomes that supplement your major occupation?
A. yes B. no
2.14. If your answer is yes, state all in order of their importance.
A. sales of crop production
B. sales of animals
C. sales of vegetables
D. earnings from daily laborer
E. Petty trading
F. Nonfarm activities
G. others (specify) __________
2.15. How was your agricultural
production for the last three years?
A. excess for annual household
consumption
B. sufficient for annual household
consumption
C. sufficient for six months only\
D. sufficient for less than six
months
A. 2.16. If your household faced
food shortage, what do you think was
the reason? (rank in order of
importance)land shortage
B. oxen shortage
C. labor shortage
D. poor productivity
E. farm implements shortage
F. crop failure due to erratic rain
fall
60
G. Others (specify)_____________
2.17. What do you do to cope with the problem?
A. rent farm land
B. borrow money
C. sales of cash crops
D. assets sale
E. involve in off farm activities
F. others (specify)_____________
III. Issues Related to Irrigation Practices
3.1. Who developed the scheme?
A. community B. government
C. NGO D. 1&2 E.1&3
3.2. Who is the owner of the scheme?
A. community B. government
C.NGO D. 1&2 E.1&3
3.3. Do you have any specialized training on irrigation?
A. yes B. no
3.4. For how long (years) you practiced irrigation? _________
3.5. Do the scheme has been constructed with the consent and full participation of the
target beneficiaries?
A. yes B. no
3.6. if yes, in what aspect did you participate
A. simply attending discussion assemblies about the project
B. attending discussion assemblies and actively expressing feelings, ideas, views.
C. acting as an informant
3.7. Explain the type of contribution you made for the project
A. Money B. labor C. material
D. land E. 1&2 F. 1&2&3
G. 1&2&3&4 H. 1&2&3&4&5 I. others__________
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3.8. What source of water do you use?
A. river/stream B. shallow dug out C. others (specify)
D. natural pool/pond E. artificial pond/dam F. others (specify)
3.9. What type of water delivery system is used from the source?
A. motor pumps using electric power B. motor pumps using diesel power
C. diversion using gravity D. other (specify)____________
3.10. How many hectares of your cultivated land is accessible for irrigation? _______
3.11. Do you irrigate all of your irrigable land?
A. yes B. no
3.12. If not, why? (circle as many as apply)
A. shortage of water
B. low productivity
C. getting sufficient produce by
rain feed agriculture
D. poor quality of irrigation
E. poor maintenance
F. others (specify)
___________________
3.13. Is there a mechanism of water pricing for irrigation users?
A. no, water is provided as a free service
B. yes, water is provided by charge but does not vary with the quantity of water
used
C. irrigation water charge is based on the volume of water used
D. others (specify)_________________
3.14. How many times you produce annually by applying irrigation? ___________
3.15. What are the major agricultural crops you produce using irrigation? ________
3.16. Why do you prefer to grow such crops?
A. better price
B. good production
C. easy to operate
D. high disease tolerance
E. seeds availability
F. others (specify) __________
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3.17. Have you ever faced a problem of crop failure when using irrigation?
A. Yes B. No
3.18. If yes, why? (Circle as many as apply)
A. water shortage
B. crop disease
C. poor irrigation maintenance
D. over flooding of the farm and
consequent erosion
E. others (specify) ____________
3.19. Are there any problem during the application of irrigation water?
A. yes B. no
3.20. If yes, what are they? (rank them)
A. downstream conflict------
B. shorter time allowed for
irrigation water flow-----
C. water use administration
problem------
D. lack of maintenance ____
E. lack of operational
skill/training
F. others_____________
3.21. How many months of the year you are engaged in irrigation activities? ________
3.22. Do you have labor shortage in operating your irrigation farm?
A. yes B. no
3.23. Are you able to apply as much water as you would like to your crops?
A. yes B. no
3.24. What constraints affect you in using the scheme efficiently? (put in order of
importance)
A. lack of input financing
B. unavailability of inputs
C. shortage of labor
D. lack of rural access road & high
transportation cost
E. conflict in water utilization with
users
F. lack of marketing for produce
G. water shortage
H. others_______
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3.25. What type of labor do you use for the following Irrigation Activities?
C. no available labor to hire D. others (specify)_________________
3.28. Rank the following important factors which most inhibits your irrigated
production at Present Factors Rank Extent of the problem Simple Modest Considerable Water Land Input Credit Market Transport Crop damage Absence of gov. support Lack of skill
4.1. Have you ever visited by an extension agent?
A. Yes B. No
4.2. If yes, during which operation?
A. land preparation
B. planting/transplanting
C. weeding
D. applying agro chemicals
E. watering
F. harvesting
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4.3. Is there nearby government/private owned large scale irrigation?
A. Yes B. No
4.4. If yes, do you have any relation with them?
A. Yes B. No
4.5. If yes, what are the fields of your cooperation?
A. field day or demonstration
B. on-farm verification
C .market facilitation
D. input provision
E. others (specify)___________
4.6. Do you have any relation with any research center?
A. Yes B. No
4.7. If yes what advice/support do they provide?_______________
4.8. What kind of institutional support do you need in relation to the scheme?
A. organization and management
B. increase the scheme’s capacity
C. maintenance
D. others ____
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Appendix C: Table of results from the questionairre
Appendix Table 1: Training
Appendix Table 2: Annual crop production for the last five years
Golina Sanka Annual crop production Frequency Percent Frequency Percent
more than 1 year family consumption
20 33.3 2 3.3
only 1 year family consumption
24 40 21 35
6 month family consumption 13 21.7 33 55 < 6 month family consumption 3 5 4 6.7
Total 60 100 60 100 Appendix Table 3: Solution for food shortage
Solution for food shortage Golina Sanka Frequency Percent Frequency Percent
borrow money 3 14.3 9 15 Sale of vegetables produced in