Objectives:

Objectives:

IP Addressing

Internet Architecture IPv4 Addressing IP address Classes Subnets and subnet mask Subnets design with IP addressing IPv6

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Internet Architecture

• Two computers, anywhere in the world, following certain hardware, software, protocol specifications, can communicate, reliably even when not directly connected.

• LANs are no longer scalable beyond a certain number of stations or geographic separation.

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IP Address as a 32-Bit Binary Number

Internet Addresses

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Decimal Equivalents of 8-Bit Patterns

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Binary and Decimal Conversion

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IP Address Classes

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IP Address Classes

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IP Addresses as Decimal Numbers

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Hosts for Classes of IP Addresses

Class A (24 bits for hosts) 224 - 2* = 16,777,214 maximum hosts

Class B (16 bits for hosts) 216 - 2* = 65,534 maximum hosts

Class C (8 bits for hosts) 28 - 2* = 254 maximum hosts

* Subtracting the network and broadcast reserved address

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IPv4 Address Classes

Class D Addresses• A Class D address begins with binary 1110 in the first octet. • First octet range 224 to 239. • Class D address can be used to represent a group of hosts called a

host group, or multicast group.

Class E Addresses

• First octet of an IP address begins with 1111• First octet range 240 to 255.• Class E addresses are reserved for experimental purposes and should

not be used for addressing hosts or multicast groups. 

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IP Addresses as Decimal Numbers

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An IP address such as 176.10.255.255 that has all binary 1s in the host bit positions is reserved for the broadcast address.

An IP address such as 176.10.0.0 that has all binary 0s in the host bit positions is reserved for the network address.

Network IDs and Broadcast Addresses

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Private Addresses

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Reserved Address Space

• Network ID

• Broadcast address

• Hosts for classes of IP addresses

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Basics of Subnetting

• Classical IP addressing

• Subnetworks

• Subnet mask

• Boolean operations: AND, OR, and NOT

• Performing the AND function

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Subnetworks

To create a subnet address, a network administrator borrows bits from the original host portion and designates them as the subnet field.

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Subnetworks

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Subnet Mask

• Determines which part of an IP address is the network field and which part is the host field

• Follow these steps to determine the subnet mask:– 1. Express the subnetwork IP address in binary form.– 2. Replace the network and subnet portion of the address with all

1s.– 3. Replace the host portion of the address with all 0s.– 4. Convert the binary expression back to dotted-decimal notation.

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Subnet mask in decimal = 255.255.240.0

Subnet Mask

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• AND is like multiplication.

• OR is like addition.

• NOT changes 1 to 0, and 0 to 1.

Boolean Operations: AND, OR, and NOT

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Performing the AND Function

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Range of Bits Needed to Create Subnets

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Subnet Addresses

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Creating a Subnet

• Determining subnet mask size• Computing subnet mask and IP address• Computing hosts per subnetwork• Boolean AND operation• IP configuration on a network diagram• Host and subnet schemes• Private addresses

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Class B address with 8 bits borrowed for the subnet

130.5.2.144 (8 bits borrowed for subnetting) routes to subnet 130.5.2.0 rather than just to network 130.5.0.0.

Determining Subnet Mask Size

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The address 197.15.22.131 would be on the subnet 197.15.22.128.

11000101 00001111 00010110 100 00011

Network Field SN Host Field

Class C address 197.15.22.131 with a subnet mask of 255.255.255.224 (3 bits borrowed)

Determining Subnet Mask Size

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Subnetting Example with AND Operation

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The router connects subnetworks and networks.

IP Configuration on a Network Diagram

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Using /24 subnet...

190.52.1.2190.52.2.2190.52.3.2

Network Network Subnet Host

But internal routers think all these addresses are on different networks, called subnetworks

Internet routers still “see” this net as 190.52.0.0

Class B Network Network Host Host

Given the Class B address 190.52.0.0

Subnet Example

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Using the 3rd octet, 190.52.0.0 was divided into:190.52.1.0 190.52.2.0 190.52.3.0 190.52.4.0

190.52.5.0 190.52.6.0 190.52.7.0 190.52.8.0

190.52.9.0 190.52.10.0 190.52.11.0 190.52.12.0

190.52.13.0 190.52.14.0 190.52.15.0 190.52.16.0

190.52.17.0 190.52.18.0 190.52.19.0 and so on ...

Network Network Subnet Host

Subnet Example

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Subnet Example

Network Network Subnet Host

Network address 190.52.0.0 with /16 network mask

190 52 0 Host

190 52 1 Host

190 52 2 Host

Using Subnets: subnet mask 255.255.255.0 or /24

190 52 3 Host

190 52 Etc. Host

190 52 254 Host

190 52 255 Host

255 Subnets

28 - 1

Cannot use last subnet as it contains broadcast address

Subnets

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Subnet Example

Network Network Subnet Host

Subnet 0 (all 0’s subnet) issue: The address of the subnet, 190.52.0.0/24 is the same address as the major network, 190.52.0.0/16.

190 52 0 Host

190 52 1 Host

190 52 Etc. Host

190 52 254 Host

190 52 255 Host

255 Subnets

28 - 1

Subnets

Last subnet (all 1’s subnet) issue: The broadcast address for the subnet, 190.52.255.255 is the same as the broadcast address as the major network, 190.52.255.255.

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The number of lost IP addresses with a Class C network depends on the number of bits borrowed for subnetting.

Host Subnet Schemes

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IP addressing crisis

• Address Depletion• Internet Routing Table Explosion

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IPv4 Addressing

Subnet Mask

• One solution to the IP address shortage was thought to be the subnet mask.

• Formalized in 1985 (RFC 950), the subnet mask breaks a single class A, B or C network in to smaller pieces.

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Short Term Solutions: IPv4 Enhancements

• CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing) – RFCs 1517, 1518, 1519, 1520

• VLSM (Variable Length Subnet Mask) – RFC 1009

• Private Addressing - RFC 1918

• NAT/PAT (Network Address Translation / Port Address Translation) – RFC

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IPv4 versus IPv6

• IP version 6 (IPv6) has been defined and developed.

• IPv6 uses 128 bits rather than the 32 bits currently used in IPv4.

• IPv6 uses hexadecimal numbers to represent the 128 bits.

IPv4

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Long Term Solution: IPv6 (coming)

• IPv6, or IPng (IP – the Next Generation) uses a 128-bit address space, yielding

340,282,366,920,938,463,463,374,607,431,768,211,456

possible addresses.

• IPv6 has been slow to arrive

• IPv4 revitalized by new features, making IPv6 a luxury, and not a desperately needed fix

• IPv6 requires new software; IT staffs must be retrained

• IPv6 will most likely coexist with IPv4 for years to come.

• Some experts believe IPv4 will remain for more than 10 years.