NYP-1A 02-154 Nypa distichlis cultivars

NyPa Distichlis

Cultivars: Rehabilitation of

Highly Saline Areas for Forage Turf and Grain

Collaboration between NyPa Australia, Department of Agriculture of Western

Australia, South Australian Agricultural Research and Development Institude &

the Department of Natural Resources and Environment of Victoria

A report for the

Rural Industries Research and Development

Corporation

By: John Leake Ed Barrett-Lennard

Mark Sargeant Nicholas Yensen &

Johnny Prefumo

December 2002

RIRDC Publication No 02/154 RIRDC Project No NYP-1A

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© 2002 Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation. All rights reserved. ISBN 0642 58553 9 ISSN 1440-6845 NyPa Distichlis Cultivars: Rehabilitation of highly saline areas for Forage Turf and Grain Publication No. 02/154 Project No. NYP-1A The views expressed and the conclusions reached in this publication are those of the authors and not necessarily those of persons consulted. RIRDC shall not be responsible in any way whatsoever to any person who relies in whole or in part on the contents of this report. This publication is copyright. However, RIRDC encourages wide dissemination of its research, providing the Corporation is clearly acknowledged. For any other enquiries concerning reproduction, contact the Publications Manager on phone 02 6272 3186. Researcher Contact Details John Leake 14d Birdwood St Netherby SA 5062 Phone: 08 82728088 Fax: 08 82728588 Email: [email protected]

In submitting this report, the researcher has agreed to RIRDC publishing this material in its edited form. RIRDC Contact Details Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation Level 1, AMA House 42 Macquarie Street BARTON ACT 2600 PO Box 4776 KINGSTON ACT 2604 Phone: 02 6272 4539 Fax: 02 6272 5877 Email: [email protected]. Website: http://www.rirdc.gov.au Published in December 2002 Printed on environmentally friendly paper by Canprint

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Foreword Australia is facing significant problems with dryland salinity. There have been plant collection activities in Australia seeking plant based solutions to this problem but they have met with little success. NyPa Australia formed a partnership with the Department of Agriculture of Western Australia and South Australia Agricultural Research and Development Institute to investigate the suitability of four patented cultivars of Distichlis imported from the United States. Elders Limited became a commercialisation partner. Trials of the cultivars were completed in Western Australia, South Australia and Victoria. Environmental benefits, nutritive value for grazing, amenity value for turf and milling characteristics of the grain were assessed. Recommendations on the ecological range of the cultivars and the requirements for establishment are made. The project was funded from RIRDC Core Funds provided by the Federal Government. This report is an addition to RIRDC’s diverse range of over 800 research publications. It forms part of our Resilient Agricultural Systems R&D program that supports the development of agricultural systems with diversity, flexibility, robustness and resilience that can respond to both challenge and opportunity. Most of our publications are available for viewing, downloading or purchasing online through our website: downloads at www.rirdc.gov.au/reports/Index.htm purchases at www.rirdc.gov.au/pub/cat/contents.html

Simon Hearn Managing Director Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation

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Acknowledgments NyPa Australia Pty Limited thanks the following people for the advice and assistance they gave during this project. Dr George Wilson, Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation. Dr Ken Poulsen and Dr R Ferdowsian, Department of Agriculture of Western Australia. Dr Don Ploughman, and Ms Andrea Hensing. South Australian Agricultural Research and

Development Institute. Mr Phil Cole, Mr Jock Mc Farlane, Mr Tim Hermann and Ms Kate Morris. South Australian

Primary Industry and Resources. Dr Mary Jane Rogers. Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Victoria. Mr Leon Bailey. Regency Park Institute of TAFE, Baking Faculty. Mr Maurice Crotti and Mr Joe Alvino. San Remo Macaroni, Windsor, South Australia. Prof J Lindsay Falvey and Prof R White. University of Melbourne. Mr Norm Robinson. Elders Limited:

Mr Tom Hatton. CSIRO. The following landowners helped make the field trials a success - Mr Raymond Matthews and Mr

Greg Matthews, East Wickepin, Western Australia; Mr Peter Fisher, Clover Ridge, South Australia; Mr Perry Gunner and Mr Richard Gunner, Lake Alexandrina and Wanderribby Station, South Australia; Mr Keith den Houting, Kerang, Victoria.

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Abbreviations ATP Adenosine tri-phosphate DAWA Department of Agriculture of Western Australia DM Dry matter IVDMD The invitro dry matter digestibility MDB Murray Darling Basin NPK Nitrogen, Phosphate and Potassium NRE Department of Natural Resources and Environment of Victoria NyPa Is the North American Cocopa Indian name for the Distichlis grain and a

registered trademark of NyPa Inc of the US and NyPa Australia Pty Limited PIRSA South Australian Primary Industries and Resources ppm Parts per million SARDI South Australian Agricultural Research and Development Institute

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Contents Foreword ................................................................................................................................................ iii Acknowledgments .................................................................................................................................. iv Abbreviations .......................................................................................................................................... v Executive Summary .............................................................................................................................. vii 1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Background to the Project ....................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Plant Introduction to Australia ................................................................................................ 1

2 Research Methodology................................................................................................................... 2 2.1 Objective ................................................................................................................................. 2 2.2 Literature Review .................................................................................................................... 2 2.2 Summary of Methodology....................................................................................................... 3 2.3 Specific Methodologies........................................................................................................... 3

2.3.1 Agronomic Investigations in the Field ............................................................................ 3 2.3.2 Feeding to Ruminants...................................................................................................... 5 2.3.3 Glasshouse Investigations ............................................................................................... 5 2.3.4 Preliminary Milling Characteristics ................................................................................ 6 2.3.5 Collation of Reports ........................................................................................................ 6

2.4 Commercialisation................................................................................................................... 6 3 Results and Discussion................................................................................................................... 7

3.1 Investigations on Established Plant-outs ................................................................................. 7 3.1.1 Lake Alexandrina ............................................................................................................ 7 3.1.2 Clover Ridge.................................................................................................................... 8 3.1.3 East Wickepin.................................................................................................................. 9 3.1.4 Underra.......................................................................................................................... 13 3.1.5 Kerang ........................................................................................................................... 13

3.2 Feeding to Ruminants............................................................................................................ 13 3.3 Glasshouse Investigations ..................................................................................................... 14 3.4 Preliminary Milling Characteristics ...................................................................................... 15

3.4.1 The Milling Test Results ............................................................................................... 15 3.4.2 Discussion ..................................................................................................................... 17

3.5 Environmental Services......................................................................................................... 18 3.5.1 Halophytes and Productivity ......................................................................................... 18 3.5.2 Saline Water Use ........................................................................................................... 20 3.5.3 Improved Soil Structure and Organic Content .............................................................. 22

4 Conclusions .................................................................................................................................. 23 4.1 Farmer Observations of Initial Sites...................................................................................... 23

4.1.1 NyPa Forage™ .............................................................................................................. 23 4.1.2 NyPa ‘Wild Wheat’®.................................................................................................... 24 4.1.3 NyPa Turf™ .................................................................................................................. 24

4.2 Environmental Services......................................................................................................... 24 4.3 Feeding trials with Ruminants............................................................................................... 24 4.4 Glasshouse Trials .................................................................................................................. 24 4.5 Milling Characteristics of the Grain ...................................................................................... 24 4.6 Commercialisation................................................................................................................. 25

5 APPENDIX 1 ............................................................................................................................... 26 6 References .................................................................................................................................... 28

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Executive Summary A significant part of Australia’s agricultural land is already affected by dryland salinity. RIRDC and NyPa Australia, in cooperation with the State departments of agriculture in South Australia, Western Australia and Victoria have investigated the use of NyPa owned cultivars of the halophyte Distichlis Spp. for use in areas directly affected by rising saline ground water. These investigations used field observation plots established in the three states. New plantings and glasshouse investigations were also undertaken to confirm the field observations and to define the ecological range, productive and amenity use of the plants. The four cultivars of Distichlis Spp. were developed in the United States and Mexico. NyPa Forage™ a clone of a male Distichlis spicata plant suitable for grazing. NyPa Wild Wheat® a selection from Distichlis palmeri plants that produces significant quantities of

grain. NyPa Turf™ another clone of a Distichlis spicata plant that produces a turf suitable for recreational

areas and other amenity uses. NyPa Reclamation is a selection of Distichlis spicata that has been used in the United States for

rehabilitating eroded lands. NyPa Incorporated of the United States owns the patent rights to the plants and arranged their use here through NyPa Australia Pty Limited. The plants were imported through quarantine in 1994 to enable field trials in South and Western Australia, glasshouse investigations in Western Australia and milling trials in South Australia. ‘Reclamation’ used in initial plantings will not be released for commercial use because of its weed potential. The field results confirm that the three cultivars proposed for commercial use grow well in saline discharge areas with salinities up to about that of seawater. Glasshouse work shows they will persist in salinities up to almost 1.5 times seawater. The plants produce the following two important environmental services in cropping and grazing areas affected by rising groundwater:

1. They use more water through transpiration than is evaporated from bare ground in saline wet areas. In some situations they reduce the saline groundwater table below the capillary fringe mimicking the original native vegetation and thereby reducing salt deposition and scalding.

2. They grow and spread most strongly through roots and this facilitates percolation and improves

soil structure and soil organic content. The roots can follow the saline water table down more than a metre because they have an inner and outer 'tube' providing gas drainage to the plant

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enabling growth in waterlogged conditions. The plants exude salt through their leaves so that salt appears not to accumulate in the root zone.

The productive uses identified from work in the United States are possible to achieve in Australia. These are:

The NyPa Forage™ produces good quantities of moderately nutritious and palatable feed for ruminants in the summer and autumn. While the plants will grow in conditions of low fertility they show good response to balanced fertilization with nitrogen, phosphate and potassium. Under good conditions of plant nutrition, production of forage in saline wet areas can reach 25 tonnes per ha green matter per harvest. Protein levels can reach 17%, with an ash level of about 8% and an overall digestibility of about 60%. The plants tolerate waterlogging and flooding. They are very drought tolerant and easily survive heavy grazing.

The NyPa Wild Wheat® is a perennial deep rooted crop that produces a gluten free grain with a better amino acid balance that ordinary wheat flour and has a nutty taste. It has possible uses in the mainstream baking and pasta industry and the health and gourmet food markets.

The NyPa Turf™ produces a soft mat that can be used on golf courses and other amenity areas while being irrigated with treated effluent or salty irrigation water.

All three cultivars establish and grow better in lighter soils but will also grow in hard anaerobic clays.

Initial trials with ‘Forage’ using irrigation drainage water near Kerang, Victoria and have shown good establishment and growth in both hard clays and lighter soils. At this site plants have enabled some conventional pasture species such as strawberry clover to re establish. Improved drainage enabled salt to be leached from clay soil that had been de-flocculated by salt build up from previous irrigation. While the plants are suitable over a wide range of ecological conditions in southern Australia where there is near surface groundwater with salinity less than seawater, their establishment between sites varies for reasons not yet understood.

-oOo-

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1 Introduction

1.1 Background to the Project Land affected by dryland salinity has high levels of salt that inhibits plant growth resulting in unusable bare and scalded areas vulnerable to erosion. Salinised land is also often subject to waterlogging from a rising water table as well as flooding from surface runoff. The use of conventional agronomy to treat dryland salinity or to utilise the saline water resource productively has provided few answers. Conventional pastures and crops typically show reduced productivity when salt concentrations reach 3,000 ppm and become unproductive between 5,000 and 10,000 ppm. Efforts to increase salt tolerance above about 5,000ppm while maintaining production have not been successful because of the plant energy required to protect cell growth from salt. Malcolm (1969) investigated Australian plants suited to saline lands and his work, together with other studies in Australia, is reviewed below. Some work in the United States has been carried out in saline areas using Distichlis Spp. and Salicornia. The former was considered by Yensen (1981) to be more suitable for selection and breeding because it has potential as both forage and grain. The deep root structure of Distichlis also appeared to Leake (1988) as more likely to both improve soil structure and use saline groundwater in a way analogous to Lucerne (Medicago sativa) in recharge zones. Yensen (1985) developed NyPa Distichlis cultivars suited to grain, for turf grass species suited to golf courses and lawns, for rehabilitation of sensitive areas left bare through rising salinity and for grazing. These have also been established in Morocco, Spain and Namibia under conditions similar to those of Southern Australia. The NyPa Distichlis patented cultivars were imported from the United States into Australia for evaluation in 1994.

1.2 Plant Introduction to Australia Yensen visited saline areas growing salt tolerant plants, known as halophytes, in Queensland, the Murray Darling Basin, the Upper South East of South Australia and South West Western Australia

between 1973 and 1994. He also met with government and private interests seeking collaboration to evaluate plants for Australian conditions. His aim was to investigate Australian halophytes and to find a partner for irrigated production of the patented Distichlis cultivar NyPa Wild Wheat®. Discussions with the Leake in 1988 led to a focus on the forage cultivar, NyPa Forage TM

for Australia with the view of growing it without irrigation in saline areas for grazing while reducing water tables. NyPa Australia Pty Ltd was formed in 1989, and samples of the cultivars were imported through quarantine in 1994, a process that took almost three years (Quarantine order number 94QP36/54/37 6/12/94). After initial observation it was decided not to proceed further with field trials of ‘Reclamation’ because of its weed potential. The three

Photo 1.1: NyPa Forage™ using irrigation drainage water Telare Lake Basin drainage district in California

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remaining cultivars were multiplied on a property near Lake Alexandrina, South Australia. Samples were transplanted on two farms in South Australia early in 1995 and to a farm near Wickepin, Western Australia with another sample kept in Perth. Other work was also initiated in Victoria in 1997 with support from AusIndustry. The sites were incorporated into this project beginning in September 1998 and completed in June 2002.

2 Research Methodology 2.1 Objective To study the potential for three Distichlis cultivars to be used for turf, fodder and grain in highly saline areas of Australia. 2.2 Literature Review Yensen’s international work with salt tolerant plants has produced a large amount of literature. His plant collections and those of others, including an international compendium, can be found on the United States Salinity Laboratory Web site at: http://expage.com/nypa. Yensen’s collections of plants and papers discussing his plant breeding in various parts of the world between 1956 and 1999, provides the basis for the selection of Distichlis for import into Australia. The purpose of the literature review was to identify plants within Australia or overseas that could contribute useful products from saline land. The work treats saline water as a resource where it cannot be economically removed by other means. The major results of this review were:

Various halophytic shrubs, especially saltbushes and bluebushes, traditionally grazed in the pastoral zone had been investigated as cultivated forages. (Malcolm et al 1969, 1977, 1981, 1971 1989, 1980, 1982, 1984 & 1988 Barrett-Lennard & Malcolm, 1996; Rogers, Noble & Petherick);

Salt tolerant grasses have been planted extensively for commercial purposes. (Rogers, Noble and Petherick op cit;)

Salt tolerant grass species have been assessed in terms of their agricultural value. (Russell 1976; Shannon 1978; Venables and Wilkins, 1978 and Ashraf et al 1986)

Myers and Morgan (1989) have described salt tolerant grass species such as Puccinellia ciliata and Leptochloa fusca for revegetating saline sites;

Lodge and Graves (1990) assessed the potential environmental value of agricultural grasses in controlling groundwater recharge. They noted that there was little information available in Australia, but that germ plasm of interest was accessible both in Australia and overseas.

The initial conclusions of this research were:

It was recognised that although Australia has significant potential as a source of productive halophytes and that significant work had been done investigating the value of native browse shrubs, no selective breeding had been attempted.

The salt tolerant commercial species such as Puccinellia ciliata and tall wheat grass were not very productive at high salinities (more than 10,000 ppm) and had low tolerance to flooding.

There are several plants, such as saltbushes and bluebushes, that can produce useful fodder from saline land but these are only moderately tolerant to water logging and intolerant of inundation.

Leptochloa fusca and Paspalum vaginatum originating from South Africa can tolerate waterlogging but are not drought tolerant and do not yield very highly.

The Distichlis cultivars selected by Yensen that were imported to Australia and evaluated on farms between 1994 and 1997 had the potential to outperform known species in terms of both agricultural and environmental services.

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As a result of this review, a methodology was developed, to assess the value of the three Distichlis cultivars in more detail. 2.2 Summary of Methodology It was decided to follow two broad approaches to the study;

Support farmer’s observations without imposing a specific experimental design to capture broad observations or’ what questions to ask’ in formal investigations.

Subject the three cultivars to rigorous investigations in a planned way. Following initial site selection and discussion with collaborating farmers and researchers it was decided to focus detailed work at Wickepin, Western Australia and to cooperate with DAWA in greenhouse investigations in conjunction with satellite trials in South Australia, other regions of Western Australia and in Victoria in 2001. This involved: Marked areas where Distichlis had been planted, to measure the spread of the plants over a period

of two years including measuring root depths and depth of the saline water table; Bulked-up material for feeding to sheep to determine palatability and obvious health implications; Glasshouse investigations under varying conditions of salinity and waterlogging; Collating information and documentation of trials and observations, and presented these to

RIRDC under agreed confidentiality mechanisms; Preliminary studies of milling characteristics of the grain in SARDI’s facilities at the Waite

Institute. The methodology followed a standard approach to investigating a new species. It gathered information to provide a basis for further analysis while enabling decisions to be made on the uses to which Distichlis might be put within Australia and the methods of commercialisation. 2.3 Specific methodologies

2.3.1 Agronomic investigations in the field

The original plants were cleared from quarantine in November 1994 and were transported to Lake Alexandrina, South Australia. They were then transplanted into an irrigated sand seedbed to enable replication to provide material for evaluation trials. Sufficient material for this purpose was grown by the end of the growing season in 1996 (Haslam 1995). Samples were transplanted to Clover Ridge, South Australia and to Wickepin, Western Australia in 1997. Soon after clearance from quarantine in 1994, one plant of the grain was planted at Wickepin as part of an experiment to use the grain as a feed material for Marron1. An observation site on saline irrigated land near Kerang, Victoria, was established in 2001. Another experimental site near Tatura, Victoria, was incorporated into this project in 2001.

1 This experiment failed for reasons unrelated to the grain.

Photo 2.1: Dividing imports 1994

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The methods followed at each site are summarised below. Those areas already planted with the cultivars in highly saline areas, predominantly in South Australia and Western Australia, were staked out and marked at the outset of the trial to enable plant distribution to be estimated annually. This process was carried out in conjunction with the collaborating farmers and was based on visual expressions of the plant rhizomes piercing the soil surface and included measurements of the depth of roots. Photographs were taken and provided in progress reports and field notes. Measurements were taken over a three-year period. Cages and fences were introduced for some areas where there was a risk of livestock grazing to ensure that total dry matter estimates could be obtained. In areas where grazing took place, the impacts were subjectively estimated and visual observations were made of the plants response and growth rates under grazing. Depths of roots were measured by digging a square of about half a metre through existing plants until no more plant roots could be seen at the bottom of the hole. The depth of the hole was then measured and the roots washed to separate them from soil to permit observation. Additional establishment trials were undertaken to obtain information on suitable implements for propagation and ripping to induce infilling between planted grasses. Particular observations were made concerning the relative spread of the “Turf”, ‘Wild Wheat’ and ‘Forage’ cultivars.

Shallow wells lined with PVC pipe were installed with a hand auger at the Wickepin field sites and measurements of the depth of the saline water table were made at approximately three monthly intervals over a one-year period. Specific observation trials in other ecological zones in Western Australia were established and links were forged with a similar project being undertaken in Victoria under separate funding. Randomised block design trials were undertaken at new sites at Wickepin in 1998 for:

Comparison between the halophyte Distichlis and other salt tolerant grasses. The objective of this trial was to identify the niche of ‘Forage’ in this ecological zone. The species compared were Puccinellia ciliata, Thinopyrum elongatum and tall wheat grass syn.Agropyron elongatum;

Responses of the Distichlis cultivars to applications of N and P fertiliser; Installing shallow wells to measure depth of the water table.

Photo 2.3 Original observation site at Wickepin 1998

Photo 2.2: Observation site at Clover Ridge in 1997

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The sites were assessed six months apart. Photo (a) shows the same site after six months, photo (b) the site after 12 months. The site was standardised and urea broadcast over it every quarter.

Trials at Kerang, near Tatura were used for this project in 2001 to incorporate results from data gathered in 2001 & 2002. The site was established to investigate the production characteristics of ‘Forage’ irrigated with moderate and high salinity water. The moderate salinity water averaged about 21 dS/m, whereas the higher salinity water averaged 62 dS/m.2 a saline site on a dairy farm was planted with ‘Forage’ in October 2001. It was located at the bottom of an irrigation bay and received fresh water during irrigation. Prior to planting the site was cultivated with a rotary hoe. The total area of this site was one hectare. Vegetation present before planting consisted of bead bush and marine barley grass. Bare areas were also present throughout the site.

2.3.2 Feeding to Ruminants

Material was bulked-up to analyse its value for sheep through observations of sheep grazing and

analysis of samples of grass for nutritive value, palatability and impact on sheep health in different seasons. Particular note was made of possible mouth abrasions. Material harvested under different growing conditions was analysed for digestibility. After about four ha of area had been revegetated a paddock condition trial was undertaken over a particularly dry period to gauge drought resistance. The drought in Western Australia in 2000/2001 presented a severe survival test of the plants under heavy grazing in drought conditions. Small-scale feeding trials were also made of “Wild Wheat’ and ‘Turf’ to observe palatability

and resistance to grazing pressure.

2.3.3 Glasshouse Investigations

2 Various units for salinity have been used by different investigators, a conversion table appears in Appendix 1

Photo 2.6: Grazing trials Wickepin May 2002

Photo 2.5: Species comparison trial at 6 months and 12

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Three replicated glasshouse experiments were conducted at the DAWA laboratories at West Perth with ‘Forage’ to investigate performance under different conditions of salinity and waterlogging typical of Southern Australia: Salt tolerance. The impact of salinity on growth was determined by planting rhizomes into sand

cultures irrigated with five levels of salinity: 10, 200, 400, 600 and 800 mol m-3 NaCl. There were three plants per pot and six pot replicates per treatment. The plants were allowed to establish for 14 days. The shoots were then harvested. Shoot growth was determined after the plants had grown a further 42 days. Leaf samples were also analysed for in-vitro digestibility and

associated indicators of nutritional value.

Establishment techniques. The

best methods for establishing ‘Forage’ were determined by examining the effects of burying cuttings of different lengths, containing different numbers of stem nodes and allowing different lengths of cuttings to protrude above the soil surface.

Photo 2.7: Glasshouse salinity tolerance trial Waterlogging tolerance. The impacts on growth of waterlogging under saline conditions was

determined by growing plants in waterlogged or freely drained pots irrigated with nutrient solutions containing 10, 100, 200 or 400 mol m-3 NaCl. This experiment had six pot replicates per treatment. As for The plants were allowed to establish for 14 days in the salt tolerance trial. They were then harvested and the allowed to regrow for a further 42 days.

2.3.4 Preliminary Milling Characteristics

A small amount of grain from ‘Wild Wheat’ was produced in Western Australia. It was examined for basic laboratory milling characteristics at the SARDI facility at the Waite Institute in South Australia. This information was compared with wheat grain milling investigations undertaken previously in the United States. The results were then discussed with the Baking Faculty at the Regency Park Institute of TAFE and with a commercial noodle manufacturer.

2.3.5 Collation of Reports All accessible international experience with Distichlis was collected and two volumes produced for industry and research partners to provide a context for the Australian investigations. These were presented to RIRDC at the close of the project. 2.4 Commercialisation Discussions commenced in 1999 with Elders Limited as a commercial partner and preliminary heads of agreement were signed in October 1999. NyPa and Elders jointly sponsored the Productive Use of Saline Lands (PUR$L) conference in Naracoorte in November 1999 where a preliminary release of trial results to industry was made. Both organisations plan to sponsor a field inspection at the Wickepin site during the 2002 PUR$L conference. Elders joined the trial program to gain experience with the plants. Trials were established in several areas in Western Australia and trials also began with ‘Turf’.

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A draft joint business plan was prepared in 2000 and entered into the RIRDC Business Plan contest and was ranked a winner in Category One. The business plan was refined in April and May 2001 and a decision was made to move to stage one of commercialisation. This involved making plant material available to a farmer in Western Australia and a farmer in South Australia for producing commercial quantities of planting material. Such producers are known as ‘tier one farmers”. As part of the commercialisation plan, NyPa assisted the tier one grower in South Australia to apply for a farm innovation grant from the Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry (AFFA) Farm Innovation Program. The application was successful and the farmer began planting 16 ha of ‘Forage’ to provide material for sales in South Australia in June 2001.

3 Results and Discussion 3.1 Investigations on established plant-outs Although the methods followed at each site were similar, there were differences in site conditions and differences in additional investigations undertaken in evaluating the plants for use. The results for each site are therefore preceded by a site description.

3.1.1 Lake Alexandrina The initial sit had been established on a sodic black soil flat growing samphire community behind the machinery shed at Lake Alexandrina Station near Meningie in South Australia. Ten plants each of ‘Forage’, ‘Turf’ and ‘Reclamation’ were established at this site at one-metre centres in August 1995. The ‘Forage’ and ‘Turf’ cultivars were separated from each other by a space of two metres. The ‘Turf’ cultivar was left in the original pots to facilitate moving. The ‘Reclamation’ cultivar was planted 10 metres away. The area was fenced to exclude stock. Further plants were stockpiled in pots and one ‘Grain’ plant was planted in another saline site about three kilometres away. Photo 3.1: NyPa Reclamation Lake Alexandrina 1997 ‘Forage’ grew rapidly and occupied the one metre spacing within one growing season. The farmer used this site to observe the response of Distichlis to grazing and as a source of material for planting in trials on different soil types. The plants regrew rapidly in the original site following harvesting each year even though they were completely denuded of top shoots. The plants in this observation were not fertilized between 1997 and 2000. Observation plots in the paddock situation outside of the original plot received a normal pasture dressing of 100 kg of Single Super Phosphate annually. ‘Forage’ spread about one metre per year although this was uneven between the sides of the plot and the rate of spread decreased annually. The soil between the plants increased each year as structure returned and perennial rye grass and other less salt tolerant weeds became established. Root depth was measured each year for the three years of the trial but did not vary after the first season. The sodic black soil had an average depth of about 70 cms overlaying saturated fine white sand. The site was usually waterlogged to the surface in the winter and spring and often had standing water of about 5-10 cm after rain. Observations of the root structure were consistent with those of the plant growing in its natural state in the United States and Mexico. The plants had a strong lateral rhizome about 10cm below the soil surface with

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secondary roots extending through the black soil. These divided again into finer roots in the permanent aquifer and extended below the surface of this aquifer by about five cm, although recharge of the hole at this depth was too rapid to enable accurate measurement of deeper roots. All of this growth occurred within the first growing season. The salinity of this groundwater was 40.5 dS/m. The plants did not have any appreciable impact on the water table compared with non-planted areas nearby. This was evidently due to the high hydraulic conductivity and supply of groundwater through the sandy soil at greater than 70 cms in depth. The plants grew strongly when the soil temperature was warm and achieved the strongest growth in the summer and autumn. Growth slowed in the winter and the plants appeared to go dormant after the first heavy rain when the shoots yellowed and the stems became woody. This appeared to be a reaction to fresh cold water leaching the salt in the soil down to and including the lateral rhizome rather than a reaction to flooding.

‘Reclamation’ had a similar pattern of growth as ‘Forage’ except that the rate of spread was slower in the first year and increased in subsequent years. The average rate of expansion in the period 1997 to 2000 was one metre per annum but probably reached 1.2 metres in 2000 to 2001. The root depth of ‘Reclamation’ was the same as the ‘Forage’, but the production from ‘Reclamation’ was lower. The pots of ‘Turf’ were not transplanted but the plants grew out of the bottom of the pots and then spread at a similar rate to ‘Reclamation’. ‘Grain’ died at this location, possibly due to the lack of salt during the winter rains. This is not considered to be conclusive evidence of the adaptation of ‘Grain’ since there were only a few plants at this site and they were planted in what the farmer considered ‘ a favoured site’ with respect to salt (ie a site with less salt, and which moved down the profile with the winter rains). Additional trials into planting techniques were also undertaken at this site. These included a comparison between planting into ripped lines, into cultivated land with

compression, and in papier mâché to aid soil moisture retention. Planting into cultivation with compression showed the best results and the papier mâché the worst. The reasons for the differences were not clear although good tillage and contact between the soil and the planted material emerged as important factors.

3.1.2 Clover Ridge

The initial site at Clover Ridge was established on saline clay over ironstone and limestone flat. Five ‘Forage’ plants were established in January 1996 and others were stockpiled at the Clover Ridge Homestead. One ‘Forage’ plant was established in a sandy saline site about two kilometres northwest of the first site, which had been almost bare at planting with evidence of salt scalding. The small amount of vegetation consisted of the remains of some marine barley grass. The water table at this location rose to the surface with winter rainfall and sank to below three metres in the summer. Even in summer, saline moisture was evident within a half metre of the soil surface. The salinity of the shallow groundwater at this site varied between fresh and 15,000 ppm. The salinity in the small adjacent stream varied from fresh to over 50,000 ppm at the end of the summer when the flow stopped. Soil salinity varied between fresh in the winter following the second good rain to saline in the spring when evaporation began to bring up saline water from the water table. The

Photo 3.2: Original NyPa Forage Lake Alexandrina 1994

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site had been caged when first established to eliminate grazing, but the cages were removed in 1999 when the plantings were extended. The plants performed similarly at Clover Ridge to Lake Alexandrina although the temperature was slightly higher in the summer and slightly lower in the winter at the former site. The plants covered the one metre planting distance within one year after which the rate of spread reduced. When the trial site was extended to about .2 ha in 1999, the plants once again grew rapidly where conditions were favourable and then the rate of spread slowed. Where competition was reduced by spraying with Roundup© the establishment rate was good (80% survival). However, establishment was poor where there had been no spraying with only 30% survival. No fertiliser was applied until 2000 when the equivalent of about 200 kg of NPK was applied. There was little apparent response to this application. Root depth measurements at this site were taken each year for three years. Growth to below one metre occurred within the first year. Continued root depth was minimal after that first year, although sections of the roots began to die in the fifth year after establishment and these were replaced by new growth nearby. These results are consistent with experience in the USA. The roots may be well below one metre in depth but this cannot be confirmed because the soil profile is rocky. The water table drops below two metres in the summer at this location. The farmer states that evapo-transpiration from the plants is greater, especially in summer, than from the adjacent bare soil and annuals. There is virtually no growth of annuals between December and the opening rains in April or May, and even occasional summer rain produces no growth on these saline sites. The plants established at the sandy site also performed well. This site was not fenced so that the small plot was heavily grazed each year to the point where the plants seemed to have vanished because it was the only green feed available. However, when grazing pressure was reduced the plants regrew from the lateral rhizome each year without apparent harm to the plants. The plants were still spreading slowly after six years of this ‘no care’ treatment. The farmer at Clover Ridge began a successful program of Puccinellia development in the region around this site shortly after the beginning of this project. The Puccinellia was preferred for saline flat areas subject to waterlogging but free of flooding since it was easier to establish by seed and produced forage that persisted into the summer as standing dry feed. The farmer reported that the ‘Forage’ had the advantage of producing green feed in the late summer and appeared to use a lot of water. If it could be established more easily it would be used more often since it provided green feed late in the summer and autumn.

3.1.3 East Wickepin The initial site at East Wickepin was on a marine barley grass flat with a sandy gravel soil. One plant of ‘Grain’ was established in late 1994 and one plant of ‘Forage’, ‘Turf’ and ‘Reclamation’ were established in 1995. Additional ‘Forage” and “Turf” were introduced from South Australia in 1996 and 2.5 ha had been established on one metre centres by the time the present project began. The growth of the plants was consistent with United States experience as had been the case in South Australia. They showed an average annual expansion of one metre for ‘Forage’, about one third of a metre for ‘Grain’, about two thirds of a metre for the ‘Reclamation’ and 1.2 metres for ‘Turf’. Variation was noted between sites and between plant cultivars. The landowner of the East Wickepin site also visited Clover Ridge and Lake Alexandrina in

Photo 3.3 Turf spread over two years

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South Australia and noted different results at those sites. No firm observations could be reached regarding the variations between states, however temperature was considered most likely (based on the literature) but the influence of soil fertility could not be ruled out. The variation between cultivars concurred with the literature, as did the variations between individual plants. The variation between plants of the same cultivar was considered to be genetic and to indicate capacity for selection, even with ‘Forage’. Variation within clones is considered possible since the literature indicates that a mutation every 10,000 cell divisions can be expected. Differences in local soil structure caused by root holes and other pathways providing preferred water lines and variations in salinity were considered and investigated using a shovel but no clear trends emerged. NyPa Turf establishment in photo 3.2 shows:

• Overall view of where ‘Turf’ has spread between ‘Wild Wheat’ and ‘Reclamation’ • A close up view of NyPa Turf shows the even mat it creates over salt affected areas.

One significant difference in the growth pattern between the South East of South Australia and the

East Wickepin site in Western Australia was the growth in the winter. The plants were not dormant over winter at East Wickepin and the site remained dry except during and immediately following heavy rain. This suggested that the plants used soil moisture even in winter. The growth of vigorous roots may also have improved soil drainage. The high clay content in the soil at this site would have ensured that the soils had lower hydraulic conductivity than the sites in South Australia. Prior to the establishment of the

plants, the site appeared waterlogged in winter with a damp salt scald in summer. Moisture at the soil surface has not been evident since 1996 suggesting that the plants have been using water faster than it is discharging at this location. However this finding is preliminary since there have been two very dry years and one very wet year in the five years since the plants were established. The farmer considers that the plants reduce the saline water table by about 0.25 metres based on digging holes within NyPa plants and comparing the water level after one day with bare land within about a metre. Water use and other environmental services are discussed in more detail in Section 3.5 below. Root depth showed a similar development to the trial South Australia, with rapid growth of the lateral rhizome followed by rapid growth of secondary roots to a depth of one meter within the first growing season. Roots have been measured to one meter in depth and are thought to extend further. The action of the roots to enter and break up relatively impervious

Photo 3.4: NyPa Forage 1999

Photo 3.5: Injured NyPa Forage roots show the distinctive aerenchyma, air passages (the microscope photo is from Melaleuca halmatrurum, (reproduced from Plants in Action 1999)

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subsoil to enable better drainage is very clear at this site. Worms were observed on the site within two years. Other plants have established on the mounds resulting from the trapping of eroding surface soil and improved soil structure. This is known as a Rhizocanicular effect and is discussed in more detail in Section 3.5.3. Trials of different planting systems were undertaken to identify a cost effective system for Australian conditions. This work was undertaken in South Australia and Western Australia and resulted in the adaptation of two broccoli vegetable planters to plant the rhizomes in previously ripped lines. This system was relatively labour intensive and occupied two people to dig and prepare rhizomes and to operate the tractor and planter. A rate of planting of about 2 ha/day was achieved. A purposely-designed hopper feeder system was also used but this was not durable and no faster than the commercial vegetable planter. Trials were also undertaken to use shoots as planting material and to field test techniques investigated in the glasshouse trials discussed below. These trials were inconclusive. The establishment of plants in the additional two ha was more successful than the additional

plantings in South Australia. However the same difficulty with establishment into previously grassed areas was experienced. Supplementary planting with the vegetable planter into ripped lines one meter apart that crossed from grassed areas to bare scalded land with no plant cover was used at Wickepin. Almost 50% of plants struck in the saline bare areas were successful but establishment was poor in areas where there was competition. Deep ripping across the line of plants established in 1998 was used with limited success in 2000 to

induce more rapid spreading. Very heavy rain in the summer of 2000 caused some erosion of sand in sites where plants had not been established. “Forage’ rhizomes moved into some of these areas and successfully shot in gully lines suggesting an environmental benefit in the reduction of erosion in saline sites. No fertiliser was applied to the original site until 2000 when there was no visual response to the application of approximately 200 kg/ha of TSP and 100 kg/ha of N. Fertilizer was applied to the

additional planting of 2.5 ha at the normal pasture rate of approximately 110 kg/ha of superphosphate, again with little visual response. However the plants did show a response to nutrients in the form of a dead sheep carcass that was about two years old at the time of planting although this might also be a response to organic matter.

Photo 3.6: Initial ‘paddock’ planting trial at Wickepin

Photo 3.7: NyPa Forage ‘Bulking up’ plantings 1998

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The farmer had previously planted Puccinellia and tall wheat grass in another area of the farm and a comparison planting of ‘Forage’ was made nearby in 1998. This showed better growth than the other two grasses; the difference was attributed to the better growth of ‘Forage’ at higher soil salinity levels. An adjacent area had been planted to saltbush, which was growing well but it did not produce as highly as ‘Forage’. Another small plot was planted into a barley field where yields had been affected by salinity. ‘Forage’ plants grew well in this case in spite of grass competition and survived a subsequent planting of barley in 1999. As barley and the forage grew in different seasons, this suggested that ‘Forage’ might be useful as a permanent under-crop for barley in saline areas, benefiting the growth of barley in winter by lowering the watertable in the prior summer. This observation has not yet been confirmed or tested at other sites. In 2001 a trial area of “Forage’ was fertilized with Nitrogen and Potassium to further investigate the apparent response to the dead sheep carcass noted above. Table 3.1 summarises the results. Table 3.1 NyPa ‘Forage’ Analyses from Wickepin

Sample Protein %

Ash %

Neutral detergent fibre %

Digestibility

Nitrogen applied 9.56 6.51 75.04 55.46 No nitrogen applied 11.06 7.86 76.14 56.79 Potassium applied 12.48 8.23 75.38 56.29 No potassium applied 12.94 11.66 71.18 59.24 Long - nitrogen applied 16.17 6.39 73.73 58.02 Nitrogen and potassium applied 17.33 8.33 71.13 60.04

The Long – nitrogen treatment uses a sample of ‘Forage’ taken from a sward that was approximately 30cm in height. All other samples taken were 10-15cm in height. There was no dead material in any of the samples. It is not known what rate of N or K was applied to the sites and there were no replicates. These are simply observations that indicate a significant response to high and balanced levels of NPK where temperature and water conditions are appropriate.

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3.1.4 Underra

The higher salinity treatment (62 dS/m.3 about 1.5 times sea water) had a significantly lower dry matter production than the moderate salinity treatment. All yields were lower than would be expected, with the higher salinity treatment producing a total of 817 kg DM/ha from February 2001 to March 2002, compared to 1444 kg DM/ha for the moderate salinity treatment. The site was also established to compare production of ‘Forage’ with some other salt tolerant grasses (Puccinellia ciliata, Paspalum vaginatum and Leptochloa fusca). ‘Forage’ produced a higher amount of dry matter than these other grasses in both treatments. Protein content ranged between 8.44 and 9.90%. The ash content was significantly lower than the other grasses in the trial, ranging between 11.46 and 22.42%. The lower ash contents are achieved due to the salt being excreted onto the surface of the leaf. The trial also included Paspalum vaginatum, which contained between 18.34 and 31.21% ash. The in-vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD) of the ‘Forage’ was lower than the other grasses in the trial. Values ranged between 51.95 and 56.18%. Energy values were calculated from the IVDMD and followed the same trend with energy values ranging from 6.7 to 7.5 MJ/ME kg/DM. Neutral detergent fibre content of the samples ranged between 64.15 and 72.50%. Treatment had no significant effect on protein, ash and energy content, IVDMD and neural detergent fibre analysis. The nutritional value of ‘Forage’ in this trial was not as good as that achieved in other trials in Australia. This is most likely due to the lower input system of this trial, particularly potassium and because it extended only over one year in which the “Forage’ roots were being established. Work at the US Salinity Lab conducted by Shannon (2000) comparing Distichlis, Bermuda and Paspalum over two years showed an increase in Distichlis production over Paspalum in the second year, particularly at higher salinities. 3.1.5 Kerang The plants at Kerang browned off for a few weeks after planting before new green tillers emerged. Towards the end of summer, plants located in the previously bare areas had also started to green up. At this stage it was estimated that an establishment of 75% had been achieved. Plants had started to spread with many rhizomes having spread 40cm away from the initial plant. During winter of 2002, many of the plants that had started to green up in the bare areas had again dried off. There were some plants in these areas still alive and spreading well. Calves have grazed this site during the first half of 2002. Inspection of the plants in September 2002 showed that the bare areas had greened up again and the plants were spreading and that some freshwater plants including clover had invaded the area. Discussion with the farmer suggested that the plants will assist in recreating soil structure and drainage pathways enabling usual pasture to be gradually re-established 3.2 Feeding to Ruminants Feeding to ruminants was undertaken as a series of grazing trials to enable observations to be made of palatability, health of the plants and resistance of the plants to grazing pressure and drought. An average of 30 Sheep were grazed in 1999 at Wickepin over two 30-day periods on a plot of about two ha. The sheep also had access to nearby marine barley grass on a further five ha. At the conclusion of the grazing, the sheep were mustered and examined for mouth lesions. About 300 sheep were grazed on approximately seven ha of ‘Forage’ during the summer drought of 2000/2001 for about three months.

3 Various units for salinity have been used by different investigators, a conversion table appears in Appendix 1

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The sheep did not develop mouth lesions. ‘Forage’ was more palatable than the barley grass. ‘Forage’ was also extremely drought tolerant and resistant to heavy grazing. Bulking up of the area to make feeding observations on a larger scale was undertaken through the project so that about 20 ha had been planted by September 2002. The results of plant tissue analysis shows a range of crude protein concentrations from 5.7% to 17.2% with a digestibility range between 45.6 % and 61% and metabolisable energy of between 6.2 Mj/Kg and 7.5. Production with minimal fertiliser application was estimated at between 12 and 27 tonnes per ha green matter with a dry matter content of between 53.6 and 71.3 %. Production from one four ha site fertilised with NPK at about 150 kg per ha was estimated at 25 tonnes per ha green matter. These results do not adequately measure the potential productivity range of the plants in different conditions of plant nutrition. Cattle grazed ‘Forage’ in preference to other temperate pasture at Wanderibby near Meningee. Both protein concentration and digestibility decreases with the age of the material analysed. Appropriate management is important to obtain production from “Forage”. While production is not high in conditions of low soil nutrient status, it improves markedly in conditions of good fertility. Livestock prefer leaf material but will graze all of the plant when no other green material is available. All farmers commented favourably on “Forage’ as summer ‘a green bridge’ between late spring and winter. The economic importance of halophyte green feed available in the summer to the whole farm enterprise has estimated by O’Connell & Young for WA conditions (O’Connell & Young 2002). 3.3 Glasshouse Investigations Two experiments were undertaken in Glasshouse 25 at DAWA’s South Perth office. Experiment 1 investigated the response of ‘Forage’ to salinity (Figure 3.1). It was found that the plants grew best under conditions of low salinity (10 mol/m3 NaCl), but withstood salt concentrations up to 800 mol/m3 (about 1.45 times the concentration of sea-water). The plants were grown in irrigated sand culture for 42 days and gradually acclimated (50 mol/m3/day) to the concentrations of salt in the irrigation solutions. All the shoots were then harvested and discarded. The plants were grown for a further 42 days and shoots and roots were harvested and dried. There were three plants per pot. Values are the mean + the standard error of the mean of six pot replicates. The results of this trial showed that ‘Forage’ grew at the range of salinities typical of many saline

areas in Australia. The growth curve was dissimilar to results in the United States because growth declined more rapidly in response to increasing salinities up to sea level salinities (at 600 mol/m3). The reason for this anomaly was not clear. Yensen as well as Kemp et al (1981) suggest that halophytes need high light intensities to provide the energy for the full expression of the halophytic response, and

that this does not happen in glasshouse circumstances. An alternative explanation is that responses to salinity are affected by the high relative humidity the glasshouse trials and the low in the trials in United States. Gale et al. (1970) found that the shape of the growth response to salinity curve in

0

1

2

3

4

0 400 800Salt concentration (mol/m3)

Dry

wei

ght (

g/pl

ant)

ShootsRoots

Figure 3.1 Response of ‘Forage’ cultivar to increasing salinity

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Atriplex halimus is strongly affected by relative humidity, particularly at concentrations of salt less than 250 mol/m3. Experiment 2 investigated the responses of the plants to the waterlogged conditions found on saline land in South Australia. Plants were grown under waterlogged or drained conditions at salt concentrations between 10 and 400 mol/m3 NaCl. The plants were highly resilient to water logging with no apparent decrease in the growth of roots and 32-46% decreases in the growth of shoots.

Plant root growth is generally severely affected by water logging (Barrett-Lennard, 1986). However, when transverse cuts were made through “Forage’ roots and squeezed beneath water then streams of bubbles emerged from the cut end. The plants formed aerenchyma in a manner similar to other highly water logging tolerant grasses like rice (Armstrong, 1971) and puccinellia (Stelzer and Läuchli, 1980). The plants were grown in

irrigated sand culture for 42 days and gradually acclimated (50 mol/m3/day) to the concentrations of salt in the irrigation solutions. All the shoots were then harvested and discarded. Water logging treatments were then imposed. ‘Waterlogged’ pots were drained once per week and the nutrient solution was replaced with fresh solution. ‘Drained’ pots were watered twice daily. A second harvest of shoots and roots was taken after 21 days. Tissues were oven dried. There were four plants per pot. Values are the mean + the standard error of the mean of six pot replicates. 3.4 Preliminary Milling Characteristics Milling characteristics were investigated in two ways: 1 Access was obtained to detailed investigations undertaken in the United States because the grains are similar and only small samples of grain were gathered in Australia; 2 A milling trial was undertaken in the test facility at SARDI’s Waite campus in Adelaide. A sample of approximately 200 gms of ‘Wild Wheat’ was provided to the SARDI Grain Quality Laboratory’ in August 2001. A series of standard grain tests were undertaken with the number of tests being limited by the quantity of grain available. The objective was to extract as much information as possible with regard to the suitability of the grain for Australian milling equipment. 3.4.1 The Milling Test Results Milling yield. This was determined by milling “unconditioned” grain with a Quadrumat Junior Mill and calculated from ‘flour’ production divided by initial weight of grain. The raw yield was 69% (flour with pollard) through a cold mill. By comparison, the standard of wheat (QA) used by SARDI is about 60% as a ‘unsmoothed average’ over different temperature ranges experienced during milling, or 52% smoothed. The QA figures are ‘conditioned’. Conditioning is a process of increasing the moisture content to facilitate milling and usually has the effect of increasing yield. That is, the comparatively high yield may have been more obvious had the grain from ‘Wild Wheat’ been conditioned. Conditioning was not possible due to the small size of the sample. However, yield is

(a) Shoots

0

1

2

3

4

5

0 200 400 600

Concentration of NaCl (mM)

Dry

wei

ght (

g/pl

ant)

Drained

Waterlogged

Figure 3.2 Response of ‘Forage’ cultivar to salinity and water

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influenced by a range of factors such as the thickness of bran and its water uptake so a strict comparison is not possible. The QA flour comes in bulk from a local commercial miller and is used as a standard for all quality grain quality sampling in South Australia. This commercial process is not the same as the Quadrumat mill and the results may not be strictly comparable across different grains. Minolta flour colour. This is a standard measure of appearance taken into account in the marketing of wheat. Table 3.2: NyPa ‘Wild Wheat’ Flour Colour L (brightness) a (red green) b (yellow blue) QA Flour 91.76 -0.42 +8.74 NyPa ‘Wild Wheat’ 87.62 +0.20 +7.15 Schooner Barley 90.91 -0.7 +10.2 Brightness is a measure of white intensity with a higher value being desirable. a is a measure of colour, where – is tending towards green and + towards red. b is a measure of colour, where + is tending towards yellow while – is tending towards blue.

The flour had a bright off white ‘natural’ look with small black particles of unknown composition. Taken together these results indicate that the flour is not suitable for white bread but may be acceptable in a blend for composite breads. Protein This was measured by the LECO method, which is based on total combustion. Table 3.3 NyPa ‘Wild Wheat’ Protein QA Flour 12.2% NyPa ‘Wild Wheat’, whole grain protein 8.13% NyPa ‘Wild Wheat’, flour protein 5.52% Schooner Barley flour protein 11.99%

The ‘Wild Wheat’ grain protein levels may be too low for bread baking purposes alone (depending on the characteristics of the starch, see below), this is due to the lack of gluten and this and other nutrient qualities may mean the flour, or grain, may have value in a blend or in other products such as health foods. Rapid Visco Analysis (RVA) This is a measure of the rate of gelatinisation of starch in water and the time to resolidify. Table 3.4 NyPa ‘Wild Wheat’ Elasticity Peak Viscosity Peak Time Final Viscosity QA flour 194.25 9.8 112.5 NyPa ‘Wild Wheat’ 253.67 9.33 203.88 Schooner Barley 686 2.5 358 Note: the Barley was unconditioned and milled with a Buhler Mill, which imparts different physical properties and so is not strictly comparable.

A high figure with the ‘Wild Wheat’ flour suggests good working qualities for products such as noodles but since the composition of the starch could not be determined with the small sample size this conclusion may not be valid, as the viscosity would be influenced by starch type. The Regency Park Institute of TAFE Baking Faculty (Bailey 2001) corroborated this opinion that the flour would be suitable for noodles. The same results were discussed with the chief food chemist with a commercial pasta manufacturer, who reported that the elasticity of the flour may provide advantages with high speed machines used in Ravioli and that the colour and taste was attractive (Alvino 2001). Both people expressed strong interest in investigating the cooking qualities of this grain further.

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Work in the United States with D. Palmeri suggests the flour’s characteristics for bread making are much better than might be expected, even though it does not have gluten. Leavened bread is formed when the bubbles formed in fermentation ‘fixed’ into during baking. Normal gluten dough elasticity is developed over 20-30 minutes. However, although the ‘Wild Wheat’ flour forms weaker bubbles due to the lack of gluten protein it develops the elasticity necessary to hold the bubbles for baking in 5-10 minutes. Although this is quickly lost by continued kneading Yensen considers an adaptation to the bread making process may enable bread to be baked with these bubbles. It is thought that this elasticity is due to the starch granules or the starch itself, perhaps analogous to making toffee. This is an area that needs to be studied as it could allow the production of "airy" bread without blending (Yensen 2001). Ash QA flour was 0.56 % while the Wild Wheat ash content was 1.32%. This may be acceptable depending on the nature of the ash. 3.4.2 Discussion These results were compared with analysis undertaken in the United States with wild ‘Wild Wheat’ and showed comparable protein levels for grain of 8.7% and ash at 1.8% (analysis of flour was not undertaken in this work). Mineral analysis indicated that the mineral content of ‘Wild Wheat’ was lower in calcium, and magnesium, the same in copper, iron and phosphorus and greater in zinc in comparison with Hard Red Winter wheat. While sodium levels were about four times that of the other cereal grains it was remarkably low for a grain growing in 40,000 ppm water. The grain does not accumulate metals, especially sodium and that the ash was normal and acceptable as human food. The same analysis showed that the fibre content was about the same as barley at 8.4% and higher than wheat or corn (1.5- 3.8%), while fat was very low at 1.8% and that carbohydrate was high at 79.5% and the gross energy comparable with the other cereals. The protein content of the grain was also investigated by comparing the ‘Wild Wheat’ grain with Hard Red Winter wheat. The results showed that the protein was equivalent to the wheat in amino acid composition and more than adequate for humans. Digestibility was found to be similar to the other grains at about 79%. The relatively low protein level is due to an absence of Gluten but this will have attractions for some markets. Taste tests indicate that bread produced from flour made up of a mixture of ‘Wild Wheat’ flour and wheat flour is preferred to that of either of them alone, with the test panel commenting on the ‘nut’ like flavour of the blend.

The grain from the wild cultivar of ‘Wild Wheat’ was made into flat ‘bread’ and consumed as a staple by the Cocopa Indians in the Gulf of California prior to the Spanish invasion. The results obtained in

Photo 3.8 Dishes prepared in the US containing Wild Wheat’ bread and toasted grain

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Australia corroborate work in the United States authors where it was found that the grain has potential in food as a blended product in gourmet bread and ‘muffins.’ The Regency TAFE baking faculty considered the flour to be suitable for gluten free ‘organic health food cakes’, rich fruit cakes and puddings, muffins, scones and damper, gourmet bread (as a 50% blend) and flat bred/crisp bread or noodles (Bailey 2001). 3.5 Environmental Services The ability of the plants to use saline water and to improve the soil structure and organic content of saline soils is not discussed extensively in the literature nor summarised in one document. Observations and soil and water analysis suggests that the NyPa grasses of the genus Distichlis grow strongly in discharge zones where their roots can enter a saline water table with a salinity of up to about that of sea water and where this water table is within about a meter of the surface (although establishment varies between apparently similar sites). At Wickepin, Western Australia, the species was shown to have lowered the saline groundwater table by about 0.25 meters after a year and this effect persisted in subsequent seasons. Longer-term changes are being monitored. Some observations in both Western Australia and South Australia suggest that the plants grow better in salty water than they do in fresh water although this was not confirmed in the glasshouse studies in Western Australia. In Kerang initial observations suggest the plants are re-establishing soil structure in heavy clay previously de flocculated by salt deposition from flood irrigation. This improves drainage, enabling leaching of surface salt through irrigation with the drainage water from flood irrigation of remaining conventional pasture up slope. 3.5.1 Halophytes and Productivity It is commonly assumed that for plants to survive under saline conditions they must expend energy to manage salt. The O’Leary rule states that for every gram molecular weight of salt pumped out of a plant via a sodium pump the plant must expend the energy of one gram molecular weight of ATP (adenosine-tri-phosphate) and this is correct for Glycophyte plants (glycol = sweet + phyte =plant). An increase in salt level correlates with a direct linear decrease in productivity. Some halophytes do not appear to follow the O’Leary rule. Pasternak (1987) states that ‘Halophytes enjoy a curvilinear increase in productivity with increased salinity’. This means there is an optimum salinity but above that level there is a decrease in productivity. However, the reasons for this are not readily apparent and are controversial as discussed below. The question is significant if halophytes are to be selected to compete in productivity terms with present staple grain crops. The vast majority of crop plants are glycophytes and are habituated to fresh water (date palms and sugar beet are exceptions). In a review of the literature, Tanji (ed. 1990) suggests that “there is an inadequate understanding of how plants physiologically integrate and respond to salt through out their life cycle”. He shows that an “integration of responses in the whole plant is critical for the survival, growth, and development of plants under saline conditions”. These statements relate to the significant body of work that has been undertaken investigating the effects of salinity, particularly using irrigation water for crops. Less research has been directed towards halophytes and very little selection for production has occurred (the cultivars that are the subject of this project being significant exceptions). More work on selecting halophytes for production is justified as the mechanisms used for dealing with salt are quite varied and significantly different than glycophytes (Tanji1990). The difference in salt concentration across cell walls provides the electrical energy that drives water uptake by plants through osmosis and this salt is commonly NaCl in dryland areas of Australia. As the salinity of the medium builds up, this gradient reduces and respiration is reduced in glycophytes unless the plant can partition the increased salt, usually at the root level (Epstein 1983). Either way, production per unit of plant sugar is reduced since energy is used in the partitioning process. If the salinity in the medium builds up to exceed the salinity in the plant cell the water flow reverses and

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the plant desiccates and dies This explains the widely held view that an excess of salt necessarily depresses production and yield. Salt accumulating halophytes such as saltbush are thought to adapt to high salt by absorbing salt from the medium and using it as a major internal osmoticum through the generation of organic osmolytes (Flowers et al 1977). A further osmotic gradient is set up at the cell level enabling water uptake from saline water. This avoids the necessity to use energy to partition salt at the organ and tissue level, although the process still uses energy to partition salt by ion transfer at the cell level (Epstien 1983). This does not adequately explain the increase in production noted in halophytes in the presence of higher concentrations of salt (Yensen 1985). There are some intriguing explanations offered for this apparent increase in production with increasing salinity. Most postulate benefits that come into play when the plant is stimulated by salt. For example, salinisation of the rooting medium increases respiration in many species but this comes at an energy cost (Nieman 1962). A generally accepted explanation for increased economic benefit from some glycophytes is that the increased production of sugar to ‘pay’ for the compartmentalization of salt increases the value of some associated plant product such as cotton fibre or beet sugar and this more than compensates for the reduced total biomass production (Pasternak 1987). One explanation for increased production in moist saline soils with large soil pores is that the condensation of water vapour from salt water might be providing condensed pure water to root hairs that mobilises the energy available from fluctuating soil temperature. This is similar to the condensation of fog into dew in some coastal desert areas that makes water available to plants through the leaf stomata (Boyko 1966). However, this does not explain the halophyte production increase effect in fine textured soils. Some suggest that halophytes only show this increased production when under water stress as they are able to close stomata and hence conserve moisture during the day more efficiently than glycophytes. Others suggest that some Halophytes also have greater capacity to mobilize bright sunlight in the presence of salt through photosynthesis and use transpiration to ‘pump’ water from saturated water zones. The mechanism by which plants such as tall trees, like Redwoods, which grow to over 60 metres in height, are able to “pull” water to their tops also seems not well understood. The usual explanation for this phenomenon is the molecular cohesion of water and the energy of evaporation but this is well beyond the physical limits (of 30-40 feet) possible in a barometric capillary conduction tube. A hydraulic model has been used to explain the ability of mangroves to extract water from the ocean in the face of this difficulty. A hydraulic system employing a small diameter piston can exert pressure on a larger piston that is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional surface area of the two pistons, thus allowing great forces to be exerted on the larger surface area and sufficient to ‘push’ the water to the leaf surface. It is hypothesized that mangroves, through an extensive surface array of convoluted semi-permeable root membranes could, in juxtaposition to the relatively small cross-sectional area of the upward flowing xylum, create a very significant hydraulic pressure on the root membranes. The xylum pressure could be as great as that required for the tallest Redwood trees. The root membrane pressure would be limited only by the extent of the folded membrane surface area, frictional forces and the molecular cohesion of water molecules, which is quite high, in‘pumping’ water from saturated water zones, even in the presence of salt. This mechanism is further discussed in relation to water use by Distichlis in conditions where salinity varies between seasons, see (see Figure 3.3) below. Distichlis plants seem to handle salt in the same way as some Mangroves, by drawing it through the plant in the course of respiration and exuding it through bi cellular salt glands at the leaf surface (see Figure 3.4 below). The precise mechanism by which the energy for this might be generated while the plant maintains production remains to be investigated but it may be related to light. This was also concluded by Kemp et al (1981), “the mechanisms by which Distichlis spicata tolerates salt appear to be closely coupled to the utilization of light energy and that this was not associated with increased dark respiration”.

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Both these explanations are consistent with the observation that production was not enhanced with increased salinity in the greenhouse in Western Australia where humidity was high and light intensity low. However, production was enhanced at the United States Salinity Laboratory at Riverside in California where growth trials were undertaken in a lysimeter in the open in a dry climate and at Wickepin, Western Australia, where much stronger growth was apparent in the hot summer and autumn. These mechanisms and the possible sources of this additional energy capture process are an important area for research because of the potential environmental services to be obtained by the commercial use of a productive halophyte in discharge zones. 3.5.2 Saline Water Use The tolerance of plants to salt is related to salinity levels over time and measured where roots absorb most of the water (Tanji 1990). It can be seen at Wickepin that the part of the root zone with the most water potential changes with rainfall (see Figure 3.3 a and b). In winter the greatest water potential is in the topsoil where there is fresh rainwater, often at field capacity, and it is from this zone the plant might be expected to draw most of its water at this time. As water dries out gradually down the soil profile, the plant takes in water at progressively deeper places at correspondingly greater ‘effort‘. This change in water potential in the absence of salinity is related to depth and soil structure. However, in saline soils this reduction in water potential is compounded by an increase in matrix stress due to the increase in salinity with drying, down to where the soil moisture increases again in the zone of capillary influence. At some point the water potential increases to where the roots begin to draw water from the groundwater zone in preference to the surface and subsurface, particularly in hot dry conditions when the tension or matrix suction pressure is highest. This water table effect has been noted in experiments with corn and alfalfa (Hanks et al 1977), but the effect is not great with most plants because they are not able to access such water from saline soils low in oxygen since oxygen deficiency in the root zone interacts with salinity relative to salt exclusion from the shoot (Barrett-Lennard 1986). However, the Distichlis plant displays aerenchyma, a term used to describe plants that have roots with an inner root through which water and nutrients are drawn and air passages through which gas drainage can occur (photo 3.5). This enables the plants such as rice to grow in saturated conditions. This explanation does not discuss the effect of drying on the intermediate (vadose) root zone. The roots of grape vines respond to dry conditions by re-hydrating the drying sections of roots while growing more roots at depth to access more water (Dry P pers.com. 2001). During the winter spring period the water potential is highest at the surface when fresh rainwater exists on or near the surface. During cool periods the growth of Distichlis is depressed and the little water that is used is likely to be fresh and from the surface. Ephemeral fresh water plants also appear in this season and fresh water plants persist when and where the water table falls below the capillary fringe. This opens the possibility of ‘companion cropping’ where a winter and spring active crop like Barley might be harvested at about the time the summer active Distichlis begins to grow strongly, bridging the normally dormant summer and autumn months in southern Australia.

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Fig 3.3 a Water Use in the Winter - Spring

Figure 3.3 b Water Use Summer- Autumn

Sources: Based on observations at Wickepin, Western Australia and Lake Alexandrina, South Australia, peer discussions and Tanji (1990)

Since the roots exhibit aerenchyma they can take in water in saturated conditions (like rice)

Fresh water zone, highest water potential in winter /spring

Low hydraulic conductivity enables water table draw down

High light and evapo-transpiration rate

Saline groundwater, saturated zone, highest water potential in summer autumn

Saline water capillary zone, lowest water potential in the summer/ autumn

1. M

0.25 M draw down by autumn

Since the roots exhibit aerenchyma they can take in water in saturated conditions (like rice)

Fresh water zone, highest water potential in winter /spring.

Low hydraulic conductivity enables water table draw down

Low heat and evapo-transpiration rate

Saline groundwater, saturated zone, highest water potential in summer autumn

Saline water capillary zone, lower water potential in the summer/ autumn

1. M

0.25 M draw down by autumn

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In soils with a very low hydraulic conductivity, such as the Western Australian wheat belt, this saline water table draw-down may be cumulative as the Distichlis reverts to using saline groundwater when the fresh rainwater has been used each year, This accentuates the decline in saline groundwater. This effect has been noted also for Saltbush by Malcolm (2001) and measured by Ferdowsian (2002) in saltbush (see Figure 3.4 below) who has stated that halophytes can ‘replace’ the role of native vegetation in these conditions. 3.5.3 Improved Soil Structure and Organic Content The capacity of the plants to improve surface drainage and soil organic content due to the rhizocanicular effect has been clearly established. The plants regularly shed roots, regrow new roots leaving behind dead root matter and new drainage pathways as illustrated in Figure 3.4. However, where the salt taken up from the groundwater by the plant and exuded through the leaves is eventually deposited remains to be studied. It appears likely that the salt that blows away and falls again down wind, is washed away or enters the soil in the next rain, depending upon soil texture and intensity of the rain. Halo decking is the natural process by which salt bought in by precipitation is deposited into layers. Figure 3.4: Improved Soil Structure, Organic Matter and Drainage

Sources: Based on observations at Wickepin, Western Australia and Lake Alexandrina, South Australia, peer discussions and Tanji (1990 The net effect over time is to increase the rate at which salts in the rising water table are released to wash away in early rains. This indicates that the plants might be used to improve the efficiency of drainage schemes in low hydraulic conductivity soils. It also corroborates the observation of the farmer at Kerang that the plants seem to be rehabilitating clay soils that had deteriorated due to salt in irrigation water. The capacity of the roots to ameliorate sterile saline soils in this way is being developed to rehabilitate land impacted by oil field discharge in the United States (Yensen et al 1999). The plants could possibly be used in the same way to rehabilitate saline mine site overburden wastes such as

1. M

Old root lines provide organic matter, new drainage pathways and improved soil structure, called a rhizocanicular (or ‘swiss cheese) effect.

Salt exuded from the leaves blows away or drops on the ground and, at first rain, is washed in due to improved drainage, or runs off via creek lines

Possible ‘companion’ cropping zone

‘Permanent’ Saline Aquifer

‘Seasonal’ saline aquifer

‘Fresh water zone

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those in the Bowen basin in Queensland where cattle grazing could also be incorporated in the management system. This impact of the plants on soil structure, drainage and water table will vary in different conditions of soil porosity and aquifer supply. Ferdowsian (2002) suggests that ‘Forage’ may provide a basis for a new sustainable land use system suitable for the broad valleys of the Western Australian wheat belt where tight clays dominate. The diagram below was proposed by Ferdowsian (2002 pers com) to illustrate this point.

Figure 3.5 Potenti

al Sustainable Impact on Watertable in the Broad Valley Floors of the Wheat Belt in Western Australia In areas outside the wheat belt of Western Australia the plants may move enough salt out of the profile to enable fresh water plants to be reintroduced so that the halophytes die out. In Mexico, a heavy-clay, deflocculated soil was planted with Distichlis palmeri and irrigated with drainage water at 15 dS/m. After three years the soil was sufficiently leached of salt that the D. palmeri was no longer able to compete with fresh-water weeds (Yensen 2002). The capacity of the plants to ‘pump’ saline water has not been quantified but according to Hatton will be related to the leaf index (Hatton Pers. com 2002).

4 Conclusions 4.1 Farmer Observations of Initial Sites The farmers at each site where significant plantings have occurred found that the NyPa Distichlis cultivars grow in moderately to heavily saline sites where saline groundwater exists near or at the soil surface and where competition from other species is not significant. The plant is quite tolerant of waterlogged conditions and grows most strongly when soil temperature is high. It is highly resistant to drought and heavy grazing. The plants have been seen to grow well in a wide range of soils from black anaerobic flats, through sandy and gravely loams to deep sand where saline water is available at the surface. Response is best in lighter soils.

4.1.1 NyPa Forage™ The ‘Forage’ grows strongly in saline discharge areas in salinities ranging from moderately salty (10 mol/m3) to almost 1.5 times seawater (800 Mol/m3) with production declining above about 400 mol/m3. It tolerates inundation and waterlogging well and will survive where only samphire grows at present. The plant tolerates very heavy grazing owing to its root structure and is very drought tolerant. It may prove to be a companion plant for barley cropping where the hydraulic conductivity is low. Its ecological range is throughout Australia where saline groundwater of below about 400

Ground water

Ground Level

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mol/m3 is within about one metre of the surface for at least part of the year. Establishment varies between sites for reasons not yet understood. It is best planted from the fringe of cropping land down into saline scald areas subject to inundation in the winter. Once established, it will tend to grow in niches where there is little competition from species such as tall wheat grass. In this situation it will act to preserve cropping land from further saline water rise where hydraulic conductivity or saline aquifer supply is low. In conditions of adequate plant nutrition, light intensity and air temperature, ‘Forage’ can achieve production of 25 tonnes per ha per harvest with a protein level of up to 17%, an ash content of about 8% and an overall digestibility of over 60%.

4.1.2 NyPa ‘Wild Wheat’®

The ‘Wild Wheat’ has a similar growth pattern and ecological zone to ‘Forage’ but grain production will persist at higher salinities. The grain appears to have a commercial application in the baking industry and being a perennial it offers cost advantages to conventional cropping once established. It may also be a companion crop to barley and grows most strongly in the summer and autumn after the barley has been harvested. This conclusion is preliminary and based on small plot observations. The leaf material from this cultivar is not very palatable to stock but may be useful if slashed after harvest and allowed to regrow. Trials in Australia have been very limited but production n Morocco has been recorded at 2.5 tonnes per ha in irrigated conditions. More work is required.

4.1.3 NyPa Turf™

‘Turf’ also has a similar growth pattern to ‘Forage’ but produces a low growing soft mat similar to couch In conditions of high fertility it potentially has a wide application as an amenity grass in hot areas in Australia. The leaf is not very palatable to stock but this may be a matter of the animals acquiring the taste. ‘Turf’ is very drought tolerant and may be a more suitable lawn species for Australia than traditional lawn species. (Kirkwood Pers. com. 2002). 4.2 Environmental Services It is apparent that each of the cultivars provides several important environmental services:

• They are significant users of saline groundwater and may keep pace with rising groundwater in some places in Western Australia where the hydraulic conductivity is low and preserve conventional crop lands above or away from the saline seepage lines;

• They rehabilitate soil because their roots penetrate deeply into saline hard packed land, improving drainage and improving soil organic content

• They readily colonise erosion lines in saline soils and bind these sites. 4.3 Feeding trials with Ruminants It is apparent that ‘Forage” is palatable, productive and nutritious for sheep and cattle. It is highly drought resistant and tolerates very heavy grazing. This is particularly significant in Southern Australia since the feed is available in summer and autumn when no other source of green feed is available without irrigation. 4.4 Glasshouse trials ‘Forage’ will grow and produce useful feed in a range of moderate to high salinities (400 mol/m3 to 600 mol/m3) and under conditions of water logging. It will survive up to about 800 mol/m3 which is almost 1.5 times seawater.

4.5 Milling characteristics of the grain

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The grain from ‘Wild Wheat’ is apparently suitable for conventional milling equipment used for other cereal grains and yields well in comparison with other wheat varieties used in Australia based on overseas experience. Discussion with a baker and a pasta manufacturer suggests that the flour is a useful human food, which corroborates US experience. Of particular importance to the health food and gourmet market is that it is gluten free, has an attractive colour and has a pleasant nutty taste. 4.6 Commercialisation Publication of the results of these trials in different forms has meant significant enquiry from landowners, managers of amenity areas and commercial interests. Heads of agreement of a commercial marketing joint venture were negotiated with Elders, a major Australian rural commercial organisation, were signed in 1999. Negotiations for a full agreement were initiated in 2002. A significant Turf producer has also entered into negotiations to market this plant in Western Australia.

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5 APPENDIX 1

The NyPa® Scale

THE NyPa® SCALE* CROP TYPE: ┌┬──────────┬──────────────────┬───────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐ DRINKING WATER ---- SENSITIVE RESISTANT SALT-LOVING (HALOPHILIC) CROPS OCEAN WATER └┴──────────┴──────────────────┴───────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘ SALINITY AS % OCEAN WATER (OW) 25% 50% 75% 100% └───────────────────────────┴───────────────────────────┴───────────────────────────┴──────────────────────────┘

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY (EC) µS/cm 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 46,000

mS/m 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 4,600 dS/m = mS/cm = Ke (EC) 10 20 30 40 46

S/m (= mho/m = 0.01 S/cm) 1 2 3 4 4.6 └─────────┴─────────┴──────────┴──────────┴────────────┴────────────┴─────────────┴─────────────┴──────────────┘

WEIGHT (Total Dissolved Solids = TDS) ppm (= mg/L = g/m3 = µg/ml) 10,000 20,000 30,000 34,482 ppt (= g/L) [¾ brix = ppt] 10 20 30 35 % 1 2 3 3.5

└──────────────┴───────────────┴───────────────┴───────────────┴───────────────┴───────────────┴───────────────┘ PHI (Φ) 0 9.0 9.70 10.00 10.18 10.30 10.40 10.48 10.54 └─┴────────────┴───────────────┴───────────────┴───────────────┴───────────────┴───────────────┴───────────────┘ Tons/acre-ft 10 20 30 40 50 └──────────┴───────────┴───────────┴──────────┴──────────┴──────────┴──────────┴──────────┴──────────┴─────────┘ Grains/gallon 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 └───────────────────────────┴───────────────────────────┴───────────────────────────┴──────────────────────────┘ Chlorinity (ppt) 5 10 15 19.4 └───────────────────────────┴────────────────────────────┴───────────────────────────┴─────────────────────────┘

PRESSURE • Pascals = Newtons/m2 1,000,000 2,000,000 2,700,000 -Bars [+2% = Atm.] 10 20 27 MPa [X107 = dynes/cm2] 1 2 2.7 └──────────────────┴───────────────────┴───────────────────┴───────────────────┴───────────────────┴───────────┘

MOLECULES mmoles/L = moles/m3 = meq 100 200 300 400 500 600 moles/L (-2%≈ moles/Kg) 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 └────────────────┴────────────────┴──────────────────┴──────────────────┴───────────────────┴──────────────────┘ Osmolality /kg H2O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 └─────────┴─────────┴─────────┴─────────┴─────────┴─────────┴─────────┴─────────┴─────────┴─────────┴──────────┘

DENSITY R =(refractive index - 1.333)x104 9 18 26 35 44 53 61 └──────────────┴──────────────┴────────────────┴──────────────┴────────────────┴──────────────┴────────────────┘ Specific Gravity (ρ) 1.000 1.005 1.010 1.015 1.020 1.025 └─────────────────────┴─────────────────────┴─────────────────────┴─────────────────────┴──────────────────────┘ Baumé 1.0 2.0 3.0 3.6 └──────────────┴───────────────┴──────────────┴───────────────┴──────────────┴───────────────┴─────────────────┘ Twaddels 1 2 3 4 5 └──────────┴───────────┴───────────┴──────────┴──────────┴──────────┴──────────┴──────────┴──────────┴─────────┘ MEASURING INSTRUMENTS:* Based on NaCl as in sea water. Other salts may skew electrical measurements, but estimates are possible if the deviation is known. Refractometer/Hydrometer Also note that discrepancies and/or errors may occur with some electrical instruments because conductivity and salt concentration increase at different rates. Pressure Bomb Note: S = Siemens = mho; MPa = Megapascals; Atm = Atmospheres; meq = milli equivalents/liter., PHI = Power of Hydro Impurities = log (g salt /g water) + 12 Conductivity Meter © Nicholas P. Yensen, 727 N. 9th Ave, Tucson, Arizona 85705 USA, 1997 all rights reserved; <[email protected]>

Produced in cooperation with NyPa International, NyPa Australia and The Institute for International Development, South Australia; www.iid.org

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6 References Alvino, J. 2001. pers com [email protected] Armstrong, W. 1971. Radial oxygen losses from intact rice roots as affected by distance from the apex, respiration and waterlogging. Physiologia Plantarum, 25, 192-197. Ashraf, M., McNeilly, T., and Bradshaw, A.D. 1986. The response of selected salt-tolerant and normal lines of four grass species to NaCl in sand culture. New Phytologist 104, 453-61. Atwell B.J et-al (eds) 1999 Plants in action; adaptation in nature, performance in cultivation. Macmillian 576- 585 Bailey, L. 2001. pers com. [email protected] Barrett-Lennard, E.G. 1986. Effects of waterlogging on the growth and NaCl uptake by vascular plants under saline conditions. Reclamation and Revegetation Research, 5: 245-261. Barrett-Lennard, E. G. and Malcolm, C. V. 1996. Saltland Pastures in Australia: a Practical Guide. Department of Agriculture of Western Australia, 112 pp. Boyko, H. (ed) 1966. Salinity and Aridity; New Approaches to Old Problems. NV Publishers The Hague. Epstien, E. 1983. Crops tolerant of salinity and other mineral stresses. In Better Crops for food. Ciba Foundation Symposium 97. J Nugent and M. O’Conner, eds. Pitman, London pp. 61-82. Ferdowsian R 2002. Explaining groundwater depths in saltland: the impacts of saltbush, rainfall and time trends. Proceedings of the 8th PUR$L conference a Fremantle DAWA. Gale, J. Naaman, R. and Poljakoff-Mayber, A. 1970. Growth of Atriplex halimus L. in sodium chloride salinated culture solutions as affected by the relative humidity of the air. Australian Journal of Biological Sciences, 23, 947-952. Hanks, R. J., Sullivan, T. E. and Hunsaker, V. E. 1977. Corn and Alfalfa Production as Influenced by Irrigation and Salinity. Sol..Sc. of America. 41: 606-610. Haslam, J.A.K. 1995. Final Report on the initial grow out plan of NyPa Halophyte grasses in South Australia. NyPa occasional paper 1995. Hutton T CSIRO [email protected] Hensig, Ms Andrea. Scientific Officer, [email protected] Kirkwood G Turf Merchant Gin Gin North Perth. Kemp, P. R. and Cunningham, G. L. 1981. Light, Temperature and Salinity effects on growth, leaf anatomy and photosynthesis of Distichlis spicata. In Amer. J of Botany 68(4): 507-516. Leake J. E 1988. A proposal to import NyPa Distichlis cultivars into Australia for evaluation. NyPa Australia Unpublished.

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Lodge, G.M., and Groves, R.H. 1990. The domestication and agronomy of native grasses. In ‘Proceedings of the Native Grass Workshop 1990’ Dubbo. (Eds. P.M. Dowling and D.L. Garden.) pp.73-84. Lowers, T. J., Troke, P.F. and Yeo A R. 1977. The Mechanism of Salt Tolerance in Halophytes. Ann. Rev. Plant Physiol. 28:89-121. Malcolm, C.V. 1969. Plant collection for pasture improvement in saline and arid environments. Technical Bulletin No 6. West Australian Department of Agriculture, South Perth, p78. Malcolm, C.V. and Clarke, A. J. 1971. Progress Report No. 1 Collection and testing of forage plants for saline and arid areas. Technical Bulletin No 8, Department of Agriculture, Western Australia, 39 pp. Malcolm, C.V. 1977. Saltland and what to do about it. Journal of Agriculture of Western Australia, 18, 127-133. Malcolm, C.V., Swaan, T.C., and Riding, H.I. 1980. Niche seeding for broad scale forage shrub establishment on saline soils. In International Symposium on Salt Affected Soils, Symposium Papers. Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal, India, pp. 539-544. Malcolm, C.V. and Allen, R. J. 1981. The Mallen niche seeder for plant establishment on difficult sites. Australian Rangeland Journal, 3, 106-9. Malcolm, C.V., Hillman, B.J., Swaan, T.C., Denby, C., Carlson, D. and D'Antuono, M. 1982. Black paint, soil amendment and mulch effects on chenopod establishment in a saline soil. Journal of Arid Environments, 5, 179-63. Malcolm, C.V., Clarke, A.J. and Swaan, T.C. 1984. Plant collections for saltland revegetation and soil conservation.. Technical Bulletin No. 65, Department of Agriculture, Western Australia. Malcolm, C.V., Clarke, A.J., D'Antuono, M.F., and Swaan, T.C. 1988. Effects of plant spacing and soil conditions on the growth of five Atriplex species. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 21, 265-79. Malcolm, C.V. and Swaan, T.C. 1989. Screening shrubs for establishment and survival on salt-affected soils in south-western Australia. Technical Bulletin No 81, Department of Agriculture, Western Australia, 35 pp. Myers, B. A., and Morgan, W. M. 1989. Germination of the salt-tolerant grass Diplachne fusca. 1. Dormancy and temperature responses. Australian Journal of Botany 37, 225-37. Nieman, R.H., 1962. Some effects of sodium chloride on growth, photosynthesis and respiration of twelve crop plants. Bot. Gaz. 123:279-285. NyPa. Abstract of Presentation to PUR$L conference Naracoorte, November 1999. NyPa. Australia Bibliography of salinity work in Australia. 1996-2000. NyPa Australia Proposal 5/8/1998. NyPa Elders Joint Venture Business Plan 2000. NyPa Halophyte Publications and Related Articles December 1999. Halophyte reprints on saltgrass from 1982-1992, February 2000 and Halophyte publications 1956-1999, February 2000.

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NyPa progress reports to RIRDC for 1998, 1999 and 2000. O’Connell M & Young J 2002. The role of saltland pastures in the farming system – a whole farm- bio-economic analysis. Proceedings of the 8th PUR$L conference a Fremantle DAWA Pasternak, D. 1987. Salt tolerance and crop production – a comprehensive approach. In Ann. Rev. Phytophathol. 25;271-291. Rogers, M.E., Noble, C.L and Pederick, R.J. 1996. Identifying suitable grass species for saline areas. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture. 36, 197-202. Russell, J.S. 1976. Comparative salt tolerance of some tropical and temperate legumes and tropical grasses. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture and Animal Husbandry 16, 103-9. Shannon, M.C. 1978. Testing salt tolerance variability among tall wheatgrass lines. Agronomy Journal 70, 719-22. Shannon, M.C 1998/99 A comparison of production of Distichlis, Paspalum and Bermuda grass under different salinities. Unpublished US Salinity Lab. Riverside Ca. Stelzer, R. and Läuchli, A. 1980. Salt and flooding tolerance of Puccinellia peisonis IV. Root respiration and the role of aerenchyma in providing atmospheric oxygen to the roots. Zeitschrift für Pflanzenphysiologie, 97, 171-178. Tanji, K. K. 1990. Agricultural Salinity Assessment and Management. In American Society of Civil Engineers; Manuals and Reports on Engineering Practice No 71. New York 179-189. Venables, A.V., & Wilkins, D.A. 1978. Salt tolerance in pasture grasses. New Phytologist. 80, 613-622. Yensen, N.P. 2001 pers com. [email protected] Yensen, N.P. 2002 Soils, salinity and the Rhizocanicular effect of Distichlis spp. Centro de Investigacion de Alimentacion y Desarrollo Guaymas, Sonora, Mexico. Yensen, N.P 2002 New developments in the world of saline agriculture, In Prospects for Saline Agriculture, 321-332. Ahmed R & Malik K.A (eds) Kluwer Academic Publishers. Yensen, N. P. 1988. A Review of Distichlis spp. for production and nutritional values in arid lands: Today and Tomorrow. Proc. of an International Res and Dev Conf. Tucson, Arizona. Oct 20-25th 1985. Yensen, S. 1995. Characterization of the proteins and flour of Distichlis palmeri. Vasey Grain & Distichlis SPP Fibre. PhD Dissertation, Faculty of Nutritional Sciences University of Arizona. Yensen, S. B. and Weber, C. W. 1986. Composition of Distichlis palmeri grain, a salt grass. Jour of Food Science 51(4): 1089 & 1090. Yensen, N. P., Yensen, S. B. and Weber, C.W. 1985. A review of Distichlis spp for production and nutritional values in arid lands today.. ed. E. E. Whitehead, C. F. Hutchinson, B. N. Timmermann and R. G. Varady, pp 809-822. Westview Press Boulder. Yensen, S.B. and Weber, C. W. 1987. Protein Quality of Distichlis palmeri grain, a Saltgrass. In Nutrition Reports International. 35: 963-972.

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Yensen, N.P., Hinchman, R.R., Negri, M.C., Mollock, G.N., Settle, T., Keiffer, C.S., Carty, D.J., Rodgers, B., Martin, R., Erickson, R. 1999. Using Halophytes to Manage Oilfield Saltwater: Disposal by Irrigation/Evapotranspiration and Remediation of Spills. In Proceedings of: Sixth International Petroleum Environmental Conference: Environmental Issues and Solutions in Petroleum Exploration, Production and Refining; Kerry L. Sublette (ed.), November 16-18, 1999, Houston, Texas.