Numerical Galaxy Formation & Cosmology 1 Benjamin Moster Ewald Puchwein Lecture 1: Motivation and Initial Conditions
Numerical Galaxy Formation& Cosmology
1
Benjamin Moster
Ewald Puchwein
Lecture 1: Motivation and Initial Conditions
Outline of the lecture course
• Lecture 1: Motivation & Initial conditions
• Lecture 2: Gravity algorithms & parallelization
• Lecture 3: Hydro schemes
• Lecture 4: Radiative cooling, photo heating & Subresolution physics
• Lecture 5: Halo and subhalo finders & Semi-analytic models
• Lecture 6: Getting started with Gadget
• Lecture 7: Example galaxy collision
• Lecture 8: Example cosmological box
Benjamin Moster Numerical Galaxy Formation & Cosmology 1
IoA, 13.01.20162
Outline of this lecture
• Motivation for simulations and semi-analytic models
‣ Observations at high redshift (CMB) and low redshift (SDSS)
‣ Linear density perturbations
• Initial conditions for cosmological simulations
‣ Zel’dovich Approximation
‣ Putting particles in a simulation box
‣ Zoom simulations
• Initial conditions for disc galaxy simulations
‣ Properties of disc galaxies
‣ Creating a particle representation of a disc galaxy
3
• Motivation for simulations and semi-analytic models
‣ Observations at high redshift (CMB) and low redshift (SDSS)
‣ Linear density perturbations
Benjamin Moster Numerical Galaxy Formation & Cosmology 1
IoA, 13.01.2016
Observing large scale structure
• Cosmic structure can be observed at very high redshift (z>1000): CMBVery smooth, only small perturbations (10-5)
• At low redshift: galaxies are very clustered forming a ‘cosmic web’.
4
CMB - Planck
z > 1000 z ~ 0
GalaxiesSDSS
Benjamin Moster Numerical Galaxy Formation & Cosmology 1
IoA, 13.01.2016
Observing large scale structure
• Things to keep in mind:
‣ Structure formation process is dominated by gravity
‣ Galaxies are only tracers of cosmic structure (<3% of all mass)
‣ Galaxy formation depends on ‘baryonic physics’
5
CMB - Planck
z > 1000 z ~ 0
GalaxiesSDSS
How?
Benjamin Moster Numerical Galaxy Formation & Cosmology 1
IoA, 13.01.2016
What about linear perturbation theory?
• How far can we push it?
• A quick recap of cosmological perturbation theory:
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~r = a~x
~u = a~x~v = ~r = ~u+a
a~r with
~x
~u
comoving position
peculiar velocity
@~v
@t+ (~v ~rphys)~v = �~rphys�
momentum conservation:@~u
@t+
a
a~u = �1
a~r�
continuity equation:@⇢
@t+ ~rphys(⇢~v) = 0
@�
@t+
1
a~r~u = 0
Poisson equation:~r2
phys� = 4⇡G⇢ ~r2� = 4⇡Ga2⇢�
� =⇢� ⇢
⇢
with
comoving (1st order):
Benjamin Moster Numerical Galaxy Formation & Cosmology 1
IoA, 13.01.2016
• Formalism works as long as
• Breaks down when (negative densities)
• Either go to higher order (still no ‘baryonic physics’) or use simulations
Linear growth of structures
• Combining this we get the evolution of the density contrast
• For a matter dominated universe we have
• Can be decomposed into waves: Power spectrum is (where : ensemble average) and it grows like
7
�
solved by growth function : �(a) = �0D(a)D(a)
D(a) ⇠ a
� ⌧ 1
�(~x) =
Z�(~k)e�i
~
k~x
d
3k
P (k) = P0D2(a)
� ⇠ 1
� + 2a
a� = 4⇡G
⇢ca3
�
P (k) = h|�(k)|2i hi
Benjamin Moster Numerical Galaxy Formation & Cosmology 1
IoA, 13.01.2016
From high to low redshift
• Cosmological model + initial conditions + simulation code = galaxies
8
Dark matter
GalaxiesBenjamin Moster Numerical Galaxy Formation & Cosmology
1IoA, 13.01.2016
Outline of this lecture
• Motivation for simulations and semi-analytic models
‣ Observations at high redshift (CMB) and low redshift (SDSS)
‣ Linear density perturbations
• Initial conditions for cosmological simulations
‣ Zel’dovich Approximation
‣ Putting particles in a simulation box
‣ Zoom simulations
• Initial conditions for disc galaxy simulations
‣ Properties of disc galaxies
‣ Creating a particle representation of a disc galaxy
9
• Initial conditions for cosmological simulations
‣ Zel’dovich Approximation
‣ Putting particles in a simulation box
‣ Zoom simulations
Benjamin Moster Numerical Galaxy Formation & Cosmology 1
IoA, 13.01.2016
Cosmological Principle
• On large scales, the properties
of the Universe are the same to
all observers
• Homogeneity: Universe looks
the same at every location
• Isotropy: Universe looks the
same in every direction
• Discretize density field into
particles
10
homogeneous & isotropic
Benjamin Moster Numerical Galaxy Formation & Cosmology 1
IoA, 13.01.2016
Cosmological Principle
• On large scales, the properties
of the Universe are the same to
all observers
• Homogeneity: Universe looks
the same at every location
• Isotropy: Universe looks the
same in every direction
• Discretize density field into
particles
10
infinite (periodic boundary conditions)
Benjamin Moster Numerical Galaxy Formation & Cosmology 1
IoA, 13.01.2016
Perturbations
• Universe shows small density
fluctuations already at high z(see CMB)
• Convert CMB fluctuations to
density perturbations
11
homogeneous & isotropic
Benjamin Moster Numerical Galaxy Formation & Cosmology 1
IoA, 13.01.2016
Perturbations
• Universe shows small density
fluctuations already at high z(see CMB)
• Convert CMB fluctuations to
density perturbations
11
How?
perturbed density field
Benjamin Moster Numerical Galaxy Formation & Cosmology 1
IoA, 13.01.2016
The power spectrum
• Use the power spectrum to describe the density fluctuations
• From inflation:
• Temporal evolution (in the linear regime):
• How to impose a spectrum of fluctuations on a particle distribution?
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P(k)
Pi(k) = Akn
P (k, t) = P0(k)D2(t)
Benjamin Moster Numerical Galaxy Formation & Cosmology 1
IoA, 13.01.2016
• Growth function satisfies the growth equation: or rewritten:
The Zel’dovich Approximation
• In a matter dominated universe:
• Integrate continuity equation or
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�(a) = �0D(a)
~r2� = 4⇡Ga2⇢� = 4⇡Ga2⇢0a3
D(a)�0 =D(a)
a~r2�0
�(a) =D(a)
a�0
D(a) ⇠ a ! �(a) = �
@~u
@t+
a
a~u = �1
a~r�
• Substitute into Poisson equation (with ):
• So the potential also grows as
D + 2a
aD = 4⇡G
⇢ca3
D 1
a2@(a2D)
@t= 4⇡G
⇢ca3
D
⇢ = ⇢0/a3
@(a~u)
@t= �~r�
~u = �~r�0
a
ZD
adt
Benjamin Moster Numerical Galaxy Formation & Cosmology 1
IoA, 13.01.2016
• Integrate this yields
• Use this with the integrated continuity equation to get
The Zel’dovich Approximation
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a2D
4⇡G⇢c=
ZD
adt
• Integrate this to get the Zel’dovich approximation:
• This formulation can be used to extrapolate the evolution of
structures into the regime where displacements are no longer small
~x� ~x0 = �D
~r�0
4⇡G⇢c= �a
~r�(a)
4⇡G⇢cwith the unperturbed position ~x0
~x =~u
a
= �~r�0
a
2
a
2D
4⇡G⇢c= � D
~r�0
4⇡G⇢c
Benjamin Moster Numerical Galaxy Formation & Cosmology 1
IoA, 13.01.2016
• How apply the Zel’dovich approximation to a grid?
• Define and its Fourier transform
• With Poisson’s equation we get
Displacing particles on a grid
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~
= ~x� ~x0~ ~k = �
a(i~k)�~k4⇡G⇢c
�k2�~k =4⇡G⇢c�~k
a~ ~k = i~k
�~kk2
• Use the power spectrum : with where and are drawn from
Gaussian with standard deviation of 1 (P is only ensemble average)
• Initial velocities are given by
�~k =p
P (k)R~kei�~k
R~kei�~k = R1 + iR2 R1 R2
~x =D
D
~
! ~v~k = a
D
D
~
~k
P (k) = h|�(k)|2i
Benjamin Moster Numerical Galaxy Formation & Cosmology 1
IoA, 13.01.2016
• There are a number of parameters that have to be chosen:
‣ Box size
‣ Number of particles
‣ Starting redshift
Limitations of this method
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• In practice there are several constraints on these:
‣ Minimal modes that are included:
‣ Largest mode has to stay linear:
‣ Starting redshift (typically ): Too late: shell crossing not taken into accountToo early: numerical noise is integrated
B
N
zi
2B/3pN
B � 2⇡/knl ⇠ 20Mpc
40 < zi < 80
Benjamin Moster Numerical Galaxy Formation & Cosmology 1
IoA, 13.01.2016
• Alternative to Grid ICs are Glass ICs
‣ Start with random positions for particles in the box
‣ Evolve box forward in time under gravity BUT with reversed sign
‣ Use resulting particle positions for Zel’dovich approximation
• Just cosmetics?
Grid vs. Glass ICs
17
GlassGrid
Benjamin Moster Numerical Galaxy Formation & Cosmology 1
IoA, 13.01.2016
• Increasing the resolution of the box becomes very expensive
• Alternative: just increase the resolution in the area of interest:
1) Run low resolution simulation and identify interesting object(s)
2) trace back particles of that object to initial positions in ICs
3) resample this area with more particles and rerun the simulation
• Disadvantage: only one system simulated - no statistics
Zoom simulations
18
ICs z=0 zoom on halo
Benjamin Moster Numerical Galaxy Formation & Cosmology 1
IoA, 13.01.2016
Nmesh 128 % This is the size of the FFT grid
Nsample 128 % sets the maximum k that the code uses, % Ntot = Nsample^3, where Ntot is the
Box 150000.0 % Periodic box size of simulation
FileBase ics % Base-filename of output files OutputDir ./ICs/ % Directory for output
GlassFile glass.dat % File with unperturbed glass or grid
TileFac 8 % Number of times the glass file is tiled
Omega 0.3 % Total matter density (at z=0) OmegaLambda 0.7 % Cosmological constant (at z=0) OmegaBaryon 0.0 % Baryon density (at z=0) HubbleParam 0.7 % Hubble paramater Redshift 63 % Starting redshift Sigma8 0.9 % power spectrum normalization
N-GenIC
19 Benjamin Moster Numerical Galaxy Formation & Cosmology 1
IoA, 13.01.2016
SphereMode 1 % if "1" only modes with |k| < k_Nyquist are used WhichSpectrum 0 % "1" selects Eisenstein & Hu spectrum, % "2" selects a tabulated power spectrum % otherwise, Efstathiou parametrization is used
FileWithInputSpectrum spectrum.txt % tabulated input spectrum InputSpectrum_UnitLength_in_cm 3.085678e24 % defines length unit ReNormalizeInputSpectrum 1 % if zero, spectrum assumed to be normalized
ShapeGamma 0.21 % only needed for Efstathiou power spectrum PrimordialIndex 1.0 % may be used to tilt the primordial index Seed 123456 % seed for IC-generator
NumFilesWrittenInParallel 2 % limits the number of files that are written
UnitLength_in_cm 3.085678e21 % defines length unit (in cm/h) UnitMass_in_g 1.989e43 % defines mass unit (in g/cm) UnitVelocity_in_cm_per_s 1e5 % defines velocity unit (in cm/sec)
N-GenIC
20 Benjamin Moster Numerical Galaxy Formation & Cosmology 1
IoA, 13.01.2016
Outline of this lecture
• Motivation for simulations and semi-analytic models
‣ Observations at high redshift (CMB) and low redshift (SDSS)
‣ Linear density perturbations
• Initial conditions for cosmological simulations
‣ Zel’dovich Approximation
‣ Putting particles in a simulation box
‣ Zoom simulations
• Initial conditions for disc galaxy simulations
‣ Properties of disc galaxies
‣ Creating a particle representation of a disc galaxy
21
• Initial conditions for disc galaxy simulations
‣ Properties of disc galaxies
‣ Creating a particle representation of a disc galaxy
Benjamin Moster Numerical Galaxy Formation & Cosmology 1
IoA, 13.01.2016
• Set up individual system(s) and simulate/study those
• Advantage: much higher resolution (more particles per system) ‘Nice’ discs can be studied (often hard in cosmological runs)
• Disadvantage: Cosmological background is neglected (no infall, etc)
Why simulate isolated disc systems?
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Stars GasBenjamin Moster Numerical Galaxy Formation & Cosmology
1IoA, 13.01.2016
• What does a disc galaxy system consist of?
Disc Galaxies
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• Stellar disc
• Gaseous disc
• Stellar bulge
• Hot gaseous halo
• Dark matter halo
Benjamin Moster Numerical Galaxy Formation & Cosmology 1
IoA, 13.01.2016
• Size of the dark matter halo is given by the virial radius (with mean
overdensity 200!crit) containing the virial mass:
• The virial velocity is and we have:
and
The dark matter halo
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M200 = 200⇢crit4⇡
3R3
200
v2200 =GM200
R200
M200 =v3200
10GH(z)R200 =
v20010H(z)
• The density profile is the NFW profile:
• Often the Hernquist profile is used:
⇢(r) =�c
(r/rs)(1 + r/rs)2
⇢(r) =Mdm
2⇡
a
r(r + a)3 Spri
ngel
et
al. (
2005
)
Benjamin Moster Numerical Galaxy Formation & Cosmology 1
IoA, 13.01.2016
• Disc has exponential radial profile:
Disc scale length is fixed by assuming the specific angular momentum of disc and dark matter halo are equal
• Vertical profile of the disc given by:
The stellar components
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⌃(R) =
Md
2⇡R2d
exp
✓� R
Rd
◆
Rd
⇢(z) =Md
2z0sech2
✓z
2z0
◆
• For the bulge the spherical Hernquist profile is assumed:
• The bulge is typically assumed to be non-rotating
⇢b(r) =Mb
2⇡
rbr(rb + r)3
Benjamin Moster Numerical Galaxy Formation & Cosmology 1
IoA, 13.01.2016
• Like the stellar disc, the gaseous disc has exponential radial profile
• The vertical profile of the gas disc cannot be chosen freelybecause it depends on the temperature of the gas
• For a given surface density, the vertical structure of the gas disc arises
as a result of self-gravity and pressure:
The gaseous components
26
• Hot gaseous halo follows a beta-profile:
• The gas temperature is determined using hydrostatic equilibrium:
� 1
⇢g
@P
@z=
@�
@z
�(r) = �0
"1 +
✓r
rc
◆2#� 3
2�
T (r) =µmp
kB
1
�hot
(r)
Z 1
r�hot
(r)GM(r)
r2dr
Benjamin Moster Numerical Galaxy Formation & Cosmology 1
IoA, 13.01.2016
• We know the density profiles of each component. How can we put the particles such that these are reproduced?
• First step compute mass profile:
• Invert M(r), possibly analytically, otherwise numerically
• Draw random number q from uniform distribution between 0 and 1
• Radius is given by:
• For spherical distribution: (with random and )
Creating a particle representation of a galaxy
27
M(r) =
Z r
0⇢(r0)d3r0
r = r(q Mtot
)
0
@x
y
z
1
A= r
0
@sin ✓ cos�
sin ✓ sin�
cos ✓
1
A✓ �
Benjamin Moster Numerical Galaxy Formation & Cosmology 1
IoA, 13.01.2016
• To get the velocities: solve the collisionless Boltzmann equation
• Alternative: assume that velocity distribution can be approximated by
a multivariate Gaussian ➙ only 1st and 2nd moments needed
• For static + axisymmetric system: E and Lz are conserved along orbitsIf distribution function depends only on E and Lz the moments are:
Velocity structure
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vR = vz = vRvz = vz v� = vRv� = 0
v2R = v2z =1
⇢
Z 1
zdz0⇢(R, z0)
@�
@z0(R, z0)
v2� = v2R +R
⇢
@
@R(⇢v2R) +R
@�
@R
• Must be solved numerically
Benjamin Moster Numerical Galaxy Formation & Cosmology 1
IoA, 13.01.2016
• For simulating galaxy mergers: put 2 systems on orbit.
• Parameters that specify the merger orbit:
‣ Initial separation Rstart (typically around the virial radius R200)
‣ Pericentric distance dmin (if galaxies were point masses)
‣ Orbital eccentricity e (usually parabolic orbits, i.e. e=1)
‣ Orientation of discs with respect to orbital plane:
The orbit of galaxy mergers
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�1, ✓1, �2, ✓2
Rstart
dmin
e�1, ✓1
�2, ✓2
Benjamin Moster Numerical Galaxy Formation & Cosmology 1
IoA, 13.01.2016
Final notes
• Text Books:
‣ Cosmology: Galaxy Formation and Evolution (Mo, vdBosch, White)
‣ Galactic Structure: Galactic Dynamics (Binney, Tremaine)
• Papers:
‣ Bertschinger (2001), ApJS, 137, 1
‣ Springel & White (1999), MNRAS, 307, 162
‣ Springel et al. (2005), MNRAS, 62, 79
• Gadget and N-GenIC website: http://www.mpa-garching.mpg.de/gadget/
30 Benjamin Moster Numerical Galaxy Formation & Cosmology 1
IoA, 13.01.2016
Up next
• Lecture 1: Motivation & Initial conditions
• Lecture 2: Gravity algorithms & parallelization
• Lecture 3: Hydro schemes
• Lecture 4: Radiative cooling, photo heating & Subresolution physics
• Lecture 5: Halo and subhalo finders & Semi-analytic models
• Lecture 6: Getting started with Gadget
• Lecture 7: Example galaxy collision
• Lecture 8: Example cosmological box
31 Benjamin Moster Numerical Galaxy Formation & Cosmology 1
IoA, 13.01.2016