[NOTES ON ENGLISH LESSONS] · languages, as well as computer interfaces and word-processors owe their existence to the research into arriS cial intelligence.

2012/2013

[NOTES ON ENGLISH LESSONS]

ITTS VITO VOLTERRA “SAN DONA’ DI PIAVE”

A DEFINITION OF INTELLIGENCE

Intelligence has been defined in many different ways including, but not limited to, abstract thought, understanding, self-awareness, communication, reasoning, learning, having emotional knowledge, retaining, planning, and problem solving.Intelligence is most widely studied in humans, but has also been observed in animals and in plants.Within the discipline of psychology, various approaches to human intelligence have been adopted. The p sychometric approach (IQ test) is especially familiar to the general public, as well as being the most researched and by far the most widely used in practical settings.

The definition of intelligence is controversial. Groups of scientists have stated the following:1.from "Mainstream Science on Intelligence" (1994), an editorial statement by fifty-two researchers:

A very general mental capability that, among other things, involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly and learn from experience. It is not merely book learning, a narrow academic skill, or test-taking smarts. Rather, it reflects a broader and deeper capability for comprehending our surroundings—"catching on," "making sense" of things, or "figuring out" what to do.

In the 80s Horward Gardner, an American psychologist, described The Multiple intelligence theory in which he said that each individual is a unique blend of various kinds of intelligence, that is , we don’t have just one type of intelligence, but at least 7 types of intelligence.In natural behavior the intelligences operate together, separating them is an artificial process.

HOWARD GARDNER

Multiple Intelligence Theory Proponent

Dr. Howard Gardner received in 1981 a MacArthur Prize Fellowship to support "Project Zero" at Harvard University. Gardner stated that he did not believe in the existence of "one form of cognition" that "cuts across all human thinking." Gardner observed that there are at least seven intelligences and each intelligence has autonomous intellectual incapacities.Subsequently, Gardner wrote about his observations of multiple intelligences in what has turned out to be a seminal book in the educational community, Frames of Mind, which was published in 1983.The Theory of Multiple Intelligences, which Gardner proposed in this book, has become a catalyst, as well as the framework, for many current educational strategies that are proving successful in enhancing student success. The theory advances a mental paradigm in which each individual's mind can be thought of as a delicious pie, with seven large pre-cut slices, each with its own distinct taste. In other words, Gardner proposed at least seven relatively autonomous intellectual capacities that individuals employ to approach problems and create products:•Linguistic -> poets•Logical mathematical: scientists mathematicians•Spatial : engineers, surgeons, sailors, sculptors, painters•Musical: Mozart•Bodily – kinesthetic or procedural: to solve problems by using one’s own body like athletes, surgeons•Interpersonal: to understand people and cooperate like politicians, teachers, religions chiefs•Intrapersonal: to understand ourselves and act in life in own effective way.•Naturalist/spiritual/existential

2 NOTES ON ENGLISH LESSONS

Gardner says that "although they are not necessarily dependent on each other, these intelligences seldom operate in isolation. Every normal individual possesses varying degrees of each of these intelligences, but the ways in which intelligences combine and blend are as varied as the faces and the personalities of individuals."


AN INTRODUCTION TO ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

Artificial Intelligence, or AI for short, is a combination of computer science, physiology, and philosophy. It is a broad topic, consisting of different fields, from machine vision to expert systems. The element that the fields of AI have in common is the creation of machines that can "think".In order to classify machines as "thinking", it is necessary to define intelligence.To what degree does intelligence consist of, for example, solving complex problems, or making generalizations and relationships? And what about perception and comprehension? Research into the areas of learning, of language, and of sensory perception have aided scientists in building intelligent machines.One of the most challenging approaches facing experts is building systems that mimic the behavior of the human brain, made up of billions of neurons, and arguably the most complex matter in the universe. Perhaps the best way to gauge the intelligence of a machine is British computer scientist Alan Turing's test. He stated that a computer would deserve,' to be called intelligent if it could deceive a human into believing that it was human.

Artificial Intelligence has come a long way from its early roots, driven by dedicated researchers. The beginnings of AI reach back before electronics, to philosophers and mathematicians such as Boole and others theorizing on principles that were used as the foundation of AI Logic. AI really began to intrigue researchers with the invention of the computer in 1943. The technology was finally available, or so it seemed, to simulate intelligent behavior. Over the next four decades, despite many stumbling blocks, AI has grown from a dozen researchers, to thousands of engineers and specialists; and from programs capable of playing checkers, to systems designed to diagnose disease.

AI has always been on the pioneering end of computer science. Advanced-level compute languages, as well as computer interfaces and word-processors owe their existence to the research into arriS cial intelligence. The theory and insights brought about by AI research will set the trend in the future of computing. The products available today are only bits and pieces of what are soon to follow, but they are a movement towards the future of artificial intelligence. The advancements in the quest for artificial intelligence have, and will continue to affect our jobs, our education, and our lives.

QUESTIONS OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

1) What fields of knowledge contribute to AI?

2) What is the aim of Artificial Intelligence?

3) Why is it difficult to define intelligence?

4) What areas of research have helped scientists to build intelligent machines?

5) How do experts build Artificial Intelligence systems?

6) What's Alan Turing's approach to Artificial Intelligence?

7) How did Boole contribute to the foundation of AI Logic?

8) When was technology which simulated intelligent behaviour available?

9) What sectors have developed as a consequence of the research into AI?

10) What about the present and future?


A DEFINITION OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

Artificial intelligence is the simulation of intelligence in machines, the human intelligence without the creative part. AI is made up of different sciences whose aim is to simulate the human intelligence.AI is The branch of computer science concerned with making computers behave like humans.The term was coined in 1956 by John McCarthy at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

ALAN TURING

The Enigma

Alan Mathison Turing was one of the great pioneers of the computer field. He inspiredthe now common terms of "The Turing Machine" and "Turing's Test".As a mathematician he applied the concept of the algorithm to digital computers. His research into the relationships between machines, and nature created the field of artificial intelligence.His intelligence and foresight made him one of the first to step into the information age.

Alan Turing was born in London on June 23, 1912. As soon as he began attending school,his aptitude for the sciences began to emerge. When it came to the more 'right brain'topics of English and history however, his attention waned. His instructors attempted toget Alan to study other disciplines, but he would respond to mathematics and science.He retained this trait throughout his education.He began his career in mathematics at King’s College, Cambridge University in 1931. Itwas here that his tendencies to recreate previous discoveries began to emerge. Turingseemed to have little interest in using the work of previous scientist; he would typicallyspend time recreating their work instead. Upon graduation, Turing was made a fellow ofKings College, and then moved on to Princeton University. It was during this time that heexplored what was later called the "Turing Machine."Turing helped pioneer the concept of the digital computer. The Turing Machine that heenvisioned is essentially the same as today's multi-purpose computer. He described amachine that would read a series of ones and zeros from a tape. These ones and zerosdescribed the steps that needed to be done to solve a particular problem or perform acertain task. The Turing Machine would read each of the steps and perform them insequence, resulting in the proper answer.This concept was revolutionary for the time. Most computers in the l950's were designedfor a particular purpose or a limited range of purposes. What Turing envisioned was amachine that could do anything, something that we take for granted today.The method of instructing the computer was very important in Turing’s concept.


He essentially described a machine which knew a few simple instructions. Making the computerperform a particular task was simply a matter of breaking the job down into-a series ofthese simple instructions. This is identical to the process programmers go through today.He believed that an algorithm could be developed for most any problem. The hard partwas determining what the simple steps were and how to break down the largerproblems.During World War I, Turing used his knowledge and ideas in the Department ofCommunications in Great Britain. There he used his mathematical skills to decipher thecodes the Germans were using to communicate. This was an especially difficult taskbecause the Germans had developed a type of computer called the Enigma. It was ableto generate a constantly changing code that was impossible for the code breakers todecipher in a timely fashion.During his time with the Department of Communications in Great Britain, Turing and hisfellow scientists worked with a device called COLOSSUS.The COLOSSUS quickly and efficiently deciphered the German codes created by the Enigma. COLOSSUS was essentially a bunch or servomotors and metal, but it was one of the first steps toward the digital computer.

Turing believed that machines could be created that would mimic the processes of thehuman brain. He discussed the possibility of such machines, acknowledging thedifficulty people would have accepting a machine that would rival their ownintelligence, a. problem that still plagues artificial intelligence today. In his mind, therewas nothing the brain could to that a well designed computer could not. As part of hisargument, Turing described devices already in existence that worked like parts of thehuman body, such as television cameras and microphones.Turing believed that an intelligent machine could be created by f0llo·wing¤theblueprints of the human brain. He wrote a paper in 1950 describing what is now knownas the “Turing Test”.The test consisted of a person asking questions via keyboard toboth a person and an intelligent machine. He believed that if the person could not tellthe machine apart from the person after a reasonable amount of time, the machine wassomewhat intelligent. This test has become the ‘holy grail’ of the artificial intelligencecommunity. Turing's paper describing the test has been used in countless journals andpapers relating to machine intelligence. The 1987 edition of the Oxford Companion tothe Mind describes the Turing test as "the best test we have for confirming the presenceof intelligence in a machine."Even more recently, The Computer Museum of Boston hosted the Loebner PrizeCompetition in November 1991. The software developers were tasked with developing aprogram that could pass a scaled down version of the Turing test. Modified in that themachines were only required to converse on a limited topic. The only problem with thevalue of this test lies in the semantics of artificial intelligence. One has to distinguishbetween software that is programmed to appear intelligent versus one that actually hasintelligence. Determining where one begins and ends is a problem best left tophilosophers.Turing died on June 7, 1954 from what the medical examiners described as, "selfadministeredpotassium cyanide while in a moment of mental imbalance." Other reasonsfor his death have surfaced. His mother claimed that he used to experiment withhousehold chemicals, trying to create new substances and became careless. Othersclaim he was homosexual and killed himself to prevent embarrassment.Whatever the reason for his death, Turing was truly one of the great forerunners in theheld of computers. Today's computer scientists still refer to his papers. The concept ofthe algorithm lies at the heart of every computer program for any type of digitalcomputer. It is very conceivable that his idea of thinking machines by the year 2000 isnot too far from the truth.

ALAN TURING QUESTIONS


1) What did he do as a mathematician?2)Which research created the field of artificial intelligence?3) Which subjects was he interested in?4) Why can the Turing Machine be defined as a multi-purpose computer?5)What was revolutionary about it?6) What did his method of instructing the computer consist of?7) What did he do during World War II?8) Why was his job difficult?9)What did he believe about “intelligent" machines?10)What did the "Turing test " consist of?

Focus on skill

A)Look quickly through the text and find out the following:

1 Who was Alan Turing?2 How many humans are involved in Turing’s test?3 What was writer Isaac Asim0v’s other job?4 What are Asimov’s three laws designed to prevent?

B) These three sentence have been taken out of the text. Can you place them correctly?• Fear of machines taking control is nothing new in fact there are lots of movies ·robots revolt against their human creators.• Technically, destructive technologies like "smart" cruise missiles (which can beconsidered robots) are already violating Asimov’s laws.• They are both asked questions by a third person, the interrogator, who mustdecide which room contains the human.

ROBOTICS AND AUTOMATION

The Turing TestIn 1950 British mathematician Alan Turing devised a test to answer the question, "Canmachines think?“ The test is basically this:A machine or computer is put in one room and a human in another______________________________________. The answers to the interrogator’s questionsare typewritten, not spoken and there is no obligation to tell the truth. If the humaninterrogator can’t tell the difference between the human’s answers and the machine’s,then the answer to the question "Can machines think?" is yes. If, one day computers orrobots manage to think like us, detect and express emotions and even make copies ofthemselves, it will be increasingly difficult to tell the difference between machines andliving things.Asimov’s Three Laws of RoboticsThe famous scientist and writer Isaac Asimov wrote many science fiction stories withrobots as characters. The robots were guided by a set of he rules, called "The ThreeLaws of Robotics", which prevented robots from harming people. They are:1. A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being to be harmed.2: A robot must obey the orders given to it by human beings, except where such orders would conflict with the first law.3. A robot must protect its own existence, as long as this does not conflict with the first two laws.


Asimov wrote these laws as fiction in the l940’s, before robots existed, but they are stillquoted today when the subject of robotics comes up._________________________________________Some see silicon—based life forms as the next step in evolution, replacing carbon-basedlife forms like us. We still think of robots taking control of the world as something weonly see at the cinema; however, many respected scientists think that robots willprobably play a growing and even dominant role in the future.Imagine a world where robots have become so intelligent that they do everything for us; humans would become useless and unnecessary and the robots might take over._______________________________________________________________. However, if robots do develop consciousness, they may also develop conscience, and choose to be kind to their human creators. In the meantime, we may want to remember where the “off” button is, just in case.

C) Some words are highlighted in the text. As you read, complete this glossary by writingthem next to the correct translation.

Glossary1____________________________________________ verità2____________________________________________fare del male3____________________________________________sostanzialmente4____________________________________________citata5____________________________________________assumere il potere6____________________________________________consapevolezza7____________________________________________coscienza8____________________________________________ideò9____________________________________________distinguere10___________________________________________crescente

D) Choose the most appropriate answer:1. In Turing’s test, the human and the machinea. have to tell the truthb. don’t have to tell the truthc. mustn’t tell the truth2. The writer thinks that computers and robotsa. might be able to think like us one dayb. are already able to think like usc. will never be able to think like us3. Have any of Asimov’s rules been broken here? If so, which one(s)?Scenario : A robot obeys a human’s order to attack someone.a. Rule 1b. Rule 2c. Rule 3d. No rule has been broken4. Have any of Asimov’s rules been broken here? If so, which one(s)?Scenario: A house goes on fire. The robot detects the smoke but does nothing. Thepeople in the house die and the robot is destroyed.a. Rule 1b. Rule 2c. Rule 3d. No rule has been broken5. Have any of Asimov’s rules been broken here? If so, which one(s)?Scenario: A group of teenagers are trying to throw a robot off the top of a multistoreycar park. The robot breaks the arm of one of the teenagers and the others runaway. The robot is not destroyed.a. Rule 1b. Rule 2c. Rule 3


d. No rule has been broken6. The writer of the article…a. Thinks that robots will be hostile to humans.b. Think that robots will cooperated with humans.c. Is unsure of what will happen between humans and robots.

CAN ROBOTS THINK?

Traditionally, efforts to mimic human thought in robots have centred on rule-based logic: binary data is stored and manipulated accord-ing to a set of pre-programmed rules.Rule-based systems are used to create artificial intelligence, by programming vast amounts of information in a computer. The bigger the amount of stored data, the better computer can mimic intelligibile, and thus, for example, help to diagnose diseases by comparing symp-toms to those in a database. Such "expert systems" know more than any single person, but they can't learn. They can only make connec-tions they've been programmed to make.Another approach to artificial intelligence is neural networks.Neural networks are modelled after the human brain, and are better at handling ambiguity than rule-based systems. A neural net "learns" by exposure to lots of inputs and corresponding outputs. Once trained, the neural net responds to an input with a likely output Unlike rule-based systems, a neural network doesn't give definite answers, only the most probable answers. Some call this "fuzzy logic". On the other hand, many real problems don't have definite answers.A third and relatively new approach to robotic intelligence is a stimulus-response mech anism . In a stimulus-response robot, there is no memory and no logical decision-making, only hardwired responses to stimulation. For example, by linking light sensors directly to motors, it's possible to make a light-seeking robot. Several stimulus-response mechanisms operating simultaneously in one robot can create elaborate behaviour that seems intelligent.

Currently, no computers exhibit full artificial intelligence (that is, are able to simulatehuman behavior). The greatest advances have occurred in the field of games playing.The best computer chess programs are now capable of beating humans. In May, 1997, anIBM super-computer called Deep Blue defeated world chess champion Gary Kasparov in a chess match.In the area of robotics, computers are now widely used in assembly plants, but they arecapable only of very limited tasks. Robots have great difficulty identifying objects basedon appearance or feel, and they still move and handle objects clumsily.Natural—language processing offers the greatest potential rewards because it would allow people to interact with computers without needing any specialized knowledge. You could simply walk up to a computer and talk to it. Unfortunately, programming computers to understand natural languages has proved to be more difficult than originally thought. Some rudimentary translation systems that translate from one human language to another are in existence, but they are not nearly as good as human translators. There are also voice recognition systems that can convert spoken sounds into written words, but they do not understand what they are writing; they simply take dictation. Even these systems are quite limited -— you must speak slowly and distinctly.In the early 1980s, expert systems were believed to represent the future of artificial intelligence and of computers in general. To date, however, they have not lived up toexpectations. Many expert systems help human experts in such fields as medicine and engineering, but they are very expensive to produce and are helpful only in special situations.Today, the hottest area of artificial intelligence is neural networks, which are proving successful in a number of disciplines such as voice recognition and natural—language processing.There are several programming languages that are known as AI languages because they are used almost exclusively for Al applications. The two most common are LISP and Prolog.


BLETCHLEY PARK

Imagine over 10,000 people working in complete secrecy under wartime conditions,deep in the English countryside.Bletchley Park - codename Station X - was home to an amazing casts of characters,playing out one of the most extraordinary stories of the Second Word War. Brilliantmathematicians and linguists worked alongside crossword experts and chess champions;military personnel robbed shoulders with civilians, united in one aim -to break theingenious Enigma cypher the backbone of German military

and intelligencecommunications. The odds against success were over 150,000,000,000,000,000,000 to 1.Yet succeed they did, shortening the war against Nazi Germany by at least two years,thereby saving countless lives. In doing so, the code breakers not only helped to securethe freedom we enjoy today, but paved the way for the technology that dominates themodern world, for in Colossus they gave us the world’s first programmable electroniccomputer.Hardly anyone beyond Station X knew of its existence. Extraordinary measures weretaken to ensure than its work remained secret; such was the code-breakers'professionalism that the Germans never realized that Enigma had been broken. Churchillcalled the staff of BIetchley Park his geese that laid the golden eggs but never cackled.Station X remained a secret even after the wan It was not until the mid 1970s that thetruth about the silent heroes of Bletchley Park began to emerge.THIS IS THEIR STORYEarly in l938, Hitler invaded first Austria and then Czechoslovakia. The threat of asecond war with Germany loomed. The Government Code and Cypher School, which waspart of the Foreign Office in London, needed a safer home. Searching the countryside,British intelligence men found Bletchley Park. At a junction of major road and railconnections. it was ideally placed to become the most important communications centrein the history of modern warfare.

BREAKING THE UNBREAKABLE


Questions

1.What was Bletchley Park?2.What is meant by Enigma?3.How did Churchill call the staff of B.P.?4.What was the first Enigma machine designed to?5.Which nation gave a great contribution to the breaking of the German code?6.What was the role of Alan Turing and Tommy Flowers?


7.Which was the fundamental flaw in Enigma design?8.Which other reasons allowed the English code breakers to finally break it?9.What did the success in breaking the code allow the Allies to do?10.How long did Station X story remain secret?

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Module questions1.Give your definition of intelligence.2.Why is intelligence so difficult to define?3.Who was H.Gardner? Can you illustrate the main principles which his theory of Multiple intelligences is based on?4.How many different kinds of intelligence has he distinguished?5.Give a definition of Artificial intelligence.6.Which are the main approaches to A.I.?7.Where are A.I.systems in routine use nowadays?8.Why is A.Turing considered pioneer of A.I.?9.What was his contribution in the ending of WW2?10.Is it possible to measure the intelligence of a machine?11.Who was I.Asimov?12.Could Hal pass the Turing's test in your opinion?13.Give a short description of Hal's character.14.Tell the most important differences you find between the passage on Hal's disconnection from the novel by A. Clarke and the corresponding scene from S.Kubrick's film.

TipsHal-supercomputer capable of speech recognition, facial, natural language processing, art appreciation, interpreting emotional behaviours and reasoning.Antropomorphic aspects:-Talkative, calm (even-toned soft voice, rich pleasant TV announcer's voice, slightly disquieting)glowing, watchful red eye-programmed to express genuine emotions.-He is never presented as a single entity, but through his TV camera “eyes” that can be seen throughout the spaceship.Men-Bored, at mercy of the supercomputer-unaware of the purpose of the mission.


2001: A Space Odyssey (film)Directed by Stanley KubrickProduced by Stanley Kubrick

Screenplay byStanley KubrickArthur C. Clarke

Based onThe Sentinel byArthur C. Clarke

Starring

Keir DulleaGary LockwoodWilliam SylvesterDouglas Rain

Cinematography Geoffrey UnsworthEditing by Ray LovejoyStudio MGM

Distributed by MGM (original)Warner Bros. (Current)

Release date(s)

• April 2, 1968 (Premiere)

• April 4, 1968 (Theatrical)

Running time 161 minutes (Premiere) 142 minutes (Theatrical)

Language EnglishBudget $10.5 millionBox office $190,000,000

2001: A Space Odyssey is a 1968 science fiction film produced and directed by Stanley Kubrick. The screenplay was co-written by Kubrick and Arthur C. Clarke, and was partially inspired by Clarke's short story "The Sentinel". Clarke concurrently wrote the novel of the same name which was published soon after the film was released. The story deals with a series of encounters between humans and mysterious black monoliths that are apparently affecting human evolution, and a space voyage to Jupiter tracing a signal emitted by one such monolith found on the moon.

The film is frequently described as an "epic film", both for its length and scope, and for its affinity with classical epics.

Produced and distributed by the American studio Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, the film was made almost entirely in England.,

Thematically, the film deals with elements of human evolution, technology, artificial intelligence, and extraterrestrial life. It is notable for its scientific accuracy, pioneering special effects, ambiguous imagery that is open-ended, sound in place of traditional narrative techniques, and minimal use of dialogue.

The film has a memorable soundtrack—the result of the association that Kubrick made between the spinning motion of the satellites and the dancers of waltzes, which led him to use The Blue Danube waltz by Johann Strauss II, and the symphonic poem Also sprach Zarathustra by Richard Strauss, to portray the philosophical concept of the Übermensch in Nietzsche's work of the same name.

Despite initially receiving mixed reactions from critics and audiences alike, 2001: A Space Odyssey garnered a cult following and slowly became a box office hit. Some years after its initial


release, it eventually became the highest grossing picture from 1968 in North America. Today it is near-universally recognized by critics, filmmakers, and audiences as one of the greatest and most influential films ever made

The film consists of four major sections, all of which, except the second, are introduced by superimposed titles.

The Dawn of Man

A tribe of herbivorous early hominids is foraging for food in the African desert. A leopard kills one member, and another tribe of man-apes drives them from their water hole. Defeated, they sleep overnight in a small exposed rock crater, and awake to find a black monolith has appeared in front of them. They approach it shrieking and jumping, and eventually touch it cautiously. Soon after, one of the man-apes (Daniel Richter) realizes how to use a bone as both a tool and a weapon, which they start using to kill prey for their food. Growing increasingly capable and assertive, they reclaim control of the water hole from the other tribe by killing its leader. Triumphant, the tribe's leader throws his weapon-tool into the air as the scene shifts (via match cut) from the falling bone to an orbital satellite millions of years in the future.

TMA-1A Pan Am space plane carries Dr. Heywood R. Floyd (William Sylvester) to a space station orbiting Earth for a layover on his trip to Clavius Base, a US outpost on the Moon. After making a videophone call from the station to his daughter (Vivian Kubrick), he encounters his friend Elena (Margaret Tyzack), a Russian scientist, and her colleague Dr. Smyslov (Leonard Rossiter), who ask Floyd about "odd things" occurring at Clavius, and the rumor of a mysterious epidemic at the base. Floyd politely but firmly declines to answer any questions about the epidemic, claiming he is "not at liberty to discuss this".

At Clavius, Floyd heads a meeting of base personnel, apologizing for the epidemic cover story but stressing secrecy. His mission is to investigate a recently found artifact—"Tycho Magnetic Anomaly One" (TMA-1)—"deliberately buried" four million years ago. Floyd and others ride in a Moonbus to the artifact, a black monolith identical to the one encountered by the apes. The visitors examine the monolith, and pose for a photo in front of it. While doing so, they hear a very loud high-pitched radio signal emanating from within the monolith.

Jupiter MissionEighteen months later, the American spaceship Discovery One is bound for Jupiter. On board are mission pilots and scientists Dr. David Bowman (Keir Dullea) and Dr. Frank Poole (Gary Lockwood), and three other scientists who are in cryogenic hibernation. Most of Discovery's operations are controlled by the ship's computer, HAL 9000 (voiced by Douglas Rain), or simply "Hal", as the crew call it. While Bowman and Poole watch Hal and themselves being interviewed in a BBC show about the mission, the computer states that he is "foolproof and incapable of error." Hal also speaks of its enthusiasm for the mission, and how he enjoys working with humans. When asked by the host if Hal has genuine emotions, Bowman replies that he appears to, but that the truth is unknown.

Hal asks Bowman about the unusual mystery and secrecy surrounding the mission, but then interrupts himself to report the imminent failure of a device which controls the ship's main antenna. After retrieving the component with an EVA pod, the astronauts cannot find anything wrong with it. Hal suggests reinstalling the part and letting it fail so the problem can be found. Mission control concurs, but advises the astronauts that results from their twin Hal 9000 indicate the ship's Hal is in error predicting the fault. When queried, Hal insists that the problem, like all previous issues with the HAL series, is due to "human error". Concerned about Hal's behavior, Bowman and Poole enter one of the EVA pods to talk without the computer overhearing them. They both have suspicions about Hal, despite the perfect reliability of the HAL series, but they decide to follow its suggestion to replace the unit. As the astronauts agree to disconnect Hal if it is proven to be wrong, they are unaware that Hal is reading their lips through the pod's window.

While Poole is attempting to replace the unit during a spacewalk, his EVA pod, controlled by Hal, severs his oxygen hose and sets him adrift. Bowman, not realizing the computer is responsible for this, takes another pod to attempt a rescue, leaving his helmet behind. While he is gone, Hal


turns off the life-support functions of the crewmen in suspended animation. When Bowman returns to the ship with Poole's body, Hal refuses to let him in, stating that the astronaut's plan to deactivate him jeopardizes the mission. Bowman manually opens the ship's emergency airlock and bodily enters the ship risking death from exposure to a vacuum. After donning a helmet, Bowman proceeds to Hal's processor core intent on disconnecting most of the functions of the computer. Hal first tries to reassure Dave, then pleads with him to stop, and finally begins to express fear—all in a steady monotone voice. Dave ignores him and disconnects each of the computer's processor modules. Hal eventually regresses to his earliest programmed memory, the song "Daisy Bell", which he sings for Bowman.

When the computer is finally disconnected, a prerecorded video message from Floyd plays. In it, he reveals the existence of the four million-year-old black monolith on the Moon, "its origin and purpose still a total mystery". Floyd adds that it has remained completely inert, except for a single, very powerful radio emission aimed at Jupiter.

Jupiter and Beyond the InfiniteAt Jupiter, Bowman leaves Discovery One in an EVA pod and finds another monolith in orbit around the planet. Approaching it, the pod is suddenly pulled into a tunnel of colored light, and a disoriented and terrified Bowman finds himself racing at great speed across vast distances of space, viewing bizarre cosmological phenomena and strange alien landscapes of unusual colors. He finds himself, middle-aged and still in his spacesuit, standing in a bedroom appointed in the Louis XVI-style. Bowman sees progressively older versions of himself, his point of view switching each time, alternately appearing formally dressed and eating dinner, and finally as a very elderly man lying in a bed. A black monolith appears at the foot of the bed, and as Bowman reaches for it, he is transformed into a fetus-like being enclosed in a transparent orb of light. The new being floats in space beside the Earth, gazing at it.

Parallel development of film and novelization Differences between the film and the novel

The collaborators originally planned to develop a novel first, free of the constraints of a normal script, and then to write the screenplay; they envisaged that the final writing credits would be "Screenplay by Stanley Kubrick and Arthur C. Clarke, based on a novel by Arthur C. Clarke and Stanley Kubrick" to reflect their preeminence in their respective fields. In practice, however, the cinematic ideas required for the screenplay developed parallel to the novel, with cross-fertilization between the two. In a 1970 interview with Joseph Gelmis, Kubrick explained:

There are a number of differences between the book and the movie. The novel, for example, attempts to explain things much more explicitly than the film does, which is inevitable in a verbal medium. The novel came about after we did a 130-page prose treatment of the film at the very outset. This initial treatment was subsequently changed in the screenplay, and the screenplay in turn was altered during the making of the film. But Arthur took all the existing material, plus an impression of some of the rushes, and wrote the novel. As a result, there's a difference between the novel and the film...I think that the divergences between the two works are interesting.

In the end, the screenplay credits were shared while the novel, released shortly after the film, was attributed to Clarke alone, but Clarke wrote later that "the nearest approximation to the complicated truth" is that the screenplay should be credited to "Kubrick and Clarke" and the novel to "Clarke and Kubrick".

Clarke and Kubrick wrote the novel and screenplay simultaneously, but while Clarke ultimately opted for clearer explanations of the mysterious monolith and Star Gate in his book, Kubrick chose to make his film more cryptic and enigmatic by keeping dialogue and specific explanations to a minimum. "2001", Kubrick says, "is basically a visual, nonverbal experience" that avoids the spoken word in order to reach the viewer's subconscious in an essentially poetic and philosophic way. The film is a subjective experience which "hits the viewer at an inner level of consciousness, just as music does, or painting".

Hal's breakdownWhile the film leaves it mysterious, early script drafts spell out that Hal's breakdown is triggered by authorities on Earth who had ordered it to withhold information from the astronauts about


the true purpose of the mission. (This is also explained in the film's sequel 2010.) Frederick Ordway, Kubrick's science advisor and technical consultant, working from personal copies of early drafts, stated that in an earlier version, Poole tells Hal there is "...something about this mission that we weren't told. Something the rest of the crew knows and that you know. We would like to know whether this is true", to which HAL enigmatically responds: "I'm sorry, Frank, but I don't think I can answer that question without knowing everything that all of you know.". In this version, Hal then falsely predicts a failure of the hardware maintaining radio contact with the Earth (the source of Hal's difficult orders) during the broadcast of Frank Poole's birthday greetings from his parents.

While the film drops this overt explanation, it is hinted at when Hal asks David Bowman if the latter feels bothered or disturbed by the "mysteries" and "secrecy" surrounding the mission and its preparations. After Bowman concludes that Hal is dutifully drawing up the "crew psychology report", the computer then makes its false prediction of hardware failure.

In an interview with Joseph Gelmis in 1969, Kubrick simply stated that "[Hal] had an acute emotional crisis because he could not accept evidence of his own fallibility".

Influence on film

“Stanley Kubrick made the ultimate science fiction movie, and it is going to be very hard for someone to come along and make a better movie, as far as I'm concerned. On a technical level, it can be compared, but personally I think that '2001' is far superior.

”

—George Lucas, 1977

The influence of 2001 on subsequent filmmakers is considerable. Steven Spielberg, George Lucas and others, including many special effects technicians, discuss the impact the film has had on them in a featurette entitled Standing on the Shoulders of Kubrick: The Legacy of 2001 included in the 2007 DVD release of the film. Spielberg calls it his film generation's "big bang", while Lucas says it was "hugely inspirational", labeling Kubrick as "the filmmaker's filmmaker". Sydney Pollack refers to it as "groundbreaking", and William Friedkin states 2001 is "the grandfather of all such films". At the 2007 Venice film festival, director Ridley Scott stated he believed 2001 was the unbeatable film that in a sense killed the science fiction genre. Similarly, film critic Michel Ciment in his essay "Odyssey of Stanley Kubrick" stated "Kubrick has conceived a film which in one stroke has made the whole science fiction cinema obsolete." Others, however, credit 2001 with opening up a market for films such as Close Encounters of the Third Kind, Alien, Blade Runner, and Contact; proving that big-budget "serious" science-fiction films can be commercially successful, and establishing the "sci-fi blockbuster" as a Hollywood staple. Science magazine Discover's blogger Stephen Cass, discussing the considerable impact of the film on subsequent science-fiction, writes that "the balletic spacecraft scenes set to sweeping classical music, the tarantula-soft tones of HAL 9000, and the ultimate alien artifact, the Monolith, have all become enduring cultural icons in their own right." Video game director Hideo Kojima has also cited 2001: A Space Odyssey as one of the chief influences for his Metal Gear series, with Solid Snake and Otacon inspired by Dave and Hal.

Influence on cultureOne commentator has suggested that the image of the Star Child and Earth has contributed to the rise of the "whole earth" icon as a symbol of the unity of humanity. Writing in The Asia Pacific Journal Robert Jacobs traces the history of this icon from early cartoons and drawings of the earth to photos of the earth from early space missions, to its historic appearance on the cover of The Whole Earth Catalog. Noting that images of the entire earth recur several times in A Space Odyssey, Jacobs writes

the most dramatic use of the icon was in the film's conclusion. In this scene...Bowman is reborn as the Star Child, ...depicted as a fetus floating in space in an amniotic sack [sic]. The Star Child turns to consider the Whole Earth floating in front of it, both glowing a bright blue-white. The two appear as newborn versions of Man and Earth, face-to-face, ready to be born into a future of unthinkable possibilities.


Influence on technology and lawIn August 2011, in response to Apple Inc.'s patent infringement lawsuit against Samsung, the latter argued that Apple's iPad was effectively modeled on the visual tablets that appear aboard spaceship Discovery in the Space Odyssey film, which legally constitute "prior art". Legally, prior art is information that has been disclosed to the public in any form about an invention before a given date that might be relevant to the patent's claim of originality. Samsung appealed specifically to a clip appearing on YouTube arguing

Attached hereto as Exhibit D is a true and correct copy of a still image taken from Stanley Kubrick's 1968 film "2001: A Space Odyssey." In a clip from that film lasting about one minute, two astronauts are eating and at the same time using personal tablet computers. As with the design claimed by the D'889 Patent, the tablet disclosed in the clip has an overall rectangular shape with a dominant display screen, narrow borders, a predominately flat front surface, a flat back surface (which is evident because the tablets are lying flat on the table's surface), and a thin form factor.

"Siri", Apple's natural language voice control system for the iPhone, features three references to the film; a modem that looks like Hal's faceplate, if asked to sing it might reply "Daisy, Daisy, give me your answer do", and it responds "I'm sorry I can't do that" when asked to "open the pod bay doors".

Inspired by Clarke's visual tablet device, in 1994 a European Commission-funded R&D project code named "NewsPAD" developed and pilot tested a portable 'multimedia viewer' aiming for the realisation of an electronic multimedia 'newspaper' pointing the way to a future fully interactive and highly personalised information source. Involved partners were Acorn RISC Technologies UK, Archimedes GR, Carat FR, Ediciones Primera Plana ES, Instut Catala de Tecnologia ES, and TechMAPP UK.










[NOTES ON ENGLISH LESSONS] · languages, as well as computer interfaces and word-processors owe their existence to the research into arriS cial intelligence.

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