Note: This is a sample report! The purpose of this sample ... Note: This is a sample report! The purpose of this sample report is solely to show the idea of how the report looks like.

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Note:

This is a sample report! The purpose of this sample report is solely to show the idea of how the report looks like.

Please read the instructions (Guidelines: Project Assignment) on the course website on the details of the structure, setup and the contents of the project report. Main focus should be put on IWRM and the roadmap of IWRM.

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Mekong: a Contested Water Resource

Prospects and Challenges for a Sustainable

Development of the Mekong River Basin

David Isaak and Anna Sax Kaijser

Pluridisciplinary Perspectives on Development: Natural Resource Management

LUMID, Lund University 2007

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Introduction 4

1.1 Problem Definition 4 1.2 Aim of Study 5 1.3 Methods 5

2. Background 7

2.1 Brief history of the Mekong River Basin 7 Pre-colonial and Colonial 7 Forming of the Mekong Committee 7 Cold War 7 Forming of the Mekong River Commission 8

2.2 Hydro-geographic Description of the Mekong River Catchment Area 9 Boundaries 9 Climate and Water Use 10 Water Quality 11

3. Today’s conditions and needs 13

Challenge 1: Dams 14 Challenge 2: Urbanization 16

3. Sustainability 17

3.1 The Concept of Sustainability 18 Dams as a challenge to sustainability 18 Urbanization as a challenge to sustainability 20

3.2 Interests and Influence of Different Stakeholders 21

4. Solutions and Conclusions 23

4.1 Solutions 23 4.2 Conclusions 27

References 28

Literature 28 Articles 28 Internet sources 29 Interview 29 Lectures 29 Figures and tables 30

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1. Introduction The Mekong River is the 12th largest river in the world (Sahai 2005:13). Passing through

China, Myanmar, Vietnam, Lao PDR, Thailand and Cambodia on its way to the South

China Sea, it has for centuries been a source of livelihood as well as a source of conflict.

The Mekong mainstream and its tributaries is of great importance to the inhabitants in the

river basin, who need the water for irrigation and fishing. At the same time, it provides

opportunities for commercial navigation and the generation of hydropower to supply the

region with electricity. Many stakeholders compete for the use of the water resources and

activities on one part of the river inevitably change the conditions downstream. This,

combined with a history of political instability and coupled with increasing urbanization

and population growth, has made the river a contested resource. In this study, after a brief

description of the region’s hydro-geography and its historical background, two of the

main current challenges to a sustainable development of the Mekong River basin will be

presented and analyzed. Ultimately, some ideas for actions to enhance the prospects for a

sustainable development will be listed. The study rests on the assumption that the

conflicts are not a result of a physical lack of water, but relates to issues of governance,

management and a will for cooperation.

1.1 Problem Definition Concerns related to access to and scarcity of fresh water have climbed high on the

international development agenda. As stated in the United Nations’ second World Water

Development Report, there is not a physical lack of water in the world. Regional water

scarcity is a result of inadequate governance and resource management connected to

socio-economic issues (UNESCO 2006:3, see also de Villiers 1999:19). In the Mekong

River basin, the mainstream river and its tributaries provide water in rich amounts. Still,

there is conflict and anxiety regarding the use of the water.

In this study, the problems related to the Mekong River will be addressed mainly as

matters of governance. Here, governance is understood as the private and public

institutional means to practice social, economic and political power. There are different

levels to exercise governance, including the state, market and civil society (Desai 2002:

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491). A lack of cooperation and harmonization between local and foreign actors, coupled

with the absence of a strong regional authority to function as a forum for different actors

and a body to create binding agreements regarding the use of the river have put obstacles

in the path to a sustainable development (Lacoursière 2007). The analysis of the region’s

main challenges and the suggestions for possible solutions presented in the last section of

the study will therefore focus on the issue of governance.

1.2 Aim of Study This study aims to draw a background picture of the Mekong River basin and discuss its

major challenges in relation to different aspects of sustainable development and with

regard to different stakeholders. The issue of governance will provide a framework for

the analysis. A list of actions that may improve the region’s prospects for a sustainable

development will be presented in the last chapter. The intention of the study is to enhance

the understanding of the Mekong region from a wider perspective.

1.3 Methods The secondary data for The Indochina Water Dragon: the sustainable future of the

Mekong river basin is drawn from scholarly papers, books, reports, statistics, lectures,

and Internet pages. The breadth of sources is advantageous to the reduction of biases of

the development academic by providing as many different perspectives as possible

(Chambers 1983). Statistics used from the United Nations Development report were used

to find the change in urban development from 1975 to 2004 with simple mathematical

equations. Furthermore, the analysis of stakeholders in the basin is based on a previously

completed chart on stakeholder importance that was then modified for our specific study.

The primary qualitative data collection consisted of one interview with an expert on

sustainability in the Mekong Region. Professor Jean Lacousière, Ph.D., is the former

chief of the Environment Unit of the Mekong River Commission (1999-2000) and is

currently launching a project on the protection of the Mekong’s wetlands. The interview

was held in a private room with two interviewers – one responsible for questioning and

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the other responsible for typing notes on a computer. It was not audibly recorded. The

interview was semi-structured, allowing for flexibility and follow-up on responses while

still building on predetermined questions (Willis 2006:144). The questions asked to

Professor Lacousière related to his area of expertise as well as the general sustainability

issues in the Mekong River basin. The dialogue lasted for 1.5 hours.

Figure 1: Map of Catchment

(URL 12)

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2. Background This section draws a background picture of the history and hydro-geography of the

Mekong River basin, in order to create an understanding of the origins of the current

conflicts and challenges to the area.

2.1 Brief history of the Mekong River Basin

Pre-colonial and Colonial The Mekong River has for centuries been important for the livelihoods of the inhabitants

in the river basin, who have used its waters for irrigation, fishing and navigation. During

the colonial era, the river basin became a source of conflict as the colonial powers France

and Great Britain both aspired to control it. Eventually, the French gained command over

the river delta and introduced their models of water management in the area. However, it

was not until later that the exploitation of the river really took off (Nguyen 1999:xii-xv).

Forming of the Mekong Committee In the years after the Second World War, the area previously known as French Indochina

gained independence from the colonial power. This was an era during which a number of

regional and international organizations were formed. In 1947, the UN Economic and

Social Council (ECOSOC) founded ECAFE, an economic commission for Asia and the

Far East that was to supervise the economic reconstruction of the countries in the area.

One focus of the ECAFE was on different aspects of water, such as flood control and

irrigation, and the commission suggested projects in this area (Nguyen 1999:49-53). In

1957, the Mekong Committee (involving Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand and Vietnam)

was formed. The committee aimed for “integrated development through regional

cooperation” (Sahai 2005:160).

Cold War During the Cold War, the division of the world in East and West led to a rivalry between

the blocs, where they competed to influence the Third World countries – in desperate

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need of development aid – in their specific political direction. These tendencies greatly

affected the countries in the Mekong region, not least through the intervention by the

United States, striving to end the spread of communism in the region. The political

tensions eventually led to the Vietnam War (Nguyen 1999:xv, 98).

In 1975, after the Vietnam War ended, the four countries in the Mekong Committee

signed the “Joint Declaration of Principles for Utilization of the Waters of the Lower

Mekong Basin”. It declared that the mainstream waters are a resource of common interest

and that each country’s use of the water has to be approved by the other countries. But

new conflicts aroused in the region. In 1977, Cambodia, under the rule of the Khmer

Rouge, withdrew from the Mekong Committee. Since the Committee built on consensus,

this meant that it lost its decision-making capacity. In order not to become totally

powerless, in 1978 the three remaining countries formed the Interim Mekong Committee,

with limited capacity for governance (Nguyen 1999:199-201).

Forming of the Mekong River Commission After the Vietnam War, the US influenced their allies and the World Bank to cut down

development aid to Vietnam, Lao PDR and Cambodia, forcing them to rely on Soviet aid.

After the fall of the Soviet Empire, there was a new, different political development in

the area, with peace and increased stability. In 1994, Cambodia re-joined the Mekong

Committee. However, in 1995 the Committee was replaced by the Mekong River

Commission (MRC), which was established through the ratification of the “Agreement

on the Cooperation for the Sustainable Development of the Mekong River Basin”. This

agreement does not have any binding clauses concerning the use of the Mekong’s

resources, and does not require that all the other countries approve of new projects, only

that they are informed about them (Nguyen 1999:200-205). Even though the power of the

MRC may be limited, its creation marked a new beginning for cooperation between the

countries in the region. The Commission’s main areas of interest are agriculture, fishing,

navigation and flood control (Sahai 2005:169).

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2.2 Hydro-geographic Description of the Mekong River Catchment Area The Mekong River drains 795,000 square kilometers of diverse landscapes and

ecosystems (Kite 2001: 2). The river’s southward journey cuts through several mountain

ranges to enter the more inhabited regions of Cambodia and Vietnam. Finally, the River

empties into the South China Sea and to a smaller degree the Thailand bay to become the

12th longest river in the world (Sahai 2005:13).

Boundaries Indo China Headwaters

The river’s headwaters begin in the north as part of the eastern portions of the Tibetan

plateau. This region is bordered by India, Myanmar and the Chinese province of Yunnan

to the south and Chinese provinces to the north and east. Due to the harsh landscapes of

this region, the population is sparse, making water resource management less contested

than in those areas with more numerous and active stakeholders (Lacoursière 2007).

Upper Basin

As the river travels through the southern regions of Yunnan and northern areas of Lao

PDR and Cambodia, it cuts through largely unstudied and remote regions of steep gorges

creating hazardous and poorly navigable rapids (Osborne 2001: 226). The borders of this

region are the mountains to the west and east of the river. This region has very dense and

tropical vegetation that contributes significantly to the natural processes of the river

(Hoanh 2001:6).

Lower Basin

In the lower basin the drop in elevation of the river decreases allowing for a more easily

navigated and sequestered waterway. The lower basin is most prominently occupied by

Cambodia. A very important phenomenon occurs in the southern Cambodian reaches of

the Mekong along the Tonlé Sap River during the monsoon flood season. Due to heavy

rains both upstream and in the lower basin, the Mekong’s flood waters cause the Tonlé

Sap to reverse its direction and drain into the Great Lake instead of the South China Sea

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(Hortle 8-9: 2006). This increases the water levels of the lake up to 8 meters and allows

for large habitat variation creating an excellent breeding ground for the largest fishing

catch in the region. The close and vital cooperation between riparian peoples and

ecosystems in the lower basin shows important challenges (Bao 2001:7).

Delta

As the Mekong begins to separate before its union with the salt water of the Thailand bay

and South China Sea, it enters the Southern lands of Vietnam. The Delta is one of the

largest wetlands in the world and river courses are both cause and consequence of

sediment and silt buildup from the nutrients gathered in the Mekong’s 4800-km course

(Hoanh 2003: 2).

Climate and Water Use Climatic characteristics affect the amount of water used by a certain population. The

Mekong River riparian people are not separate from the climate in which they live. They

are in constant relationship with the cyclical dearth and abundance of monsoonal seasonal

rains (Hoanh 2001). Further, the river runs with differing levels and groundwater draining

rates depending upon the season. The river begins in the peaks and permafrost-laden

ranges of the Tundra and Icecap’s of the Tibetan Plateau. Then, through the largest

portion of temperate climate, it crosses the Mixed Forest and Grasslands of the Yunnan

Province, until finally falling through the Rainforests and Seasonal Regions on the

southern parts of the Indochinese peninsula (see climatalogical map).

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Figure 2: Map of Climate Regions of Asia

(URL 13)

In the Rainforest and seasonal climate, the Mekong floods annually to drastically alter the

water use and livelihoods of the riparian environments. In the lower Mekong region the

mean rainfall was 1627 mm per year in 1988 with 85-90% of annual runoff during the

wet season (Hoanh 2001: 12). The cause of monsoon is from solar radiation warming the

large landmass of Asia during the summer months. Then, in turn, as this terrestrial

radiation warms the air, it allows more room for water vapor. When cooler ocean air from

the southern hemisphere causes this warm air to drop and cool, it creates massive

amounts of precipitation over the Indo-Chinese peninsula.

Water Quality Water quality in the Mekong Basin is generally better than in other large catchments, but

pollution still exists and poses a threat for current and future sustainability of the water

resources. Although there is not a removal or addition of water in the hydrologic cycle,

there is a threat of polluting the water that is circulating through it (Ronny Bergström

2007). In this case, the degradation of water quality does not always have to do with

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primary effects of human chemical usage, nor does it always adversely affect the water

cycle and the ecosystems dependent upon it. Secondary factors that can affect water

quality such as drilling, damming and farming in or near a water source can eventually

affect the solute levels in the water (Cech 2003: 302-303). Just as pollution varies, so do

measurements of water quality. From TSS (total suspended solids) turbidity testing to pH

litmus, water quality does not have a single definition or measure (Cech 2003: 307;

Houhn 2001: 13).

Active Pollutants

Active pollutants directly and adversely affect water quality. Numerous human activities

can cause pollution to the hydrologic system. A main polluter in the lower Mekong basin

is chemicals from agriculture in both riparian and non-riparian areas that have run off into

the water system. The use of fertilizers, pesticides and irrigation can all change the

quality of ground and river water sources with little direction to the origin (Cech 2003:

302-303). Another non-point source example that is problematic to the already eroding

delta is the shrimp farms along this mangrove-rich region. Mangroves are an important,

fragile and protective ecosystem. The large amount of underwater and terrestrial plant life

hold homes for many different kinds of thriving species. This flora and fauna help

regulate the mix of salt and fresh water into the Mekong delta (Olsson 2006). Sediment

and silt from the Mekong River are essential in the survival of the delta mangrove region.

Shrimp Farming is destructive to the delta by requiring both the physical removal of the

mangrove and the usage of disinfectants, antibiotics, algaecides, herbicides, and

probiotics used in the water for commercialized shrimp cultivation (Gräslund 2001:101).

Furthermore, operations upstream and along the river have caused increased salinity by

the over usage of chemical substances in agriculture (URL 1). Salinity – the presence of

excess salts in water – can cause harm to plants by taking moisture from the roots and

forming an impenetrable subterranean crust and to aquatic life by altering the quality and

nutrients of the water (Cech 2003: 310).

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Secondary Pollutants

Changing the environment of a water source can degrade water quality. Instead of

adding a certain pollutant directly to the water, secondary pollution is the by-product of

changes in the environment. These changes can be significantly problematic. This type

of alteration of water quality can come from over pumping, damming or soil misuse. A

first example is groundwater contamination. There have been over 6,000 wells drilled in

the Cambodian section of the basin alone and pumping is on the increase (Houhn 2001:

13). The effect of these usages has caused groundwater levels to recede in certain heavily

used areas and increase the proportion of dissolved salts in the water. Fortunately, there

is not a widespread over-usage of groundwater in the Mekong River basin in comparison

to many other large catchments (Houhn 2001: 13). A second example is damming

activities upriver in Yunnan China that change the levels of silt in water. This damming

has already begun lowering the level of sediment and nutrients reaching the lower basin

and delta regions of the river, considerably changing the water quality and fish

populations of the heavily river-depended lower basin region.

3. Today’s conditions and needs The link between poor water management and weak governance is caused by an

increasing number of development actors – ranging from the MRC and national

authorities to the Asian Development Bank, bilateral donors and foreign investors – and a

lack of cooperation among them (Lacousière 2007). In relationship to water resource

management, the issue of good governance is imperative when addressing two of the

main challenges in the region: dam building and urbanization.

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Challenge 1: Dams One of the most important current issues concerning the environmental, social and

economic sustainability of the Mekong River Basin is the planning and building of dams.

The construction of dams is in itself nothing new in the Mekong Basin. For centuries,

small-scale dams for irrigation and Figure 3: Dam Projects in Lower Basin

flood control have been built on the

Mekong’s tributaries (Nguyen 1999:7-

8). However, it was not until the 20th

century that the construction of dams

begun on a larger scale. One of the

first priorities of the Mekong

Committee, after it was founded in

1957, was the planning of big dam

projects on the Mekong mainstream,

for example the Pa Mong (see map)

project, involving Thailand, Lao PDR

and Cambodia. The purposes of this

“cascade of dams” was irrigation,

flood control, hydropower and

improvement of navigation

possibilities (Ibid. 59-60, Sahai

2005:163-4).

(URL 14)

Mainly due to lack of funding, especially after the USA withdrew its aid to the region

after the Vietnam War, and cooperation difficulties caused by the political tensions

between the countries, the mainstream dam projects of the Mekong Committee were

never realized, although dams of smaller scale have been built on the tributaries (Nguyen

1999:202-3). Another reason for the plans not having been fulfilled was the increasing

protests from local and international organizations against the dam projects. Especially

the Pa Mong project faced strong opposition, since its realization required the

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resettlement of approximately 300,000 people whose houses and land were to be flooded.

Concerns were also expressed about the risks of the dam system causing damage on the

agriculture (Ibid.:204). For example, a decreased river flow allows for more intrusion of

salt water from the South China Sea causing increased salinity in the rice fields (Le Thi

Viet Hoa et. al 2007:110). The growing worldwide interest for environmental and social

issues has made the MRC more aware about the impact of planned dam projects on the

ecology and the people depending on the river, apart from the economic gains (Sahai

2005:164-9).

However, damming of the Mekong and its tributaries remains an increasing source of

conflict between different interests and stakeholders upstream and downstream. As the

effects of the East Asian economic crisis have faded, the economic growth has led to a

new motivation for investments in dam projects (Sahai 2005:169, URL 2). The World

Bank, formerly an important sponsor, has become reluctant to finance dam projects due

to the environmental and social drawbacks, but there is a boom of investment from other

sources, mainly in Japan, Korea, China and

Malaysia, (Lacoursière 2007). Currently, a heavily

debated issue concerning the Mekong Basin is

China’s construction of dams on the mainstream

river, where it flows through the Chinese Yunnan

province. China is an upstream country that has

experienced severe problems with droughts and

floods, which it is aiming to regulate with dams,

and it has a large potential for hydropower. During

the last two decades, China has initiated a number

of big dam projects, some of which are located

along its part of the Mekong River. Two of them,

the Manwan Dam and the Dachaoshan Dam, have already been taken into operation, and

at least five more are under planning. All of these dams are to be used for hydropower, to

supply the Yunnan province’s growing population with electricity. The total capacity of

the dams, once they are in use, is estimated to 15 400 megawatts. The Manwan dam,

Authors’ Figure

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taken into operation in 1994, has a capacity of 1500 megawatts of electricity (Nguyen

1999:217-18). The Dachaoshan Dam, 131 km downstream of the Manwan, started to

operate in 2001 and has a capacity of 1350 megawatts (URL 3). These dam projects have

faced strong criticism from a variety of organizations and stakeholders, who accuse them

for causing social and environmental damage in the region (Nguyen 1999:224).

The fact that China is not member of the MRC is seen as a reason for concern, since their

non-membership means that they have not committed to the 1995 agreement, stating that

the MRC countries must inform each other about their use of the river. China has agreed

to provide the MRC with data about water levels to enable predicting floods (Sahai

2005:171). However, the opinions differ whether this will be of much help, since the

floodings will occur in any case (URL 4). China, as an upstream country with large

resources, is not dependent on the other riparian countries, and therefore would not have

much interest in changing its plans, even if it joined the MRC. For the Chinese

authorities, providing the booming Yunnan region with electricity is the major driving

force (Lacoursière 2007).

Challenge 2: Urbanization A different but related problem facing the Mekong region is urbanization. People moving

from rural areas into urban centres is a global trend which is also visible in the Mekong

Basin. It is becoming increasingly hard for the growing population to sustain themselves

on fishing and farming. This is further reinforced when the possibilities for fishing and

farming are decreased due to water pollution and alterations in the river flow that may be

caused by upstream dams. The vital fishing area of the Tonlé Sap in southern Cambodia

is an important example of an area that is being affected by these issues because of its

dependence upon flooding for the fishing industry.

The urbanization itself causes environmental problems partly due to non-environmentally

conscious city planning where there is a tendency to prioritize flood prevention rather

than building sewage systems. The flood prevention is constructed of criss-crossing

concrete canals in urban wetland areas, allowing for urban waste to pollute the

surrounding wetlands. This destroys the surrounding area’s wetland ecosystem and water

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quality. These wetlands play an important role in purifying the water and preventing

pollutants from reaching the river (Lacoursière 2007). Also upstream, in Kunming the

capital of the Yunnan province, urbanization is causing environmental degradation by

wastewater mismanagement (URL 5). As shown in the table below, urban population

growth is a major issue in all of the countries, particularly China, and access to

sustainable water and sanitation show special need for improvement in Cambodia and

Lao PDR.

The tendency to prioritize flood prevention over sanitation is to some extent a result of

Western influence on city planners. Instead of recognizing flooding as a natural and

necessary part of the ecosystem, there is now a trend to perceive floods as something to

always be prevented. The ensuing actions, intended to prevent flooding, may have an

adverse effect on the local environment and endanger the fish habitats. The influence by

Western thinking is further reinforced in the urbanization process itself. When an

increasing part of the population moves to the urban centers, they are cut off from their

traditional understandings of the environment and subjected to Western ideas. This

consequently impacts all strata of society from government to local fishers (Lacoursière

2007).

Table 1: Urban Growth and Sustainability

From UNDP Human Development Report statistics (HDR 2006:296-308)

3. Sustainability This chapter includes an introduction to a multi-dimensional understanding of

sustainability and a discussion of the two challenges presented above in relation to

Country Population Growth (%)

Urban Pop. Growth 1975-2004 (%)

Access to Sustainable Water (%)

Access to Sustainable

Sanitation (%) Cambodia 1.5 8.8 41 17

China 0.6 22.5 77 44 Lao PDR 2.1 9.2 51 30 Myanmar 0.9 6.1 78 77 Thailand 1.5 8.2 99 99 Viet Nam 1.2 7.2 85 61

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sustainability. This will be followed by a list of stakeholders and an analysis of their

importance and influence on the sustainable development of the region.

3.1 The Concept of Sustainability UN’s “Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development ”, also

known as the Brundtland Report, was one of the earliest documents providing principles

for sustainable development and linking socio-economic development to environmental

issues (URL 6). The Report states that “[s]ustainable development is development that

meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to

meet their own needs” (UN 1987:54). It further suggests that there are different aspects

that need to be taken into consideration in order to achieve a sustainable development

(UN 1987:54-55). In the following analysis, four dimensions of sustainability will be

taken into account: environmental, economic, social and cultural. All these different

aspects are linked together and equally important.

In the previous chapter some of the major challenges facing the management of the

Mekong area were presented. Although the issues addressed mainly concern water

resource management, the importance of sustainability to the Mekong River Basin

transcends just the environment and includes social, cultural, and economic factors. To

take a comprehensive perspective, bringing all of these aspects together is crucial to the

alleviation of current issues and future prospects for positive development. In the

following section, the previously addressed challenges of dams and urbanization will be

analyzed in relation to different aspects of sustainability.

Dams as a challenge to sustainability The sustainable development of the Mekong region is dependent upon monsoonal

flooding and the accumulation of nutrient-rich silt. These eco-services provided by the

river are a prerequisite for the natural reproduction of fish and the agriculture; the two

main sources of income for approximately 60 million people living in the area (URL 7)

The construction of dams has faced much concern related to the environmental,

economic, social and cultural sustainability of the region. This applies to all dam projects

19

on the Mekong and its tributaries, but recently it is the Chinese projects that have raised

most criticism.

The issue of dam construction is closely linked to environmental sustainability, which in

turn affects the local economy. It is feared that the Chinese dams will, through alterations

of the river’s flow, decrease input of nutrient-rich silt and increase salinity, reduce the

source of income for downstream farmers and fishers, and consequently, on a larger

scale, the national economies of downstream countries. Particularly, there is a concern for

potential reductions in the amounts of fish in the lower Mekong region and decreased

inflow to the Tonlé Sap (Nguyen 1999:218). Local inhabitants, politicians and non-

governmental organizations suspect that the Chinese dams are the cause of unusual water

fluctuations and diminishing amounts of fish (URL 8). Studies in the region do not show

any proof that the dams are causing variations in flooding (these may have other reasons,

such as climate change), but, as Jean Lacoursière expresses it,

“You can be sure that floods will change with more dams on a river. Duration and extent of flooding is what drives the biodiversity and the fisheries of an aquatic system. If you make this flat you remove the flux that is necessary for the natural production.” (2007)

The Mekong River basin, particularly the lower region including the Tonlé Sap, has an

abundance of fish, provided that sustainable practices are implemented. The current

decline in fish catches are caused by environmental changes, brought about by such

practices as careless dam building (Lacoursière 2007).

The altering of the potential for fishing and farming, caused by the dams’ manipulation of

the water flow, also has social and cultural implications. When people’s possibilities to

sustain themselves and their families on farming and fishing are reduced, they are forced

to look for work in other sectors, which often means that they have to leave their homes

and move to the urban centers (URL 9). Another socio-cultural aspect related to dams is

related to the construction sites themselves. Thousands of people have lost their homes

sources of income and socio-cultural heritage, context and living situations when they

20

have been forced to move as their villages were flooded by the dams (Lacoursière). In an

article published on the Three Gorges Probe news service webpage fear is expressed that

as many as 80 000 people, most of them from ethnic minority groups, will have to be

resettled following China’s planned dam projects (URL 10).

Urbanization as a challenge to sustainability Population growth and diminishing possibilities for fishing and farming due to

environmental destruction are both push factors for a rapid urbanization. The

environmental sustainability aspects of this in the lower Mekong region relate to the

pollution of the surrounding area. As described above, the sewage from the urban centers

threatens the wetlands and consequently the water quality of the Mekong (Lacoursière

2007). Upstream, the Chinese province of Yunnan has a growing and – partly due to

resettlement following the flooding of villages caused by dam building – increasingly

urbanized population (URL 5) This has raised the local demand for electricity, creating

further incentives for the authorities to schedule dam projects (Nguyen 1999:217-18).

With increasing urbanization throughout the Mekong region, there is a problem with

growing urban and peri-urban poverty. In rural areas it is more likely to have a

sustainable livelihood even for the very poor; however, in urban and peri-urban areas the

possibilities to fill basic needs are less (Lacoursière 2007). With urban migration, people

lose their sources of income. This growing poverty affects individuals as well as the

national economies throughout the basin. Widespread ill-health following environmental

degradation and lost sources of income affects human capital, creating an obstacle to

sustainable economic development (URL 11). One of the major downsides with

urbanization and poverty is the increased spread of HIV/Aids. This is a problem

throughout the Mekong basin. For a Chinese example, Yunnan accounts for half of the

country’s cases of HIV/Aids (USAID 2000:7) Water pollution from urban centers also

has a negative effect on the economy since it will in a longer perspective reduce incomes

from fishing, farming and tourism, and reduce human capital through a negative impact

on health (URL 11). Compounding the issue of economic sustainability is the poor

infrastructure that is in place with these urbanizing economies (Lacoursière 2007).

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Ill-health following urbanization also impacts social and cultural sustainability. For

example, urban poverty related illness and death has a negative impact on social

relations. It also causes a loss of traditional knowledge about the local area and society.

This loss of knowledge also occurs as an effect of the urbanization process itself, as it

profoundly changes the everyday life and knowledge required to function in society. For

example, the children of a fisher who has moved to an urban center may not learn the

practical and traditional knowledge that is needed for the fishing profession. The local

rural fishermen hold a vast amount of undocumented information on the reproduction and

speciation of the fish in the Mekong River. The process of migration, over population,

urbanization and over-fishing link together to create a net of complex social problems.

With increasing prevalence of these four factors, there is an associated decline in the

ability to know and practice traditional culture (Bao et. al 2001:19).

3.2 Interests and Influence of Different Stakeholders In any method of analysis it is important to keep in mind the different stakeholders

involved. For this reason, there is provided a list of the main actors existing in the

sustainability debate.

Stakeholders

Stakeholders can have varying levels of contribution to the issues of sustainable water

resource management and development in the Mekong River basin. A system of rating

each stakeholder is beneficial in order to more easily understand their role in problem-

solving initiatives. On the next page in Table 2, each of the fourteen stakeholders will be

scored on a rating involving 4 possible scores pertaining to importance and influence.

22

A1 = High Importance & High Influence B1 = Low Importance & High Influence

A2 = High Importance & Low Influence B2 = Low Importance & Low Influence

Stakeholder Description Interest ScoreRiparian

Governments has majority of fisheries in the Mekong basin; reliant upon seasonal flooding; urbanization and population problems.

preservation of natural river flow and flooding; agriculture; urban development

A1 1. Cambodia

2. China the most powerful riparian actor; has not cooperated with other lower basin nations; extensive damming projects.

hydropower; damming; river navigation A1

3. Lao P.D.R. cooperative; low income; aid dependent; many natural resources

Selling hydropower; river navigation; damming B1

4. Thailand Booming economy; highly industrialized; covers small portion of Mekong; invests in dams in Lao PDR.

buying hydropower; river diversion; A1

5. Viet Nam Covers delta region of river; booming economy; salinity problems

buying hydropower; preservation of natural river flow and flooding;

A2

Other Stakeholders majority of the fishing industry is performed by small to medium sized fisheries; use wide variety of gears to catch fish, use local knowledge.

preservation of natural river flow and flooding; water quality

A2 6. Fisheries

7. The MRC

a governing body; responsible for organizational aspect of sustainable development; composed of The Council, The Joint Committees, MRC Secretariat (MRCMekong.org URL #).

organizing cooperation; sustainable development; appeasing national governments; research

A2

8. NGO’s working at local, regional and international levels; flexible; aid dependent.

human (indigenous) rights; sustainability; wildlife protection; water quality

A2

9. WB and ADB Lending institutions; declining influence; highly bureaucratic; international pressure.

economic development; peace and security B2

10. Bilateral Donors rising influence; national pressure. peace and security; economic development; B1

11. Transport Indust.

Logging industry in north; general transport in south; are blasting rapids to make navigable

altering flow of river; A1

12. Urban Citizen Proportion is growing at very dramatic rates; diverse needs; modernizing and changing values

job security; sanitation; water quality; wetland preservation A1

13. Rural Citizen Employed in rice farming, agriculture, fishing and other trades; largely migrating to urban areas; communication problems with large organizations.

preservation of natural river flow and flooding; water quality; salinity, pea and security; sanitation

A2

14. Consumer Crosses international borders due to trade and communication; commonly unaware of origin of produce and sustainability issues.

low prices; high quality; consistency in use of resources.

B1

23

The Importance of a stakeholder is demonstrated by their level of need to take special

action to protect their interests. Influence is defined by the magnitude of the effects a

stakeholder has on water resources. As noted in the table, the state governments as well

as urban citizens and transport industry, have high levels of influence and importance in

the management of sustainable development.

4. Solutions and Conclusions Below, a list of suggestions for actions will be presented. These actions may increase the

prospects for a sustainable development of the Mekong region. As previously mentioned,

the main obstacle to sustainable development in the Mekong River basin is the problem

with poor governance. Therefore, the suggestions for solutions to the problems of

cooperation primarily address the issue of how to improve governance to create a

sustainable management of the region’s water resources.

4.1 Solutions Below, a number of suggestions will be made for actions intended to improve the

prospects for sustainable development of the Mekong region. These are divided in three

categories: Stakeholder Participation, Technical Solutions and Cooperation among

Actors. They all link to the broader issue of improving regional governance.

24

Table 3: Sustainable Solutions

Stak

ehol

der

Part

icip

atio

n

Problem Solution

Local people should have a venue to express their opinion, a right to be informed and a right to compensation for lost land, belongs and income.

Traditional and local knowledge should be incorporated into management and development projects by documenting and spreading the knowledge in relevant papers and by more local participation.

Rural and urban poor lack knowledge over sanitation, resource management and pollutants that create social and environmental damage.

Knowledge about resource management should be included in formal and non-formal education. Information campaigns should be implemented every third year by a rotating bilateral donor board within the MRC.

People are negatively affected by projects changing the river’s flow because of the destruction of communities on the dam site and from alterations in flow changing the conditions for agriculture and

Bad management and loss of traditional knowledge is causing increased fishing pressure and environmental degradation.

25

Tech

nica

l Im

prov

emen

ts

Problem Solution

Large hydropower dams cause social and environmental degradation on site and downstream in the Mekong River basin.

Future dams should be replacement by small scale hydropower structures that can generate energy without causing too much environmental harm. This is particularly adequate for rural areas. States can proved subsidies and micro-finance loans for such projects.

Through the MRC a common frame work should be agreed upon for sustainable (socially and environmentally conscious) dam construction.

Industrialization and urbanization require in creasing amounts of electricity. This motivates misuse of water resources.

Government subsidies to new construction and infrastructure that comply with a regional plan for energy efficiency agreed upon through the auspices of the MRC.

Penalty taxes will be paid on commercially zoned buildings and industries that fail to meet energy efficiency. This agreement will be retroactive and monitored through the Environmental Unit of the MRC.

Rapid urbanization causes problems with sanitation and water quality through constructions without ecological engineering.

Stipulate the Asian Development Bank to construct sanitation systems with ecological engineering in urban development loans.

26

Rip

aria

n St

ate

Coop

erat

ion

Problem Solution

Problem Solution

-The legal authority of the MRC needs to be increased. -Use stronger agreements including a legal commitment for the states to consult each other before project implementation.

Us the MRC and donors as a tool to encourage riparian states to adopt a list of common terms defining different types of environments and phenomena.

Among the riparian states there is a reluctance to define terms for the environment. This is because defining terms may subject the states to be held legally accountable for what happens to the environment.

There is insufficient sharing of information between and among riparian states, especially involving river flow and pollutants.

Salt water from the South China Sea intrudes farther up the delta as river flow is regulated and mangroves are destroyed.

There should be a stronger linkage between the up and down stream regions of the Mekong to create a sustainable and healthy Delta.

Vietnam should create a framework for protecting the Delta mangroves by further mapping the region as well as providing equal amounts of protected mangrove for every square km of shrimp farming.

The lower basin states and regions that are highly dependent upon the river and its ecosystem-services need to have more say in what is going on upstream.

To develop a well working system and routine of communication that would alert downstream stakeholders of changes in river conditions.

27

4.2 Conclusions The turbulent political history of the Mekong River basin, coupled with the many

stakeholders involved makes water resource management a challenging field. The

geography and hydrology of the basin form an intricate base from which to address future

development.

Sustainable development has many aspects. In this study, four dimensions of

sustainability are considered: environmental, economic, social and cultural. Two

examples of major current issues posing great challenges for the development of the

Mekong River basin are the construction of large dams and the increasing urbanization

throughout the region. These two complex and contested issues need to be analyzed from

many perspectives, taking the interests of different stakeholders and all aspects of

sustainability into account.

This study recommends putting focus on the importance of strong and accountable

governance as the main prerequisite for successful and sustainable development of the

Mekong area. All the actors in the region need to cooperate and take each other’s

interests into account. Stakeholders, especially downstream, need to be given greater

possibilities to influence projects changing the river and its flow. In order to achieve this,

a strong and accountable transnational body with legal authority must be established. In

this paper, it is suggested that the already existing Mekong River Commission should be

empowered and given greater authority to handle the complex issues related to water

resource management.

28

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29

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Interview

Professor Jean Lacoursière, Lund University 2007-02-07

Lectures Bergström, Ronny. Lund University 2007-01-23

Olsson, Lennart. Lund University 2007-01-26

30

Figures and tables Table 1: Human Development Report (2006) United Nations Development Programme,

Palgrave MacMillan: New York

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02-11