TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY TOPIC 1 LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND LEARNING – KEY CONCEPTS AND ISSUES 1.0 SYNOPSIS Topic 1 introduces you to the key concepts and issues related to language acquisition and learning. It provides insights to the nature of language, language learning process, and characteristics of the effective language learner. It also makes a distinction between language acquisition and language learning. 1.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of Topic 1, you will be able to: define the nature of language describe the language learning process in early childhood list the learner characteristics that affect second language learning differentiate between language acquisition and language learning 1.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS 1
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TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY
TOPIC 1 LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND LEARNING – KEY CONCEPTS AND ISSUES
1.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 1 introduces you to the key concepts and issues related to language acquisition and learning. It provides insights to the nature of language, language learning process, and characteristics of the effective language learner. It also makes a distinction between language acquisition and language learning.
1.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of Topic 1, you will be able to:
define the nature of language
describe the language learning process in early childhood
list the learner characteristics that affect second language learning
differentiate between language acquisition and language learning
1.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS
1
Language Acquisition
and Learning – Key Concepts
and Issues
Language Acquisition
and Learning – Key Concepts
and Issues
Nature of Language
Nature of Language
Language Learner Language Learner
Acquisition versus
Learning
Acquisition versus
Learning
Language Learning Process
Language Learning Process
TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY
CONTENT
SESSION ONE (3 Hours)
1.2.1 Language Acquisition and Learning – Key Concepts and Issues
It is important for you to develop an awareness of the properties of language and
an understanding L1 language development in children. Your understanding of
what language is and how the learner learns will determine to a large extent, your
philosophy of education, and how you teach English: your teaching style, your
approach, methods and classroom technique. In short, this knowledge of the
nature of language and the language learning process would enable you to teach
your learners to learn a second language more effectively.
1.2.1 Nature of Language
Exercise 1: What is your definition of language?
Write down in twenty-five-words-or-less a definition of language.
Share your definition with another friend or in a small group.
Compare differences and similarities.
What is Language? There are many ways in which we could describe language.
Your definition of language (in the above) probably yield something that sounds
similar to the following composite definition: A language is considered to be a
system of communicating with other people using sounds, symbols and words in
expressing a meaning, idea or thought. This language can be used in many
forms, primarily through oral and written communications as well as using
expressions through body language.
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Language is defined as "a systematic means of communicating ideas or feelings
by the use of conventionalized signs, sounds, gestures or marks having
understood meanings." (Webster New International Dictionary of the English
Language, 654), and "is a tool for communication" (Emmet, 22). In most
common use of language, these signs are the words which we employ in such a
way that they may communicate ideas or feelings.
There are many possible theoretical positions about the nature of language.
Commonly, three different views are explicitly or implicitly reflected in current
approaches to language learning. They are:
The structural view of language
The structural view of language is that language is a system of structurally
related elements for the transmission of meaning. These elements are
usually described as:
phonological units (phonemes)
grammatical units (phrases, clauses, sentences)
grammatical operations (adding, shifting, joining or transforming
elements)
lexical items (function words and structure words)
The target of language learning, in the structural view, is the mastery of
elements of this system.
The communicative view of language
The communicative view of language is the view that language is a vehicle
for the expression of functional meaning. The semantic and
communicative dimensions of language are more emphasized than the
grammatical characteristics, although these are also included. The target
of language learning is to learn to express communication functions and
3. In order to test UG we must find extremely rare grammatical structures.
4. Even if we concede that the solution to the logical problem of language
acquisition requires innate knowledge, need that knowledge be in the specific
form of UG?
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5. Evidence in UG studies is obtained from grammatical judgments, since these are
supposed to reflect competence. But there are many problems with grammatical
judgments: they are just another kind of performance, learner’s judgments are
unstable, and individual differences among learners are ignored.
Another approach is to think of UG as the theory of the language faculty and also of the
initial state. Initial state is to be understood as having a set of finite discrete principles
available at any language specific ‘event’. This definition leads to two possible models of
LA:
Maturation Model: UG over time becomes the language specific grammar, i.e. UG and
L1 are indissociable from each other UG is only fully available until L1 is fully acquired.
Strong Continuity Hypothesis: UG remains distinct from the language specific
grammar and remains constant over time and is available continuously.
Revisions in linguistic theory, proposing a Minimalist Program, shed a new light on the
role of UG in SLA. It seems though, that this new theory is compatible with the approach
to language acquisition embracing the principle and parameter setting model (into which
also the SCH fits in). Minimalist Theory proposes that languages are based on simple
principles that interact to form often intricate structures. The Language faculty is not
redundant and can still be the basis for grammatical mapping integration of UG
principles in the grammar of the specific TL.
4.2.6 Implications for teaching
The discussion on how Universal Grammar relate to both L1 acquisition and L2 learning
will give language teachers an idea on how to play their roles in the teaching-learning
process in the classroom. Although it is argued that learning and acquisition are quite
distinct processes, a language teacher should consider the possibility that extensive
practice in the classroom can lead to acquisition. However, it should be kept in mind that
not everything taught becomes acquired. So, expectations regarding the quality of
learning should be set realistically.
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Based on the similarities and differences between L2 and L1 acquisition, the role of
developmental sequences in the cognitive development of learners is very crucial. The
first stage is termed the silent period for learners to process language input whereby it
promotes immature production. This may be the reason why some learners resist or
avoid to produce the language taught. The second stage is the formulaic speech
whereby learners are exposed to sample of useful and frequently phrases for learners to
refer to in communication. And the last stage of developmental sequence is the
application of semantic simplifications to the learners’ language. This will help teachers
understand the production of imperfect language with errors related to their L1.
Another issue to be considered is the acquisition order of language learning. By knowing
which structures are learned prior to others, teachers may be able to sequence the order
of content in the English Language syllabus to suit the learners. Knowledge of learners’
L1 may help teachers put in more time and effort on certain features of the TL that are
not present in L1 when planning lessons. Moreover teachers will have the insight into
why some learners fail to learn or have difficulty in learning certain features of the TL.
Language teachers are the main source of input to learners in the classroom. The
teacher plays an important role in the selection of comprehensible input to suit learners’
level. In order to select the appropriate input, teachers have to be equipped with the
knowledge and skills of teaching methodology.
Furthermore, the ZPD or Zone of Proximal Development is another issue related to the
similarities of L1 and L2 acquisition. Teachers have to assist their learners as much as
possible by providing them with language necessary to pass to the next level of
language competence. To provide appropriate activities that promote language learning,
teachers have to consider the level of learner’s development, the cultural and social
environment. Thus the role of tests should be viewed as vital to gauge learners’ abilities.
The Critical Period hypothesis is one of the key differences leading to the variations in
L1 and L2 acquisition. By knowing that children are better in pronunciation, whereas
adults are faster and better learning in rules and pragmatics, teachers will give more
practice on pronunciation for adult learners. Besides, affective factors are related to the
critical period. While it does not cause a problem in L1 acquisition, the learners of L2 are
faced with inhibition and attitudes. The affective states of our learners are very important
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since these are the major factors intervening in language learning. Adult or young adult
language learners need to be relaxed and comfortable to create positive attitudes to the
language and the language learning process. In addition, teachers need to free their
learners from inhibitions so that learners can freely interact and use the language. This
can only be possible if they build up trust and understanding between themselves and
their learners. More positive than negative feedback, more praise than criticism might be
the first step.
Fossilization is another issue only attributable to L2 acquisition. While all L1 learners
reach full competence in the target language, some forms in the target language of the
L2 learners might be fossilized. Teachers can prevent fossilization by correcting
repeated errors of their learners or they can practise problematic language more than
non-problematic language. One should be aware that once fossilization takes place, it is
very difficult to get rid of. Thus, teachers should act with caution and help their learners
to prevent fossilization.
Finally, social issues should be considered by teachers. Second language learners may
choose to learn a language variety other than the standard form depending on the
speech community they are taking as a reference. Therefore, it is the teacher's
responsibility to decide on which variety of the target language to take as the norm. It is
important to make learners aware of the different varieties of the target language, but in
terms of teaching, there should be consistency. In Malaysia, British English is the TL.
Tutorial TaskPrepare your answer to the following questions for your tutorial session.
Exercise 4.3
1. List the issues to be considered when teaching English language to Malaysian primary school learners.
2. What are your roles as English language teachers of L2 learners in relation to Universal Grammar.
Check your answers with your peers and tutor.
Take a break before you move on to the next topic.
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TOPIC 5 OVERVIEW: APPROACHES, METHODS AND TECHNIQUES – ELT METHODS
5.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 5 will provide the definition of three concepts: approach, method and
technique and their relationship. It will introduce to you seven methods of English
language teaching. Each method will be discussed briefly with regards to basic
principles, key features, techniques, strengths, limitations of each method,
learner-teacher interaction, and their implications for syllabus design. Besides
you will be provided with suggested techniques to plan activities for each
method.
5.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this Session, you will be able to:
define and explain the relationship between the concepts: approach, method,
technique;
state the basic principles of each method;
list and describe the features of each method;
illustrate the techniques employed in each method;
describe the strengths and limitations of each method;
describe learner-teacher interaction;
describe the implications for Syllabus Design; and,
plan activities for each approach/method
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5.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS
CONTENT
59
Overview: Approaches, Methods, and Techniques – ELT Methods
ELT Methods
Grammar-Translation Method
Direct Method
Audio-Lingual Method
Silent Way
Suggestopedia
Community Language Learning
Total Physical Response
TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY
SESSION FIVE (6 Hours)
2.2 Overview: Approaches, Methods, and Techniques – ELT Methods
Harmer, J. (2007) defines the concept of approach to refer to theories about the nature
of language and language learning which are the source of the way things are done in
the classroom and which provide the reasons for doing them. An approach describes
how language is used and how its constituent parts interlock – it offers a model of
language competence. It also describes how people acquire their knowledge of the
language and make statements about the conditions which will promote successful
language learning.
Harmer, J.(2007) also defines ‘method’ as the practical realization of an approach. It
describes the types of activities, roles of teachers and learners and kinds of materials
and various procedures and techniques which will be helpful for language learning.
However if a method takes procedures and techniques from a wide variety of sources, it
is difficult to describe it as a ‘method’. A teaching method refers to ways of teaching
(instruction) that are based on systematic principles and procedures, that is, which is an
application of views on how a language is best taught and learned. It varies depending
on what information or skill the teacher is trying to convey through class participation,
demonstration, recitation and memorization. Methods are decided according to students
(background knowledge, environment, and learning goals) which contribute towards the
success of teaching-learning in the classroom.
‘Technique’ refers to a particular procedure or activity used to accomplish a particular
objective(Richards and Rodgers (1986).
The use and mis-use of terms such as ‘approach’ or ‘learning’ to describe a method can
make discussions of methodology confusing. This maybe due to new insights of how the
method has been developed. However the main question for a teacher is “ Does each
method achieve what it set out to achieve?
5.2.1 Grammar-Translation Method
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The Grammar-Translation Method is one of the most traditional methods, dating back
to the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. It is originally used to teach 'dead'
languages (and literatures) such as Latin and Greek, and this may account for its heavy
bias towards written work to the virtual exclusion of oral production.
Key Features
1. Classes are taught in the students' mother tongue as a medium of instruction.
Very little
teaching in Target Language(TL);
2. Vocabulary is taught in the form of isolated word lists;
3. Elaborate explanations of vocabulary / grammar are always provided;
4. Reading of difficult texts is begun early in the course of study;
5. Little or no attention is paid to speaking or listening skills;
6. Often the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences;
7. Literary language is superior to spoken language;
8. Authority of class is the teacher;
9. Primary skills to be improved : reading & writing;
10. Focus on accuracy NOT fluency;
11. Little or no attention is given to pronunciation.
Strengths
1. TL is quickly explained because translation is the easiest way of explaining
meanings or words and phrases from one language into another.
2. An effective way for application of grammar and sentence structure.
3. Few demands on teachers as they do not have to be fluent in the TL.
4. Least stressful for students as they answer comprehension questions in the
mother tongue.
Limitations
1. Shows the wrong idea of what language is /unnatural method of lang. learning –
starts with teaching of reading
2. Speech is neglected
3. Often little contextualization of the grammar
4. The type of error correction can be harmful to the students’ learning processes.
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5. Less learners’ motivation
6. Create frustration for learners
7. No class time is allocated to allow students to produce their own sentences.
Learner-teacher Interaction
Most of the interaction in the classroom is from teacher to the learners. There is little
learner initiation and little learner-to-learner interaction. Learners listen, copy rules and
write out exercises and correct them from the blackboard. The average learner has to
work hard at what he considers laborious and monotonous chores, without much feeling
of progress in the mastery of the language, and with very little opportunity to express
himself through it. He has a passive role in the classroom. He absorbs and then repeats
what he has absorbed to satisfy his teacher.
Application : Typical Techniques
1. Translation of a Literary Passage
2. Reading Comprehension Questions
3. Deductive Application of Rule
4. Cognates (words fr. same origin)
5. Fill-in-the-blanks
6. Antonyms/Synonyms
7. Memorization
8. Composition
9. Use Words in Sentences
Although there are various limitations of this method, it may appeal to learners who
respond well to rules, structure and correction. This method implies that the teacher
should be a ‘walking dictionary’ and proficient in both learners’ language and the target
language.
Before we move on to the next teaching method, try the following quiz.
Quiz 5.1
Put a (T) for statements which are true and put an (F) for false
statements.
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1 GTM is originally used to teach 'dead' languages (and literatures) such as Latin and Greek.
2 GTM is emphasized more on oral work.3 Classes are taught in the students' mother tongue.4 Vocabulary is taught in the form of isolated word lists5 Elaborate explanations of vocabulary / grammar are always provided. 6 Reading of difficult texts is begun early in the course of study.7 A lot of attention is paid to the content of texts 8 The only drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences9 Pronunciation is given little or no attention
10 An effective way for application of grammar and sentence structure.11 GTM gives the correct idea of what language is.12 A lot of error correction may be harmful to students.13 As GTM does not allow students to produce their own sentences, they are less motivated
to learn the language.14 GTM often provide little contextualization of the grammar.15 Fill-in-the-blanks and memorization are techniques that illustrate GTM.
SCORE
To find out how you fare, check your answers.5.2.2 Direct Method
The Direct Method, which arrived at the end of the nineteenth century, is a reaction to
the grammar-translation approach in an attempt to integrate more use of the target
language in instruction and in authentic situations. The teacher and learners have to
interact with one another by relating the grammatical forms that they were studying to
objects and pictures to establish meaning.
Key Features
1. Instruction is conducted in the target language; no translation.
2. Learners should be actively involved in using the language in realistic everyday
situations as the vocabulary and sentences are ordinary, everyday language.
3. Students are encouraged to think in the target language.
4. Oral and listening comprehension are taught. Oral communication skills are
organized with the emphasis on speaking styles and correct pronunciation.
5. Grammar is taught implicitly. New items are taught through modeling and
practice.
6. Concrete vocabulary is taught through demonstration, objects, and pictures
whereas abstract vocabulary is taught through association of ideas.
Strengths
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1. An effective way in creating learners to be competent in using the target
language
communicatively because it makes the learning of English interesting and lively
by establishing direct bond between a word and its meaning.
2. It is an activity/method facilitating alertness and participation of the pupils.
3. Psychologically it is a sound method as it proceeds from the concrete to the
abstract.
4. Can be usefully employed in both the best and weakest class.
5. It is the quickest way of getting started in learning a language because in a few
months over 500 of the commonest English words can be learnt and used in
sentences. This serves as a strong foundation for further learning.
6. Learners are able to understand what they learn, think about it and then express
their own ideas in correct English about what they have read and learnt.
7. Fluency of speech, good pronunciation and power of expression are properly
developed.
Limitations
1. Not all teachers were proficient enough in the foreign language.
2. It is designed with the assumption that L2 should be learned in way in which L1
was acquired - by total immersion technique.
3. It rejects the use of the printed word - but this objection is illogical since L2
learner has already mastered his reading skills.
4. Need a lot of time and effort to prepare teaching materials (selection, grading or
controlled presentation of vocabulary and structures) to suit learners.
5. Since in this method, grammar is closely bound up with the reader, difficulty is
experienced in providing readers of such kind.
6. In larger classes, this method could not be properly applied and teaching in this
method does not suit or satisfy the needs of individual students.
Guidelines of Direct Method for teaching oral language
• Demonstrate
• Act/modelling
• Practice
• Ask questions
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• Correct errors
• Use sentences
• Make students speak much
• Use lesson plan
• Follow plan
• Keep the pace of the students
• Speak normally
• Speak naturally
• Use of pictures
• Use of objects/ realia
Learner-teacher interaction
The initiation of the interaction goes both ways, from teacher to learners from learners to
teacher, although the latter is often teacher-directed. Learners converse with one
another as well. Learners read texts aloud together. The classroom is continually filled
with the sound of the foreign language, and all activity is closely linked with its use in
speech and writing. The teacher and the learners are thought of as partners in the
teaching and learning process.
Application: Typical Techniques
1. Question and Answer Exercise
2. Reading Aloud
3. Student Self-Correction
4. Conversation Practice
5. Fill-in-the-blank Exercise
6. Dictation
7. Paragraph Writing
8. Map Drawing
Before we move on to the next teaching method, try the following quiz.
Quiz 5.2
Put a (T) for statements which are true and put an (F) for false statements.
1 An attempt to integrate more use of the target language in instruction as a
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reaction to GTM.2 Only use the target language in class.3 The learner should be actively involved in using the language in realistic
everyday situations.4 Students are encouraged to think in the target language.5 Reading is taught first and then speaking only and writing.6 An effective way in creating learners to be competent in using the target
communicatively7 A lot of time and effort is needed to prepare teaching materials (selection,
grading or controlled presentation of vocabulary and structures) to suit learners.
8 DM does not require teachers to be proficient in the foreign language.9 DM encourages students to speak normally and naturally.
10 Reading Aloud is a technique that illustrates DM.SCORE
To find out how you fare, check your answers.
5.2.3 Audio-Lingual Method
The Audio-Lingual Method or Army Method was founded during World War II for military
purposes in the USA. It was popular in the 1960s but died out in the 70s.This method is
based on the principles of behavioral psychology and structural linguistics. From
behavioral psychology it borrows the theory that constant repetition of behavior leads
to habit formation. From structural linguistics it borrows the theory that language can be
separated into different segments(e.g. tense, pronouns) and studied in small ‘chunks’.
It adapted many of the principles and procedures of the Direct Method, in part as a re-
action to the lack of speaking skills of the Reading Approach. It focuses on students’
pronunciation, and train their ability of listening by dialogues and drills.
Key Features
1. Dependence on mimicry and memorization of set phrases.
2. Teaching structural patterns by means of repetitive drills.
3. Little or no explicit grammatical explanation because learners are supposed to infer
grammatical rules.
4. Skills are sequenced in the following order: listening, speaking, reading, writing.
5. Learning of vocabulary in context but limited.
6. Use of tapes, language labs and visual aids
7. Focus on native-like pronunciation - “habit-forming”
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8. Some use of mother tongue by teachers is permitted, but learners are not allowed
to use it at all.
9. Immediate reinforcement (praise/reward) of correct responses
10. Cultural background of target language is stressed
Strengths
1. Controlled drills may encourage shy students to speak.
2. Because ALM lessons and drills tend to go very quickly, they may help create a
sense of fluency for some students.
Limitations
1. Learners who need the written word to reinforce their speaking and listening may
find ALM very confusing.
2. ALM frequently uses non-authentic language.
3. Some learners may be unable to make the transition from controlled drills to
more open-ended and creative language use.
4. Basic method of teaching is repetition, speech is standardised and learners turn
into parrots who can reproduce many things but never create anything new or
spontaneous. Learners became better and better at pattern practice but were
unable to use the patterns fluently in natural speech situations.
5. Mechanical drills of early Audio-Visual approach criticised as being not only
boring and mindless but also counter-productive, if used beyond initial
introduction to new structure.
6. Audio-Visual materials were open to same sort of misuse. Tendency to regard
audio-visual materials as a teaching method in themselves, not as a teaching aid.
7. Series of classroom studies threw doubt on claims made for language laboratory.
Showed that this costly equipment did not improve performance of 11+
beginners, when compared with same materials used on single tape-recorder in
classroom.
8. Soon became clear to teachers that audio-visual approach could only assist in
presentation of new materials. More subtle classroom skills were needed for
pupils to assimilate material and use it creatively. This final vital phase was often
omitted by teachers. New technology caught publishers and text-book writers
unprepared - very few commercial materials were available in the early stages.
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Those that did exist stressed oral skills and didn't develop reading and writing
skills.
9. New materials necessitated extensive use of equipment with all associated
problems of black-out, extension leads, carrying tape-recorders from classroom
to classroom. Some schools set up Specialist- Language rooms, but teachers still
had to set up projectors and find places on tape. Equipment could break down,
projector lamps explode, tapes tangle - not sophisticated equipment of today.
Hardware involved extra time, worry and problems, and, for these reasons alone,
its use gradually faded away.
Learner-teacher Interaction
There is learner-to-learner interaction in chain drills and when learners take different
roles in dialogues, but this interaction is teacher-directed. Most interaction is between
teacher and learners and is initiated by the teacher. The teacher is like an orchestra
leader, directing and controlling the language behaviour of her learners. She is
responsible for providing her learners with a good model for imitation. Learners are
imitators of the teacher's model or the tapes she supplies of model speakers. They
follow the teacher's directions and respond as accurately and as rapidly as possible.
Application:Typical Techniques
1. Dialogue MemorizationLearners memorize an opening dialog using mimicry and applied role-playing.
2. Backward Build-up (Expansion Drill) Teacher breaks a line into several parts, learners repeat each part starting at the end of the sentence and "expanding" backwards through the sentence, adding each part in sequence.
3. Repetition DrillLearners repeat teacher's model as quickly and accurately as possible.
4. Chain DrillLearners ask and answer each other one-by-one in a circular chain around the classroom.
5. Single Slot Substitution DrillTeacher states a line from the dialog, then uses a word or a phrase as a "cue" that students, when repeating the line, must substitute into the sentence in the correct place.
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6. Multiple-slot Substitution Drill Same as the Single Slot drill, except that there are multiple cues to be substituted into the line.
7. Transformation Drill Teacher provides a sentence that must be turned into something else, for example a question to be turned into a statement, an active sentence to be turned into a negative statement, etc.
8. Question-and-answer Drill Learners should answer or ask questions very quickly.
9. Grammar Games Various games designed to practise a grammar point in context, using lots of repetition.
10. Use of Minimal PairsUsing contrastive analysis, teacher selects a pair of words that sound identical except for a single sound that typically poses difficulty for the learners to pronounce and differentiate the two words.
11. Complete the Dialogue Selected words are erased from a line in the dialogue - learners must find and insert.
12. Dictation
Before we move on to the next teaching method, try the following quiz.
Quiz 5.3
Put a (T) for statements which are true and put an (F) for false statements.
1 Founded during World War II for military purposes in USA. 2 Based on the principles of behavior psychology. 3 Focus on learners’ pronunciation, and train their ability of listening by dialogues and
drills.4 Dependence on mimicry and memorization of set phrases.5 There is little or no explicit grammatical explanation. 6 Vocabulary is taught in context. 7 Focus on native-like pronunciation. 8 Learners are not allowed to use mother tongue at all.9 Correct responses are not given immediate reinforcement (praise / reward).
10 Cultural background of target language is stressed.
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11 Flashcards are used widely.12 Use of repetitive drills to teach structural patterns.
SCORE
To find out how you fare, check your answers.
5.2.4 Silent Way
The Silent Way is one of new methods developed in the 70s to highlight the cognitive
domain in language learning. Caleb Gattegno, the founder of the Silent Way, of Egypt,
although he repeatedly insisted that "the Silent Way is not a method at all", devoted his
thinking to the importance of problem solving approach in education. He contends that
the method is constructivist and leads the learners to develop their own conceptual
models of all the aspects of the language. The best way of achieving this is to help
students to be experimental learners.
The use of the word "silent" is also significant, as Silent Way is based on the premise
that the teacher should be as silent as possible in the classroom in order to encourage
the learner to produce as much language as possible. As far as the presentation of
language is concerned, Silent Way adopts a highly structural approach, with language
taught through sentences in a sequence based on grammatical complexity, described by
some as a "building-block" approach(Bowen, T. (2011).
Key Features
The Silent Way (SW)is characterized by its focus on discovery, creativity, problem
solving and the use of accompanying materials. Richards and Rodgers (1986:99)
summarized the method into three major features.
1. Learning is facilitated if the learner discovers or creates. The SW belongs to
the tradition of teaching that favors hypothetical mode of teaching (as opposed to
expository mode of teaching) in which the teacher and the learner work
cooperatively to reach the educational desired goals(Bruner, 1966). The learner
is not a bench bound listener but an active contributor to the learning process.
2. Learning is facilitated by accompanying (mediating) physical objects. The
SW uses colorful charts and rods (cuisinere rods) which are of varying length.
They are used to introduce vocabulary ( colors, numbers, adjectives, verbs) and
syntax (tense, comparatives, plurals, word order …)
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3. Learning is facilitated by problem solving involving the material to be
learned. This can be summarized by Benjamin Franklin’s words:
“Tell me and I forget
Teach me and I remember
Involve me and I learn”
A good SW learner is a good problem solver. The teacher’s role resides only in
giving minimum repetitions and correction, remaining silent most of the times,
leaving the learner struggling to solve problems about the language and get a grasp
of its mechanism.
Strengths
1. Learning through problem solving looks attractive especially because it fosters
creativity, discovery, increase in intelligent potency and long term memory.
2. The indirect role of the teacher highlights the importance and the centrality of the
learner who is responsible in figuring out and testing the hypotheses about how
language works. In other words teaching is subordinated to learning because
good learning demands that any language learner carefully observe his or her
own speech.
Limitations
1. The SW is often criticised of being a harsh method. The learner works in isolation
and communication is lacking badly in a Silent Way classroom because it does
not provide learners the language for everyday situations.
2. Neither the learners work with authentic, culturally based materials nor they hear
authentic speech in the instruction.
3. Minimum help on the part of the teacher because she offers neither praise nor
criticism and does not allow questions makes learning inefficient.
4. The material (the rods and the charts (called ‘Fidels’), which are difficult to get,
used in this method will certainly fail to introduce all aspects of language. Other
materials will have to be introduced.
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Learner-teacher interaction
For much of the learner-teacher interaction, the teacher is silent. He is still very active,
however, setting up situations to "force awareness", listening attentively to students'
speech, and silently working with them on their production. When the teacher does
speak, it is to give clues, not to model the language. Learner-learner verbal interaction
is desirable and is therefore encouraged. The teachers' silence is to allow for this. The
teacher constantly observes the learners and helps them overcome negative feelings
which might interfere with learning.
Application:Technique ( Leela Mohd. Ali, 1989)
Learners learn the language through its sounds. The color-coded Fidel Charts are used
to help learners learn spellings that correspond to sounds and progress to reading and
pronouncing words correctly. The teacher sets up situations that focus learner attention
on structures, and provides a vehicle for learners to perceive meaning. The teacher uses
the learners' errors to ascertain the language the learners are unclear about, and
determines what to work on based on this. Learners receive a great deal of practice with
a structure without repetition for its own sake. They gain autonomy in the language by
exploring it and making choices. Learners take responsibility for their own learning. (For
lessons using Silent Way search on youtube.com).
Before we move on to the next teaching method, try the following quiz.
Quiz 4.4
Put a (T) for statements which are true and put an (F) for false statements.
1 The Silent Way emphasizes the importance of problem solving approach in education.
2 The teacher constantly observes and interferes by correcting errors all the time.
3 SW is based on the premise that the teacher should be as silent as possible in the classroom in order to encourage the learner to produce as much language as possible.
4 In SW, learning is facilitated if the learner discovers or creates, accompanied by(mediating) physical objects or by problem solving involving the material to be learned.
5 The strength of SW is that the learner is given more importance and the centrality because he is responsible in figuring out and testing the hypotheses about how language works.
6 Learners work with authentic, culturally based materials and hear authentic speech in the instruction.
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7 In SW, communication is lacking badly as it does not provide learners the language for everyday situations.
8 In the SW when the teacher does speak, it is to give clues, not to model the language.
9 The teacher role is to set up situations that focus learner attention on structures, and provides a vehicle for learners to perceive meaning.
10 The teacher uses the learners' errors to ascertain the language the learners are unclear about, and determines what to work on based on this.
To find out how you fare, check your answers.
5.2.5 Suggestopedia
Suggestopedia is a teaching method which is based on a modern understanding of how
the human brain works and how we learn most effectively. It was developed by the
Bulgarian doctor and psychotherapist Georgi Lozanov who believes that “Learning is a
matter of attitude, not aptitude”.The term 'Suggestopedia', derived from suggestion and
pedagogy, is often used loosely to refer to similar accelerated learning approaches.
However, Lozanov reserves the title strictly for his own method, and he has his own
training and certification facilities. Suggestopedia was originally applied mainly in foreign
language teaching, and it is often claimed that it can teach languages approximately
three times as quickly as conventional methods (Lozanov, G.,1978).
This method includes elements such as the use of relaxing music, art and the additional
importance that is given to the learning environment as well as the authoritative
behaviour of the teacher (Richards & Rodgers, 2001). The most distinguishing feature of
Suggestopedia, however, is the aim to “help the students achieve [...] childlike
openness, plasticity and creativity” by putting them into a state called “infantalization”
(Stevick, 1976, p. 156). This act of lowering a learner's "affective filter" - in other words
by removing distractions or negative feelings which may inhibit language learning.
Application: Technique
The key elements of Suggestopedia include a rich sensory learning environment
(pictures, colour, music, etc.), a positive expectation of success and the use of a varied
range of methods: dramatised texts, music, active participation in songs and games, etc.
Suggestopedia adopts a carefully structured approach, using four main stages as
A preparatory stage in which learners are helped to relax and move into a positive
frame of mind, with the feeling that the learning is going to be easy and fun.
First Concert - "Active Concert"
This involves the active presentation of the material to be learnt. For example, in a
foreign language course there might be the dramatic reading of a piece of text,
accompanied by classical music.
Second Concert - "Passive Review"
The learners are now invited to relax and listen to some Baroque music, with the
text being read very quietly in the background. The music is specially selected to
bring the learners into the optimum mental state for the effortless acquisition of the
material.
Practice
The use of a range of games, puzzles, etc. to review and consolidate the learning.
There are two phases incorporated in this approach:
Learners learn new information very quickly and efficiently in a state of light relaxation
accompanied by Baroque or classical music. This new material which has been acquired
3 to 5 times faster than with traditional learning techniques, is now stored passively in
the brain. It is then activated by means of creative, interactive and communicative
learning techniques, i.e. grammar games, role play, etc. which contribute not only to
recall and retention but also to the communication skills and personality development of
the students.
Strengths
It deals with the learners own often quite harmful and often quite negative feelings about
their own abilities. It sets up a non-evaluative classroom atmosphere; thus it also avoids
both criticizing and praising. The processes of desuggestion and resuggestion requires
the teacher to make deliberate and skillful use of the general learning atmosphere.
Teachers need to be lively, cheerful, and efficient (Leela M. A., 1989).
Limitations
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Teacher needs to be well-trained and have the right personality; otherwise, this method
will not be completely effective. It is unclear how successful this method would be with
younger children(ibid, 1989).
Learner-teacher Interaction
The teacher initiates interactions with the whole group of learners and with individuals
right from the beginning of a language course. Initially, the learners only respond
nonverbally or with a few target language words they have practised. Later the learners
have more control of the target language and respond more appropriately and may
initiate interaction themselves. Learners interact with each other from the beginning in
various activities directed by the teacher. The teacher is the authority in the classroom.
The learners must trust and respect her in order for the method to succeed.
Before we move on to the next teaching method, try the following quiz.
Quiz 4.5
Put a (T) for statements which are true and put an (F) for false statements.
1 Suggestopedia is a teaching method which is based on a modern understanding of how the human brain works and how we learn most effectively.
2 The use of games in this method is for fun only.3 Learners do not interact with each other from the beginning in various
activities directed by the teacher.4
“Infantalization” refers to the act of lowering a learner's "affective filter" by removing distractions or negative feelings which may inhibit language learning.
5The are four main stages of Suggestopedia : Presentation; First Concert - "Active Concert";Second Concert - "Passive Review" and Practice.
6 Second Concert - "Passive Review" is the second stage where the learners are now invited to relax and listen to some Baroque music, with the text being read very quietly in the background.
7 By avoiding both criticizing and praising, Suggestopedia provides a non-evaluative classroom atmosphere.
8 Teacher need not be well-trained and have the right personality completely effective.
9 The teacher initiates interactions with the whole group of learners and with individuals right from the beginning of a language course.
Community Language Learning(CLL) takes its principles from the “Counseling Learning
Approach” developed by Charles A. Curran. It was created especially for adult learners
who might fear to appear foolish ; so the teacher becomes a Language Counselor , who
understands them and leads them to overcome their fears. It follows Krashen’s Monitor
Theory (Affective Filter Hypothesis) and the Cognitive Theory where the human mind is
active (Stevick, 1980).
Key Features (Open University Malaysia, 2002)
1. Learning is more important than teaching. Learning develops itself, and the
learners only need occasional help.
2. CLL provides learners with opportunities to guide their own learning to decide
what they want to learn, and to learn at their own pace. The teacher is not in
control of the class.
3. Cooperation is important. Small group activities encourage interaction among
learners. Learning is achieved through cooperation, not competition.
4. Focus is on fluency rather than proficiency. The purpose of using language is to
convey messages and develop creative thinking. Grammatical correctness is less
important.
5. The teacher does not correct errors immediately. When a learner produces an
incorrect utterance, the teacher provides a model by producing he correct
utterance.
Leela (1989) summarizes this method using the formula SAARRD: S-Security, A-
Assertion, A-Attention, R-Reflection, R-Retention, and D-Discrimination. Learners are
viewed as whole persons; thus, the relationships and understanding among learners as
a "knower-counselor" and the learner as a learner are responsible for bringing their own
unique resources to the learning experience.
Strengths
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1. Learners appreciate the autonomy CLL offers them and thrive on analysing their
own conversations.
2. CLL works especially well with lower levels who are struggling to produce spoken
English.
3. The class often becomes a real community, not just when using CLL but all of the
time. Learners become much more aware of their peers, their strengths and
weaknesses and want to work as a team (Bertrand, J.,2004).
4. By having the learners work with the content of their own choosing and creation,
they are intimately involved with the material. Meanwhile, the teacher attends
more closely to the structuring of the class and to the highlighting of the
materials. By listening to the learners in structured feedback sessions, the
teacher establishes an atmosphere of security which helps minimize behaviour
problems( Leela, 1989).
Limitations
1. In the beginning some learners find it difficult to speak on tape while others might
find that the conversation lacks spontaneity.
2. We as teachers can find it strange to give our learners so much freedom and
tend to intervene too much.
3. In your efforts to let your learners become independent learners you can neglect
their need for guidance.
4. If the teacher lacks emotional or intellectual sensitivity or lacks skill at teaching,
this method will be rendered ineffective. The teacher needs to be very good at
both languages.
Learner-teacher Interaction
It is neither learner-centered not teacher-centered but rather teacher-learner centered
with both making decisions in the class. Building a relationship with and among learners
is very important. In a trusting relationship, the threat that learners feel is reduced, and
non-defensive learning is promoted. Learners learn from their interaction with the
teacher. A spirit of cooperation, not competition must prevail. At times the teacher
facilitates the learners' ability to express themselves, and at times the teacher is in-
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charge and providing direction. Thus the nature of learner-teacher interaction changes
within the lesson and over time.
Application : Techniques
At the beginning learners speak in the native language and the teacher helps them
express what they want to say by supplying them with the target language translations in
chunks. The chunks which the learners produce are recorded, and when replayed sound
like a conversation. Later a transcription is made and it becomes the "text" with which
learners work. Various activities are then conducted (e.g. examination of a grammar
point, working on the pronunciation of a particular phrase, or creating new sentences
with words from the transcript) that allow the students to further explore the language
they generated. During the course of the lesson, learners are invited to say how they
feel.
Before we move on to the next teaching method, try the following quiz.
Quiz 4.6
Put a (T) for statements which are true and put an (F) for false statements.
1 CLL takes its principles from the “Counseling Learning Approach” : a teacher is the counselor who understands learners and leads them to overcome their fears.
2 CLL provides learners with opportunities to guide their own learning to decide what they want to learn, and to learn at their own pace.
3 CLL encourages competition rather than cooperation.4 Focus is on fluency rather than proficiency5 The teacher does not correct errors immediately but provides a model by
producing he correct utterance when a learner produces an incorrect utterance.
6CLL works especially well with lower levels who are struggling to produce spoken English.
7 The nature of learner-teacher interaction changes within the lesson and over time.
8 The teacher have to be emotionally or intellectually sensitive for learning to be effective.
9 The teacher translates chunks of language from learners’ native language to the target language.
10 Creates a trusting relationship between teacher and learner because the
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threat that learners feel is reduced, and non-defensive learning is promoted.SCORE
To find out how you fare, check your answers.
5.2.7 Total Physical Response
Total Physical Response (TPR), developed by Dr. James Asher in 1977 is based upon
principles of child language acquisition, in which the child gives physical responses
when listening to language. TPR’s ultimate instructional goal is to teach oral proficiency
and conversational fluency. The emphasis is not on text or other media, but initially on
voice, action and gestures. Instruction is given in target language only. TPR recognizes
the value of language being associated with physical responses.
Follows a grammar-based view of language that focuses on meaning, not form.
Based upon principles of child language acquisition, which proposes that the
human brain has a set pattern for learning language.
Assessment types compatible with the method include evaluation of learner
actions and gestures when given non-written prompt, eventually moving towards
learner composition.
Key Features
According to Asher, the language learning theories are similar to those of other
behavioral psychologists. The principals that help elaborate his idea are:
1. Second language learning is parallel to first language learning and should reflect
the same naturalistic processes.
2. Listening should develop before speaking.
3. Once listening comprehension has been developed, speech develops naturally
and effortlessly out of it.
4. Adult learners should use right-brain motor activities, while the left hemisphere
watches and learns.
Strengths
1. Allows learners to get up and move while learning and encourages a more
relaxed learning environment that can easily incorporate humour.
2. Helps retention by associating movement with words.
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3. It is fun and easy. Learners will enjoy getting up out of their chairs and moving
around.
4. Simple TPR activities do not require a great deal of preparation on the part of the
teacher. However, some other more complex applications might.
5. "TPR is aptitude-free". It is inclusive working well with a mixed ability class.
6. It is good for kinesthetic learners who need to be active in the class.
7. It is a good tool for building vocabulary.
8. It is memorable. Actions help strengthen the connections in the brain.
9. Class size need not be a problem.
Limitations
1. Not as effective in higher levels of language learning.
2. Does not promote independent language use outside of oral work modeled by
teacher in classroom.
3. Learner needs for unrehearsed language not always met.
4. While it can be used at higher levels TPR is most useful for beginners. It is also
at the higher levels where preparation becomes an issue for the teacher.
5. Learners are not generally given the opportunity to express their own thoughts in
a creative way.
6. I t is easy to overuse TPR. "Any novelty, if carried on too long, will trigger
adaptation." "No matter how exciting and productive the innovation, people will
tire of it."
7. The teacher may find that it is limited in terms of language scope. Certain target
languages may not be suited to this method.
8. It can be a challenge for shy learners.
Learner-Teacher Interaction
The teacher interacts with the whole group of learners and with individual learners.
Initially, the interaction is characterized by the teacher speaking and the learners
responding nonverbally. Later on, the learners become more verbal and the teacher
responds nonverbally. Learners perform actions together or individually. Learners learn
from each other. As learners begin to speak, they issue commands to, their peers as
well as to the teacher.
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Application: Techniques
In the first phase of the lesson, the instructor issues commands to learners, then
performs the actions with them. In the second phase, learners demonstrate that they
understand the commands by performing them on their own. The teacher then combines
elements from different commands to allow learners to develop flexibility in
understanding unfamiliar utterances. After learning to respond to oral commands, the
learners learn to read and write them. When learners are ready to speak they issue the
commands. Learners speak only when they are ready to do so; this avoids anxiety.
Before we move on to the next teaching method, try the following quiz.
Quiz 4.7
Put a (T) for statements which are true and put an (F) for false statements.
1 The emphasis in TPR is initially on voice, action and gestures. 2 TPR follows a grammar-based view of language that focuses on meaning, not
form. 3 Speaking should develop before listening.4 It works well with a mixed ability class especially for kinesthetic learners.5 Helps retention by associating movement with words because actions help
strengthen the connections in the brain.6 Does not promote independent language use outside of oral work modeled by
teacher in classroom.7 Learners are given the opportunity to express their own thoughts in a creative
way. 8 Interaction occurs between the teacher and learners and learners with other
learners.9 From the beginning the instructor issues commands to learners and they
perform the actions without any modeling.10 Learners speak only when they are ready to do so to avoid anxiety.
To find out how you fare, check your answers with your peers or tutor.
Tutorial Task 4. 8
I. Create a GO to compare and contrast the 7 teaching methods with regards to :- Background- Principles- Key features
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- Roles of student and teacher- Techniques- Strengths- Limitations
II. Choose one teaching method. Discuss your rationale for choosing the method with regards to its strengths and how would you overcome t its weaknesses?
III. For each method, list the implications for English language teaching.
Take a break before you move on to the next topic.
TOPIC 6 ELT METHODS: COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH
6.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 6 introduces you to key concepts of Communicative Approach or presently
known as Communicative Language Teaching. It provides insights into the
principles and techniques, strengths and limitations of the approach. You will
also look into the role of the teacher, learners and resources in this approach.
6.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this session, you will be able to:
5. explain the principles of the Communicative Approach
6. identify the techniques used in the Communicative Approach
7. list the strengths and limitations of the approach
8. explain the role of the teacher, learners and resources in the
Communicative Approach
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6.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS
CONTENT
SESSION SIX (3 Hours)
6.2.1 Concept of Communicative Approach
The Communicative Approach which emerged in the early 1970s can be
traced to the work of Chomsky in the 1960s. Chomsky reacted against the
prevalent audio-lingual method and its views. He proposed the two notions of
'competence' and 'performance' which were related to language learning. These
two concepts were later developed by Hymes, into the term 'communicative
competence'. According to Hedge (2000) communicative competence refers to
the psychological, cultural and social rules which discipline the use of speech. It
concerns not only the knowledge of language but also ability to put that
knowledge into use in communication, in other words, knowing when and how to
say what to whom. Dimensions of communicative competence include linguistic
or grammatical competence, sociolinguistic or pragmatic competence, discourse
competence and strategic competence (Richards & Rogers, 1986; Hedge, 2000)
and fluency (Hedge, 2000).
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According to Bygate (2001), the communicative approach provides learners
with an opportunity to use language for communication purposes without
focusing on accuracy. The aims of the communicative approach are:
‘to make communicative competence the goal of language teaching’
‘develop procedures for the teaching of the four language skills that
acknowledge the interdependence of language and communication’
(Richards and Rodgers, 1986)
The communicative approach is a learner-centred approach to language
learning. Since the main aim of the approach is to prepare learners for
meaningful communication, errors made by learners are tolerated.
6.2.2 Principles of Communicative Approach
Below are some of the principles of the Communicative Approach.
Authentic language/language used in real context is introduced.
Communicative approach seeks to use authentic resources as they are
more interesting and motivating. In the language classroom, authentic
texts serve as partial substitute for a community of native speakers.
Newspapers and magazine articles, poems, manuals, recipes, telephone
directories, videos, news bulletins, discussion programmes can be
exploited in variety of ways.
Part of being communicatively competent is figuring out speaker’s or
writer’s intention.
The target language is a vehicle for classroom communications not just
the object of study. The target language is used as the medium for
classroom management and instruction.
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Classroom activities maximise opportunities for learners to use target
language in a communicative way through meaningful activities. Emphasis
is on meaning (messages they are creating or task they are completing)
rather than form (correctness of language and language structure).
A variety of language forms are presented together with the emphasis on
the process of communication.
Students work with language at the discourse/suprasentential level –
learn about coherence and cohesion.
Games are important because they have certain features in common with
real communicative events—there is a purpose for the exchange. The
speaker receives immediate feedback from the listener on whether or not
he or she has successfully communicated
Teaching is more learner-centered. Students are more involved,
rather than only listening to the teacher. Students are given opportunities
to express their ideas and opinions and to contribute as much as
possible.
Errors are tolerated and seen as a natural outcome of the development of
communication skills. Learners doing their best to use the language
creatively and spontaneously are certain to make errors. As such constant
correction is deemed unnecessary and sometimes even counter-
productive. Hence, activities focus on fluency where the teacher does not
correct the student, but simply notes the error, which he will return to at a
later point. Thus, the form of language becomes secondary.
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One of the teacher’s major responsibilities is to establish situations likely
to promote communication. Teachers should provide opportunities for
rehearsal of real-life situations and provide opportunity for real
communication. Emphasis should be on creative role-plays/ simulations/
surveys/ projects/ playlets which produce spontaneity and improvisation
and not mere repetition and drills
Communicative interaction encourages cooperative relationships among
students. It gives students an opportunity to work on negotiating meaning.
The use of pair-work and group-work activities is common as well as
individual and also teacher-led activities. Varied types of interaction
are encouraged. Learners hear more types of language from different
sources, interact with more people and use language in context which
further helps to build confidence in the students.
The social context of the communicative event is essential in giving
meaning to the utterances. Language is viewed and learned within its
social and cultural context whereby learners need to develop knowledge
of t h e l a n g u a g e in order to develop appropriate language use,
for example talking to friends, facilitating a meeting, or writing letters.
The teacher acts as a facilitator in setting up communicative activities
and as an advisor during the activities.
In communicating, a speaker has a choice not only about what to say, but
also how to say it.
Both fluency and accuracy are important as learning to use language
forms appropriately is an important part of communicative competence.
Grammar is necessary for communication to occur, but not sufficient by
itself. The grammar and vocabulary that the students learn follow from
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the function, situational context, and the roles of the interlocutors.
Students need grammatical explanations, drills and exercises, when and
only when they are appropriate.
Students should be given opportunities to listen to language as it is used
in authentic communication. They may be coached on strategies for how
to improve their comprehension.
The use of visual stimuli or resources is important to provoke practical
communicative languages as they help to motivate and focus pupils'
attention.
Both spoken and written languages are important. Reading, writing,
speaking and listening are all necessary parts of communicative
competence.
Tutorial Task:
What are the implications of the principles above in your teaching context?
Do you have other principles that support your teaching?
6.2.3 Techniques of Communicative Approach
Communicative Approach uses almost any activity or technique that
allows students to be engaged in authentic communication. Littewood has
distinguished two major activity types:
functional communication activities: these activities are aimed at
developing certain language skills and functions, but which involve
communication, such as language games , scrambled sentences , picture
strip story, puzzles
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social interaction activities include activities such as conversation and
discussion sessions, dialogues and role plays, simulation, information-gap
activity
6.2.4 Strengths and Limitations of Communicative Approach
Communicative Approach like the other language teaching methods has
its strengths and limitations. Below are some of the strengths of Communicative
Approach:
There is greater focus on the role of learners with a shift from teacher-
centered instruction to learner-centred instruction.
There is greater attention on the process of learning rather than the
products that the learners produce.
There is greater attention on the social nature of learning rather than
looking at learners as separate, decontexualized learners.
There is greater focus on the diversity of learners and looking at the
differences not as obstacles but as resources.
Helps to promote holistic learning.
Emphasis on the importance of meaning rather than drills and other forms
of rote learning.
Views learning as a life-long process rather than being exam-oriented.
Below are some of the limitations of Communicative Approach:
The communicative approach focuses on the use of language in everyday
situations, or the functional aspects of language, and less on the formal
structures. However, critics believe that there needs to be some sort of
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"bridge" between the two in order for effective language learning.
The approach relies extensively on the functional-notational syllabus
which places heavy demands on the learners.
The various categories of language functions are overlapping and not
systematically graded like the structures of the language.
A major premise underlying this approach is its emphasis on learners'
needs and interests. This implies that every teacher should modify the
syllabus to correspond with the needs of the learners.
The approach gives priority to meanings and rules of use rather than to
grammar and rules of structure. The latter are taught by means of
functions and notions. Such concentration on language behavior may
result in negative consequences in the sense that important structures
and rules may be left out.
The requirements are difficult: availability of a classroom that can allow for
group work activities and for teaching aids and materials.
6.2.5 Role of teacher, learners and resources
6.2.5.1Role of teacher
The teacher facilitates communication in the classroom. In this role, one
of his major responsibilities is to establish situations likely to promote
communication. During the activities he acts as an adviser, answering students’
questions and monitoring their performance. He might make note of their errors
to be worked on at a later time during more accuracy-based activities. At other
times he might be a ‘co-communicator’ engaging in the communicative activity
along with students (Littlewood, 1981).
6.2.5.2 Role of learners
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Students are communicators. They are actively engaged in negotiating
meaning—in trying to make them understood and in understanding others.
Since the teacher’s role is less dominant than in a teacher-centered method,
students are seen as more responsible managers of their own learning
6.2.5.3 Role of resources
One of the principles of Communicative Approach is the use of authentic
resources. Communicative approach seeks to use authentic resources as they
are more interesting and motivating. Authentic resources are used to:
Provide cultural information about the target language
Provide exposure to real language
Relate more closely to learners’ needs
Allow for a more creative approach to teaching
Tutorial Task:
How useful are authentic resources in your classroom?
What difficulties do you encounter when you use authentic resources?
How do you prepare your students to achieve communicative competence?
Relax and move on to the next topic when you are ready.
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TOPIC 7 ELT METHODS
7.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 7 provides input on three different ELT methods namely the Lexical
Approach, Eclectic Approach and Task-Based Learning.
7.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this session, you will be able to:
9. explain what is Lexical Approach
10.explain what is Eclectic Approach
11.explain what is Task-Based Learning
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7.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS
CONTENT
SESSION SEVEN (3 Hours)
7.2.1 Lexical Approach
The Lexical Approach develops many of the principles advanced by the
Communicative Approach. It was proposed by Dave Willis in 1990 and
popularised by Michael Lewis in 1993.The most important difference is the
increased understanding of the nature of lexis in naturally occurring language,
and its potential contribution to language pedagogy. The lexical approach to
second language teaching is seen as an alternative to grammar based
approaches.
The lexical approach focuses on developing learners’ proficiency through
lexis, or words and word combinations. According to Lewis (1993) an important
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part of language acquisition is the ability to comprehend and produce lexical
phrases as unanalyzed wholes, or “chunks,” and that these chunks become the
raw data by which learners perceive patterns of language traditionally thought of
as grammar. Lexis is deemed as central in creating meaning. As such, language
instruction focuses on relatively fixed expressions that occur frequently in spoken
language, such as, “I’m sorry,” “I didn’t mean to make you jump,” or “That will
never happen to me,” rather than on originally created sentences .
Lewis (1993), who termed the phrase lexical approach, has suggested the
following:
• Lexis is the basis of language.
• Lexis is misunderstood in language teaching because it is assumed that
grammar is the basis of language and as such mastery of the
grammatical system is a requirement for effective communication.
• The key notion of a lexical approach is that “language consists of
grammaticalised lexis not lexicalised grammar.”
• One of the central organizing principles of any meaning centered
syllabus should be lexis.
Lewis (1997) has also suggested the following taxonomy of lexical items:
• words (e.g., book, pen)
• polywords (e.g., by the way, upside down)
• collocations, or word partnerships (e.g., community service, absolutely
convinced)
• institutionalized utterances (e.g., I’ll get it; We’ll see; That’ll do; If I were
you . . .; Would you like a cup of coffee?)
• sentence frames and heads (e.g., That is not as . . . as you think; The
fact/suggestion/problem/danger was . . . ) and even text frames (e.g., In
this paper we explore . . .; Firstly . . .; Secondly . . .; Finally . . .)
Below are the key principles of the Lexical Approach:
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Language consists of grammaticalised lexis, not lexicalised grammar.
The grammar/vocabulary dichotomy is invalid; much of language
consists of multi-words 'chunks'.
A vital element of language teaching is raising students' awareness of,
and developing their ability to 'chunk' language successfully.
Although structural patterns are known as useful, lexical and
metaphorical patterning are accorded appropriate status.
Collocation is integrated as an organising principle within syllabuses.
The central metaphor of language is holistic.
It is the co-textual rather than the situational element of context which is
of primary importance for language teaching.
Grammar as a receptive skill, involving the perception of similarity and
difference, is prioritised.
Receptive skills, particularly listening, are given enhanced status.
The Present-Practice-Produce paradigm is rejected, in favour of a
paradigm based on the Observe-Hypothesize-Experiment cycle.
Activities used to develop learners’ knowledge of lexical chains
include the following:
Intensive and extensive listening and reading in the target
language.
• First and second language comparisons and translation are
carried out chunk-for-chunk rather than word-for-word and this
is aimed at raising language awareness.
• Repetition and recycling of activities, such as summarizing a text
orally one day and again a few days later a r e d o n e to keep
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w ords and expressions that have been learned active.
• Guessing the meaning of vocabulary items from context.
• Noticing and recording language patterns and collocations.
• Working with dictionaries and other reference tools.
The language activities carried out with a lexical approach must
be directed toward language occurring naturally. What is important is
raising learners’ awareness of the lex ica l n a t u r e of language. The
logical implication of this premise is that we should spend more time
helping learners develop their repertoire of phrases, and less time on
grammatical structures.
Tutorial Task:
Do you think the Lexical Approach can be implemented in your classroom?
What possible challenges to do foresee in the implementation of the approach?
7.2.2 Eclectic approach
The eclectic approach is the label given to a teacher's use of techniques
and activities from a range of language teaching approaches and methodologies.
The teacher decides what methodology or approach to use depending on the
aims of the lesson and the learners in the group. Most course books have a
mixture of approaches and methodologies.
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A typical lesson might combine elements from a variety sources such as
Total Physical Response (TPR), Task-Based Learning (TBL), the communicative
approach , e.g. in opinion gap activities; the lexical approach, e.g. focusing on
lexical chunks in a reading text; and the structural-situational approach, e.g.
establishing a context for the presentation of new structures.
The following is an example of a lesson using the eclectic approach.
The class begins with an inductive activity with the students asked to identify the
different uses of synonyms of movement based on a reading text. They then
practise these using Total Physical Response (TPR). In the next lesson the input
is recycled through a task-based lesson, with the students instructed to produce
the instructions for an exercise manual.
7.2.3 Task-Based Learning (TBL)
Originally developed by N Prabhu in Bangalore, Southern India, it is based
on the belief that students may learn more effectively when their minds are
focused on the task, rather than on the language they are using.
A task-based approach aims to provide learners a natural context for language
use with the primary focus of classroom activity being the task and language is
the instrument which the students use to complete it. The task is an activity in
which students use language to achieve a specific outcome. The activity reflects
real life and learners focus on meaning; they are free to use any language they
want. Relevant and authentic tasks include playing a game, solving a problem or
sharing information or experiences. More recently, tasks have included projects
for producing posters, brochures, pamphlets, oral presentations, radio plays,
videos, websites and dramatic performances. The characteristic of all these tasks
is that rather than concentrating on one particular structure, function or
vocabulary group, these tasks exploit a wider range of language. In many cases,
students may also be using a range of different communicative language skills.
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In TBL an activity in which students are given a list of words to use is not
considered as a genuine task. A role play which does not contain a problem-
solving element or where students are not given a goal to reach is also not
considered an authentic task.. In many role plays students simply act out their
restricted role. For instance, a role play where students have to act out roles as
sales person. However, if the role play has a goal to it for example the students
must come to an agreement or find the right solution within the given time limit
then the role play can be considered a genuine task in TBL.
In task-based lessons, the tasks will generate their own language and
create an opportunity for language acquisition. The belief is that if the focus is
taken away from form and structures, teachers can develop the students’ ability
to do things in English. This does not mean there will be no attention paid to
accuracy, work on language is included in each task and feedback and language
focus have their places in the lesson plans. Teachers have a responsibility to
enrich their students’ language when they see it is necessary but students should
be given the opportunity to use English in the classroom as they use their own
languages in everyday life.
Many task-based lessons follow the task structure proposed by Jane Willis
(1996), in her book ‘A Framework for Task-Based Learning’, which outlines a
model for organizing lessons.
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Figure 1: The Willis TBL Framework (1996)
Figure 1 shows that each task will be organized in the following way:
Pre-task activity an introduction to topic and task
Task cycle: Task > Planning > Report
Language Focus and Feedback
Task-based learning (TBL) is typically based on the three stages of Willis’s
Model. The first of these is the pre-task stage, where the teacher introduces and
defines the topic and the learners engage in activities that either helps them to
recall words and phrases that will be useful for the main task or to learn new
words and phrases that are essential to the task. This stage is followed by the
"task cycle". Here the learners perform the task, which can be a reading or
listening exercise or a problem-solving exercise, in pairs or small groups. They
then prepare a report for the whole class on how they did the task and what
conclusions they have reached. Finally, they present their findings to the class in
spoken or written form. The final stage is the language focus stage, during which
specific language features from the task are highlighted and worked on.
Feedback on the learners’ performance at the reporting stage may also be
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appropriate at this point. A balance should be kept between fluency, which is
what the task provides, and accuracy, which is provided by task feedback.
The main advantages of TBL are that language is used for a genuine
purpose meaning that real communication should take place and that at the
stage where the learners are preparing their report for the whole class, they are
forced to consider language form in general rather than concentrating on a single
form unlike the PPP model. The aim of TBL is to integrate all four skills and to
move from fluency to accuracy plus fluency. The range of tasks available such as
reading texts, listening texts, problem-solving, role-plays, questionnaires, etc.
offers a great deal of flexibility in this model and should lead to more motivating
activities for the learners.
Learners who are used to a more traditional approach based on a
grammatical syllabus may find it difficult, but if TBL is integrated with a
systematic approach to grammar and lexis, the outcome can be a
comprehensive approach that can be adapted to meet the needs of all learners.
Task-based learning can be very effective at intermediate levels and beyond, but
many teachers question its usefulness at lower levels. In general, the
methodology requires a change in the traditional teacher's role.
Tutorial task:
Which of the approaches above can you adapt to your own teaching context?
What are the possible problems you may encounter in using the above approaches?
Relax and move on to the next topic when you are ready.
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TOPIC 8 SYLLABUS DESIGN – MALAYSIAN PRIMARY SCHOOL ENGLISH CURRICULUM
8.0 SYNOPSIS
As you already know about the Kurikulum Bersepadu Sekolah Rendah(KBSR)
2001, Topic 8 introduces you to the Kurikulum Standard Sekolah Rendah
(KSSR) 2011. As education plays a very important role in achieving national
unity, the KBSR was developed to attain national identity and unity. The national
education policy is based on the Razak Report 91956) and the Rahman Talib
Report(1960). These reports formed the bases of the Education Ordinance 1957
and the Education Act 1961 respectively.
In introducing KSSR, this unit will also help you to recap your knowledge of the
aims and objectives and features of KBSR. The discussion include the curriculum
content: learning outcomes, language content and educational emphases of the
KBSR. Pedagogical approaches which are employed in the teaching of English
will also be taken into account.
You will be exposed to the principles of KSSR, its aims and objectives and
curriculum documents. Furthermore the modular approach will be explained.
8.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this Session, you will be able to:
1. state the aims and objectives in the KBSR English language Syllabus;
2. identify and categorise the language components and skills by listing their
reference numbers;
3. state the goals and principles of the KSSR;
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4. list and briefly describe the curriculum transformation;
5. explain the modular approach in teaching English in the primary school.
8.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS
CONTENT
SESSION EIGHT (3 Hours)
8.3 Syllabus Design - Malaysian Primary School English Curriculum
- Principles
- Techniques
- Strengths/Limitations
- Role of Teacher, Learners, and Resources
Let’s recap what you know about KBSR.
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(KBSR)
KURIKULUM STANDARD SEKOLAH RENDAH 2011
(KSSR)
LEARNING OUTCOMES
CURRICULUMSPECIFICATION
LANGUAGE CONTENT
EDUCATIONAL EMPHASES
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You have to read the extract of the KBSR English language
Syllabus and answer all the questions that follow.
TASK 8.1
State whether each statement is TRUE or FALSE in the spaces provided.
1 English Language is taught as second language in all government-assisted schools.
2 The key feature in KBSR is the integration of skills and topics in the teaching-learning process.
3 The aims of the English language syllabus for the primary school is to equip pupils with basic skills and knowledge of the English language to enable them to communicate, both orally and in writing, in and out of schools.
4 Moral values should be inculcated in the teaching-learning process.
5 By the end of Year 6, primary school pupils will be able to listen and understand simple spoken English in given contexts.
6 By the end of Year 6, pupils will be able to speak and respond clearly and appropriately using simple language.
7 By the end of Year 6, primary school pupils will be able to read and understand different kinds of texts for enjoyment and information
8 Teachers are encouraged to use a variety of texts, both verbal and non-verbal in their lessons.
9 Proper pronunciation and the use of appropriate register are also emphasised in the development of oral skills.
10 Through the reading component, study skills will be developed to enable pupils to locate and extract information from various sources.
Check your answers with your tutor.
TASK 8.2
Complete the grid below with reference to your KBSR English language syllabus.
Language Skills
Listening
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Numbering
No.of skills to be taught
Check your answers with your tutor.
TASK 8.3
Fill in blanks in the grid below.
Ref no.
Skills Language Component
Scope
1.2 Developing auditory memory.
Listening Repeating sounds, numbers and sentences.
Ask for and give instructions.
3.3To identify, to refute, to describe, to explain.
4.7
Use the dictionary
activities, processes
2.8
4.10
Perform a variety of functions in a social context.
to get the appropriate meaning in context
Check your answers with your tutor.
TASK 8.4
State whether each statement is TRUE or FALSE.
No Statement T/F1 The KBSR syllabus emphasized that language skills
be taught in an integrated manner.
2 The listening skill allows the development of inferencing skills.
3 Pronunciation is taught through listening as well as
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the speaking component of the syllabus.
4 There is provision for teaching pre-writing skills.
5 Teachers are encouraged to use authentic texts in the classroom.
6 There is a scope for acquiring word attack skills in both the listening and reading skills components.
7 Pupils are taught to use correct conventions of writing for different purposes.
8 Problem-solving skills are developed through the reading component of KBSR syllabus.
9 Pupils are exposed to the skills of filling in forms in the writing component.
10 Besides the language skills, the sound system, grammar and word lists have to be acquired by pupils by the end of Year 6.
Check your answers with your tutor.
8.4 The 2011 PRIMARY ENGLISH LANGUAGE CURRICULUM or better
known as the Kurikulum Standard Sekolah Rendah (KSSR)
8.4.1
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8.4.2
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8.4.3
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8.4.4
PRINCIPLES
• Back to basics – building a strong foundation of competencies in basic literacy skills;
reading through phonics, penmanship, basic listening and speaking
• Learning is fun, meaningful, purposeful– activities are contextualized, meaningful and purposeful; fun-filled
activities– Integration of skills
• Teaching is learner-centred – learner’s needs and salient learner factors (environment, family,
language use contexts, entry behaviour)
• Integration of salient new technologies– use of ICT to facilitate and encourage meaningful language practice– creative and innovative use of the new technologies by pupils to
Teaching and learning focusLanguage SkillsLanguage Arts PhonicsGrammar
8.4.6
GENERAL AIMS
Primary ( exit after Year 6)The English Language Curriculum for Primary Schools aims to equip pupils with basic language skills to enable them to communicate effectively in a variety of contexts that’s appropriate to the pupils level of development
Secondary (exit after Form 5)Pupils will be able to communicate effectively, read and respond to texts independently, produce well-structured written texts, enjoy and respond to literary works and make confident presentations.
8.4.7
OBJECTIVES
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By the end of Year 6, pupils should be able to:
communicate with peers and adults confidently and appropriately in formal and informal situations;
read and comprehend a range of English texts for information and enjoyment;
write a range of texts using appropriate language, style and form through a variety of media;
appreciate and demonstrate understanding of English language literary or creative works for enjoyment; and
use correct and appropriate rules of grammar in speech and writing.
8.4.8
CONTENT AND LEARNING STANDARDS
LISTENING & SPEAKING
1.1 Pupils will be able to pronounce words and speak confidently with the correct stress, rhythm and intonation. 1.1.1 Able to listen and respond to stimulus given with guidance: (a) environmental sounds (b) instrumental sounds (c) body percussion (d) rhythm and thyme (e) alliteration (f) voice sounds (g) oral blending and segmenting 1.1.2 Able to listen to and enjoy simple stories. 1.1.3 Able to listen to, say aloud and recite rhymes or sing songs with guidance. 1.1.4 Able to talk about a stimulus with guidance.
1.3 Pupils will be able to understand and respond to oral texts in a variety of contexts. 1.3.1 Able to listen to and demonstrate understanding of oral texts by: (a) giving Yes/No replies
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(b) answering simple Wh-Questions
READING
2.1 Pupils will be able to apply knowledge of sounds of letters to recognise words in linear and non-linear texts.
2.1.1 Able to identify and distinguish the shapes of the letters in the alphabet. 2.1.2 Able to recognise and articulate initial, medial and the final sounds in single syllable words within given context: (a) s a t p (b) i n m d (c) g o c k (d) ck e u r (e) h b f,ff l,ll ss (f ) j v w x (g) y z,zz qu
2.1.3 Able to blend two to four phonemes into recognisable words and read them aloud. 2.1.4 Able to segment words into phonemes to spell.
2.2 Pupils will be able to demonstrate understanding of a variety of linear and non-linear texts in the form of print and non-print materials using a range of strategies to construct meaning. 2.2.1 Able to read and apply word recognition and word attack skills by matching words with : (a) graphics (b) spoken words
2.2.2 Able to read and understand phrases in linear and non-linear texts.
2.2.3 Able to read and understand sentences (3-5 words) with guidance.
2.2.4 Able to read a paragraph of 3 – 5 simple sentences.2.2.5 Able to apply basic dictionary skills using picture dictionaries.
2.3 Pupils will be able to read independently for information and enjoyment.
2.3.1 Able to read simple texts with guidance: (a) fiction (b) non-fiction
WRITING
3.1 Pupils will be able to form letters and words in neat legible print including cursive writing. 3.1.1 Able to demonstrate fine motor control of hands and fingers by: (a) handling objects and manipulating them.
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(b) moving hands and fingers using writing apparatus (c) using correct posture and pen hold grip (d) scribbling in clockwise movement (e) scribbling in anti-clockwise movement (f) drawing simple strokes up and down (g) drawing lines from left to right (h) drawing patterns 3.1.2 Able to copy and write in neat legible print:
(a) small (lowercase) letters (b) capital (uppercase) letters ( c) numerals (d) words (e) phrases (f) simple sentences
3.2 Pupils will be able to write using appropriate language, form and style for a range of purposes.
3. 2.1 Able to complete with guidance: (a) forms with personal details (b) lists
3.2.2 Able to write 3-5 word sentences with guidance. 3.2.3 Able to punctuate correctly: (a) capital letters (b) full stop (c ) question mark
III.3 Pupils will be able to write and present ideas through a variety of media.
3.3.1 Able to create simple non-linear texts using a variety of media with guidance: (a) greeting cards (b) lists
8.5
LANGUAGE ARTS
4.1 Pupils will be able to enjoy and appreciate rhymes, poems and Songs through performance.
4.1.1 Able to listen to and enjoy nursery rhymes, jazz chants and action song through non-verbal response.
4.1.2 Able to listen to and recite nursery rhymes, jazz chants and sing action songs with correct pronunciation and rhythm.
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4.2 Pupils will be able to demonstrate understanding of and expresspersonal response to literary texts.
4.2.1 Able to listen to and talk about stories with guidance: (a) book covers (b) pictures in books
4.3 Pupils will be able to plan, organize and produce creative works for enjoyment.
4.3.1 Able to produce simple creative works with guidance based on: (a) nursery rhymes
(b) action songs (c) jazz chants (d) stories 4.3.2 Able to take part with guidance in a performance based on: (a) nursery rhymes (b) action songs (c) jazz chants (d) stories
8.6
GRAMMAR
5.1 Pupils will be able to use different word classes correctly and appropriately.
5.1.1 Able to use nouns correctly and appropriately: (a) common nouns (b) proper nouns (c) singular nouns (d) plural nouns
5.2 Pupils will be able to construct various sentence types correctly.
5.1.2 Able to construct declarative sentences correctly.
8.7
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8.8
8.9 Scheme of Work – Weekly, Semester
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8.9.1
( Source : Curriculum Development Division, 2011)
Tutorial Task
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TASK 8.5
1. Draw up suitable graphic organizers to compare and contrast between
KBSR and KSSR.
2. Explain briefly the educational emphases included in the KBSR.
3. Briefly describe the importance of pronunciation in KSSR.
4. Explain with your own examples what you understand by Language
Arts.
5. What is the teaching approach employed by KSSR?
6. Is there any difference between the lesson structure proposed by
KBSR and KSSR? Elaborate with concrete examples.
Check your answers with your peers and tutor.
Take a break before you move on to the next topic.
TOPIC 9 SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING IN THE
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CLASSROOM
9.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 9 introduces you to some issues of second language learning pertaining to
audiolingualism. It also introduces the PPP procedure in language learning.
9.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this session, you will be able to:
1. identify some issues of second language learning pertaining to
audiolingualism
2. explain the different stages in the PPP procedure
3. devise a teaching plan using the PPP procedure
9.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS
CONTENT
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SESSION NINE (3 Hours)
9.2.1 Issues of Second Language Learning
The issues that will be discussed here are related to audiolingualism as it
were these issues that resulted in the introduction and use of the PPP Approach
or procedure in the Communicative Language Teaching Method.
Exercise 1:
1. What is the language learning theory that audiolingualism is
based on?
2. State the principles of audiolingualism.
3. Name three techniques used in audiolingualism.
4. What are some of the shortcomings of audiolingulism?
You would have gone through in detail about audiolingualism or the audio-
lingual method in Topic 4. What we will discuss here briefly are the issues
related to audiolingualism which resulted in the use of PPP Approach.
Audiolingualism which is based on Behaviourist Learning Theory relied
heavily on drills to form habits in language learning. Emphasis on accuracy of
the language through repetition of correct utterances was supported by positive
reinforcement. However much of the audio-lingual method of language learning
remained at sentence level. There was limited placing of language in real-life
context. Hence, there grew a need to place language in clear situational context.
This lead to introduction of the PPP Approach.
9.2.2 The PPP Approach
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The "Three Ps" procedure is a variation of the audiolingual method. PPP
stands for presentation, practice and production. It is based on structural-
situational teaching where the focus is to place language in clear situational
contexts. It is very important to understand what "Presentation", "Practice"
and "Production" really are, and to see how they work in together to create
effective communicative language learning.
Presentation is the beginning or introduction to learning language, with
production being the end product of the learning process, whereby a learner
becomes a "user" of the language in contrast to a "student" of the language.
Practice is the process that helps a learner to progress from the initial stage
through to the final one.
This is how it works. At the beginning of a lesson, the teacher introduces
a situation which contextualizes the new language to be taught. Then the
language or linguistic "model" is presented. With this "model" in mind, the
students practise the new language through a variety of "controlled" activities
such as coral repetition, individual repetition and cue-response drills. After
sufficient practice, the students move into "productive" activity, where a situation
calls for the language to be used naturally without correction or control. For
example the students can construct their own sentences. In general, for
communicative language learning to be most effective, the three stages need to
occur and flow smoothly from one stage to the next.
PRESENTATION
This is the first and the most crucial stage of the language learning
process. Presentation involves the building of a situation requiring natural and
logical use of the new language. When the students recognize and understand
the "situation", they will then start building a conceptual understanding of the
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meaning behind the new language, and why it will be relevant and useful to
them. When the situation surrounding the new language and the conceptual
meaning of it has been achieved, the new language is introduced through a
linguistic "model". It is this linguistic model or language presented that the
students will go on to practise and achieve naturally during a productive activity
without help.
It is important for the teacher to build on whatever English the students
have already learned or have some access to when introducing a situation and
getting the students to build the concept underlying the new language. At
primary levels, using pictures and body language are common ways of
presenting new language. Dialogues and text can also be used when the
students have progressed.
There are a various ways in which new language items or linguistic
‘models’ can be presented. What is important is that these presentations should
have at least some of the following features: meaningful, memorable and realistic
examples; have logical connection; contextualized; clear models; sufficient
meaningful repetition; are brief and can be recycled
PRACTICE:
The practice stage is the important middle stage to communicative
language teaching. Sometimes this stage is “over-done" or used ineffectively.
This may be due to a poor or no presentation stage. In some cases it is not used
as a natural progression or step towards production.
The type of practice activities should be appropriate to the language being
learned as well as the level and competence of the students. Practice is done to
ensure that the students get the accurate language as well as to get the students
to be familiar with the language. Hence an effective practice stage is one where
repetition leads to competence and accuracy.
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Practice activities need to be clear and understandable and should
promote a degree of confidence in the students. A well planned practice activity
will generate the students' motivation. Practice activities should be challenging,
but within the reach of the students.
Practice activities usually involve moving the students from the individual
drills to pair work such as chain pair-work, closed pair-work and open pair-work.
It is this communicative practice that leads to final stage of production.
PRODUCTION:
The production stage is the most important stage of communicative
language teaching. A good indicator of a successful production is when students
move from being "students" or learners of the language to "users" of the
language.
The production stage involves creating a situation which requires the
students to use the language that was introduced in the presentation stage
independently. The situation should allow the students produce more
personalized language. A successful production stage depends on an effective
practice stage. This is because if the practice stage is not able to build the
students’ confidence in the language then they will naturally be hesitant to
independently "use" it in the production stage.
One of the most important things you have to remember is that production
activities should not "tell" the students what to say. In the practice stage, the
students have most or all of the information required, but in the production stage
they do not have the information and therefore must think. As such it would be
good if ‘real life" situations are given in the production stage. Getting students
engaged in productive classroom activities can require a certain level of cognitive
ability. Hence, as teachers you should prepare well thought out and planned
activities.
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Some good examples of effective production activities include situational