Nonrenewable Resources Definition – things human use that have a limited supply; they cannot be regrown or replenished by man.

Nonrenewable Resources Definition – things human use that

have a limited supply; they cannot be regrown or replenished by man

Conservation Definition – using less of a resource or

reusing a resource, ex. refilling plastic laundry jugs, reusing plastic bags, etc.

Part of the solution Problems – this requires a change in our

lifestyle and some people will resist.

Dealing with Nonrenewable Resources

Restoration Definition – recycling our resources Examples – aluminum, glass, tin, steel, plastics,

etc. Part of the solution Problems – recycling a resource often costs more

than using the raw material; we don’t have the technology to recycle everything

Sustainability

Definition – prediction of how long specific resources will last; ex. we have a 200 year supply of coal in the U.S.

Knowing this helps people make decisions in resource use

Problems – these are only predictions; they may not be accurate

Costs Ownership costs – equipment, labor, safety

(insurance), environmental costs (reclamation, pollution control, air monitors, water treatment, etc.), taxes

External costs – processing the resource, transporting the resource

Marginal costs – research: finding new sources of the resource and new ways to harvest it

Harvesting Nonrenewable Resources

Benefits Direct – money received for resources;

provides many jobs Indirect – land can be reclaimed

(brought back to original condition) and sold for profit.

Methods Surface Mining

Description – if resource is <200 ft. from the surface, the topsoil is removed (and saved), explosives are used to break up the rocks and to remove the resource, reclamation follows

Benefits – cheap, easy, efficient Costs – tears up the land (temporarily), byproducts

produce an acid that can accumulate in rivers and lakes

Methods (Continued) Underground Mining

Description – digging a shaft down to the resource, using machinery (and people) to tear off and remove the resource

Benefits – can get to resources far underground Costs – more expensive, more time-consuming,

more dangerous

Methods (Continued)

Reclamation Description – returning the rock layer

(overburden) and the topsoil to a surface mine, fertilizing and planting it

Benefits – restores land to good condition Costs – expensive, time-consuming

Specific Resources & Their Uses Coal – formed from ancient peat bogs (swamps) that

were under pressure as they were covered. Used for electricity, heat, steel, exports, and industry,

may contribute to the “Greenhouse Effect” Four types of coal exist: lignite (soft, used for

electricity), bituminous and subbituminous (harder, also used for electricity) and anthracite (hardest, used for heating)

50% of all the coal is in the United States, the former Soviet Union and China

Specific Nonrenewable Resources

Specific Resources & Their Uses Limestone – abundant locally, formed from layers of

seashells and organisms under pressure as they were covered; used in sidewalks, fertilizers, plastics, carpets, and more

Lead – used in batteries and cars Clay – used to make books, magazines, bricks, and

linoleum Gold – besides being used as money and for jewelry,

gold is used in medicine (lasers, cauterizing agents) and in electronics (circuits in computers, etc.)

Texas

Central – limestone, tin, clay, lead, garnets, freshwater pearls, amethysts, calcium carbonate

West – talc, mercury, silver, petroleum, sulfur East – lignite coal, petroleum South – lignite coal, petroleum, uranium, limestone North – helium, uranium, petroleum, bituminous

coal

United States Central – diamonds (Arkansas), bituminous

coal West – bituminous and subbituminous coal,

gold, silver, copper East – anthracite coal, bituminous coal South – some gold (SC), bituminous coal North – bituminous coal, some gold (SD, WI)

Primary Sources

Definition – the original sources that are used to make electricity or heat

Energy Resources

Secondary Sources Definition – the heat and

electricity that we use for energy

Cogeneration Production of two useful forms of energy,

such as high-temperature heat or steam and electricity, from the same fuel source.

Ex. An industry using natural gas for manufacturing and using the waste heat to produce electricity.

Fossil Fuels Energy conversion – chemical to electrical, heat or

mechanical Only about 30% efficient Benefits – easy to use, currently abundant Costs – a nonrenewable resource, produces pollutants

that contribute to acid rain and the greenhouse effect Oil- Supplies the most commercial energy in the

world today. People in the U.S. use 23 barrels of petroleum per person or 6 billion barrels total each year!!!

Examples of Primary Sources

Solar

Types – photovoltaic cells (convert sunlight directly to electricity with a 10% efficiency) and solar thermal systems (sun’s heat is used to heat bodies of water enough to produce steam that can be used to make electricity)

Energy conversion – radiant/heat to electrical, heat or mechanical

Benefits – pollution-free, unlimited source Costs – not useful in cloudy areas or at night, we do

not have the technology needed to use very efficiently

Wind Energy conversion – kinetic to

electrical Benefits – pollution-free, source is

free (used in West Texas, Hawaii, California, and more)

Costs – can only be used in places with lots of wind

Biomass Description – any type of organic matter (forest products, crop

wastes, animal wastes, people wastes, etc.) that can be used to produce energy; currently used for about 5% of U.S. energy

Energy conversion – chemical to electrical or heat Benefits – cheap, less toxic pollutants, using wastes effectively,

currently used in Rio Grande Valley with the burning of sugar cane residue, also produces food, feed, and fiber

Costs – we don’t have all the technology needed to use this well right now, not useful in every location, some pollution is produced

Water Energy conversion – kinetic to electrical or heat Benefits – already have the technology to do this,

pollution free, dams are also useful as water sources and flood controls; world’s largest source of electrical power

Costs – there are environmental costs to building new dams, there are not rivers located everywhere

Read James Bay Watershed Transfer Project Miller Page 304

Geothermal

Description – heat from deep within the earth is used to produce electricity

This is the only energy source that doesn’t come from the sun!

Energy conversion – thermal to electrical and heat

Benefits – pollution-free, used near Waco and in Iceland

Costs – not available everywhere, we don’t have all the technology needed to use it

Tidal Power

Energy conversion – kinetic to electrical

Benefits – pollution-free, cheap, renewable

Costs – only two places in the U.S. have tides needed to do this

Wave Power

Energy conversion – kinetic to electrical Benefits – pollution-free, cheap, renewable Costs - only suitable in areas facing the

open ocean (especially on the West Coasts of continents); tend to be destroyed in storms

Nuclear

Description – using fission to split large uranium atoms into smaller products and releasing tremendous amounts of heat energy which is used to make steam that turns turbines to create electricity

Energy conversion – nuclear to electrical and heat Benefits – pollution-free, very, very efficient Costs – risk of accidents (spread of radioactivity);

transportation and disposal of radioactive wastes (Nimby!) It also produces a ton of thermal pollution!

Definition Any fuel that meets certain emissions

standards; i.e. they give off a certain amount of pollution (or less)

Alternative Fuels

Laws Involved Clean Air Act amendments of 1990 Energy Policy Act (EPACT) in Texas

of 1992 Such laws have led to more research

and development of these fuels

Examples of Alternative Fuels Biodiesel – made of vegetable oils and

alcohols; expensive Diesel – cleaner than “normal” gasoline, being

more refined

Biogas – by-product of decaying vegetation; need technology

Hydrogen – expensive and we need more technology

Ethanol/Methanol – alcohols; not as efficient (Miles per gallon) and we don’t have all the technology ; also, if our grain supplies are used to make fuel, will we have enough to feed the world?Natural Gas – expensive and we need more technologyReformulated Gasoline (RFG) – regular gas that has been further refined to remove some of the more toxic pollutants

Propane – most usable form of alternative fuel; not as efficient (mpg)

Syngas – manmade gas made of hydrogen and carbon monoxide; need more technology to use it

Energy Laws Public Utility Holding Company Act

(PUHCA) – 1935; regulated the interstate flow of energy; 1st law of its kind; a law designed to protect consumers from corporate abuse of electricity markets

(so electric companies can’t price gouge.) This was happening during the great depression.

Corporate Average Fuel Economy Act (CAFÉ) –1975; focused attention on efficiency of cars; mpg stickers required

Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act (PURPA)–1978; higher utility rates for increased electricity use

National Appliance Energy Act – 1987; energy efficiency stickers on all appliances

Renewable Energy and Technology Competitiveness Act – 1989; effort to develop renewable energy nationally

Clean Air Act Amendments – 1990; set standards for cities and emissions

Energy Policy Act – 1992; comprehensive effort to find renewable energy resources

Hydrogen Future Act – 1996; develop hydrogen as an energy source

PROBLEM – FEW of these actually provide the money needed to research renewable resources

Definition Forestland - a biome with enough average

annual precipitation (at least 76 centimeters or 30 inches) to support the growth of various species of trees and smaller forms of vegetation

Forestland:Renewable Resources Notes

Land Area Forestland occupies less than 1/3 of the

Earth’s total land. This percentage has dropped by ¼ from 34% to 26%

Temperate, tropical and polar forests. 60 percent of all the forests are in 7 countries: Brazil, Russia, Canada, the United States, China, Indonesia and Congo.

Half of all the forests are found in the tropics.

Who Timber farmers – alter the species and

composition and plant commercially important varieties. These are essentially “monocultures.” Herbicides are sprayed to kill shrubs, etc., between the rows. Monocultures are prone to damage by insect pests and microorganisms.

Management:

Who (Continued) Cooperation between environmentalists, loggers, farmers

and governments. They use something called ecologically sustainable forest management. This seeks to conserve forests for the long-term commercial harvest of timber and non-timber forests, but also to sustain biological diversity, prevent soil erosion and produce clean water.

Loggers – un-logged areas are set aside as sanctuaries of organisms, along with wildlife corridors, and protected zones that connect un-logged areas. These provide escape routes for wildlife. Read Millers 642-643 “Black Howler Monkey.”

Who (Continued) Foresters – work for timber

companies and private individuals and give bids to you to help figure out how much you have and what to do with it.

US Forest Service - does the same thing on public land

Multiple Use Not just there for growing trees. There is

also wildlife, recreation, etc. What else can the land be used for while it is growing trees?

Costs Planting trees costs money, costs for

burning, fertilizing, and to pay the forestry consultant

Clear Cutting (Even-age harvesting) The removal of all trees from an

area. After the trees have been removed by clear cutting, the area is either allowed to reseed & regenerate itself naturally or it is planted with 1or more specific varieties of trees. Timber companies prefer clear cutting because it is cost-effective & little road building must be done.

Clear cutting in small patches can benefit some species like deer that thrive in re-growth areas. But, large areas destroy habitats & increases soil erosion. Ex. In 1996 hundreds of mudslides from steep hillsides damaged property and roads and killed several people

Timber Harvests

Strip Cutting A strip of trees is clear cut along the contour of the land,

with the corridor narrow enough to allow natural regeneration within a few years. After regeneration, another strip is cut above the first, and so on.

Seed Tree Cutting Harvests nearly all of a stand’s trees in one cutting, leaving a

few uniformly distributed seed-producing trees to regenerate the stand. Leaves an aesthetically pleasing forest that is useful for recreation, deer hunting, erosion control, and wildlife

Shelterwood Cutting Removes all mature tress in two or

three cuttings over a period of about 10 years. The first cut removes the most mature canopy trees, unwanted tree species, and diseased, defective and dying trees, This opens the forest floor to light, but leaves enough mature trees to cast seed and shelter growing seedlings. Several years later, after enough seedlings take hold, a second cut removes more canopy trees, etc.

Selective Cutting Cutting randomly selected, mature trees.

This reduces crowding, encourages the growth of smaller trees, and maintains an uneven-aged stand of trees of different species.

Deforestation The temporary or permanent clearance

of large expanses of forest for agriculture of other uses.

Fire as a Management ToolSome forest managers use controlled fires to help clear away old, dead branches and brush so new growth can take place.

Old Growth Uncut forests and regenerated forests that have

not been disturbed for several hundred or thousand years.

Ex. Forests of Douglas Fir, Western Hemlock, giant Sequoia and Coastal Redwoods. 2/3 of Europe’s old-growth forests are gone and 95% to 98% of the U.S.’s are gone

The country w/ the largest amount of boreal forests is Russia.

The country w/ the largest area of temperate deciduous forest is the United States.

Types of Forests

Second Growth Stands of trees resulting from

secondary succession after cutting.

Most US forests are second growth.

Specific Forest Biomes Tropical Rainforests – tropics Boreal Forests – (Taigas) Alaska, Canada.

Evergreen coniferous Temperate Deciduous – Eastern US average

temperatures; long summers and cold winters.

Tropical Deciduous – located between tropical rainforest and tropical savannas. Warm all year.

Economic Lumber for housing, biomass for fuel wood,

pulp for paper, medicines. Worth $300 billion per year.

Importance

EcologicalAct as giant sponges, slowing down runoff and holding water that recharges springs, streams and groundwater. Influences climate. For example, 50% to 80% of the moisture in the air above tropical forests comes via transpiration and evaporation.

Definition/Description Almost ½ of all Earth's ice-free land is

rangeland; land that supplies forage location or vegetation for grazing and browsing animals is not intensively managed

Rangeland

LocationGrasslands in arid and semi-arid areas too dry for non-irrigated crops

Land Area About 30% of the total land area in the US is

rangeland

ImportanceProvides forage for large numbers of wild herbivores

Provides essential habitats for a variety of wild plant and animal species

Crucial water sheds that help replenish surface water and groundwater

Recreation – hiking, camping and hunting

Management Carrying Capacity and AU’s – the maximum

number of animals the rangeland plants can sustain over an indefinite period of time without deterioration of the rangeland. AU’s are how many animals per acre. Ex. More sheep per acre than cows because they are smaller

Management (Continued) Condition Classes

Excellent – more than 75% of its potential forage production

Good – 51% to 75% Fair – 26% to 50% Poor – 0% to 25%

Kinds of Animals - cattle, sheep, goats, wild horses & burros (est. 44,000 in 10 western states), deer, bison, antelope

Management (Continued) Brush/Weed Control – you want grass because

most animals eat this. You must control the brush/weeds so that more grass will grow so you can have more animals per unit. You have to burn, herbicide, plant new grasses, etc., to keep the grass growing.

Rotational Grazing – moving livestock between two or more range areas, to allow perennial grasses to recover from the effects of grazing

Management (Continued) Government Agencies

BLM – (Bureau of Land Management and Forest Service) manages the public land under its control (85% of which is in 12 western states)

US Forest Service – forests US Fish & Wildlife – natural wildlife National Park Service – National Parks

Management (Continued)USDA – inspects the cattle, etc. when you

go to slaughterEPA – (Environmental Protection Agency)

regulates what kind of herbicides you can put down

FDA – if you are giving the cattle shots, etc., this is also regulated

Problems Overgrazing – the destruction of an area that occurs

when too many animals graze on the vegetation, consuming so much that it does not recover

Australia is having the worst problem w/ desertification due to human activities.

Riparian Habitats – the thin patch of vegetation along the bank of a stream or river that interfaces between terrestrial and aquatic habitats. Because cattle need lots of water, they tend to congregate here and eat the grass and shrubs until they are gone

Green Revolution Farmers can produce more food by farming more land

and getting higher yields per unit area from existing cropland. They do this by: 1. Developing and planting monocultures of selectively

bred or genetically engineered high-yield varieties of key crops such as rice, wheat and corn

2. Using large inputs of fertilizer, pesticides, and water on crops to produce high yields

3. Increasing the intensity & frequency of cropping.

This uses lots of water, can harm the soil and uses about 8% of the world’s oil output.

Sustainable Management Proposal

Some Environmentalists feel that all commercial grazing of livestock on western public lands should be phased out over the next 10-15 years. However, ranchers have demonstrated that rangelands can be grazed sustainable. These are: Allow no or limited grazing on riparian areas Ban grazing on rangeland in poor conditions Use competitive grazing permits. Miller pg. 628 Allow people to purchase grazing permits and not

use the land for grazing

Land Area 93.2 million acres

Wildlife

Management TechniquesPreserve lands and waters for the conservation of fish, wildlife and plants of the U.S. Activities such as hunting, fishing, observation, photography and education.

Laws Endangered species law Hunting laws US Fishing and Wildlife – regulate

what animals can and cannot come into the country

Endangered Species Whooping crane, etc. We have

already talked about these. Read Miller’s pg. 627 “Eco

Rancher;” read Miller pg. 630 “Gray Wolf”