NH

LEADERSHIP AND NURSING HOME CARE

OBJECTIVESUBJECT SUMMARYPRE-TESTINTRODUCTION

I. LEADERSHIPA. WHAT IS A LEADER?B. LEADERSHIP THEORIES 1. Early Western History 2. Rise of Alternative Theories 3. Reemergence of Trait Theory 4. Attribute Pattern Approach 5. Behavioral and Style Theories Positive Reinforcement 6. Situational and Contingency Theories 7. Functional Theory 8. Integrated Psychological Theory 9. Transactional and Transformational Theories 10. LeaderMember Exchange Theory In-group members Out-group members 11. Emotions 12. Neo-Emergent TheoryC. LEADERSHIP STYLES 1. Engaging Style 2. Autocratic or Authoritarian Style 3. Participative or Democratic Style 4. Laissez-Faire or Free-Rein Style 5. Narcissistic Leadership 6. Toxic leadership 7. Task-oriented and relationship-oriented leadership 8. Sex differences in Leadership Behavior

D. LEADERSHIP PERFORMANCEE. LEADERSHIP TRAITSF. LEADERSHIP CONTEXTS 1. Organizations 2. Management 3. GroupG. LEADERSHIP QUALITIES 1. Vision 2. Integrity 3. Trustworthy 4. Honesty 5. Competency 6. Inspiration 7. Intelligence 8. Passion 9. Communication 10. Commitment 11. Commitment to Staff 12. Team Building 13. Decisiveness 14. Ability to Delegate 15. Confidence 16. Positive Attitude 17. Creativity 18. Intuition 19. Interpersonal skills 20. Courage 21. Humility 22. Strategic Planning 23. Focus 24. Self-assessment 25. Self Aware and Insightful About Their Impact on Others 26. Loves To Learn, Grow, Expand 27. High Self Worth and Self Esteem H. EVALUATING LEADERSHIP EFFECTIVENESSI. DEVELOPING EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORSJ. LEADERSHIP ANDTALENT ASSESSMENT 1. Assessment for Hiring, Promotion And Development 2. Companies Using Talent Assessment 3. Online Talent Assessments 4. Talent Assessment Outcomes 5. Sample Talent Assessment Questions 6. Talent Assessment Solutions 7. Competency Modeling 8. Individual Assessment 9. Team Assessment 10. Organizational Assessment.K. LEADING THROUGH COACHING Creating Coaching MomentsL. LEADERSHIP AND TEAMWORK 1. Team Importance 2. Teamwork and collaboration Honesty Openness Consistency Respect 3. Vital Factors for Building an Effective Team Good Leadership Effective Communication Defining Expectations Defining Clear-cut Roles Plan for Conflict Resolution Setting a Good Example

II. LEADERSHIP IN HEALTH CAREA. ROLE OF THE LEADER WITHIN A HEALTH CARE TEAMB. A CLINICAL LEADER 1. The Leadership Qualities and Styles Required for a Specific Task/Project 2. The Needs of the Individuals 3. The Needs of the Team Forming Storming Norming Performing Adjourning 4. The Needs of the Organization and/or Patient GroupsC. ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP FOR BUILDING EFFECTIVE HEALTH CARE TEAMS 1. Types of Teams 2. Supporting Teams 3. Reimbursement 4. Cultivating A Team Environment

III. DEVELOPING AND SUSTAINING NURSING LEADERSHIP A. THE FIVE PRACTICES OF TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERS: 1. Building relationships and trust 2. Creating an empowering work environment 3. Creating a culture that supports knowledge development and integration 4. Leading and sustaining change 5. Balancing the complexities of the system, managing competing values and priorities B. LEADERSHIP AT THE POINT-OF-CARE

IV. LEADERSHIP, STAFFING AND QUALITY OF CARE IN NURSING HOMESA. LEADERSHIPB. STAFFING

CONCLUSIONPOST-TESTBIBLIOGRAPHY

OBJECTIVEThe influence of leader teams on nursing home care and culture is an important issue in health care. Previous nursing home care studies linked staff management and nursing home care quality. Nursing home managers and leaders need to be knowledgeable about their residents medical conditions and be capable of providing quality care. In addition to addressing resident-specific needs, nursing home managers must have effective leadership qualities, conduct employee screenings or talent assessments prior to hiring and train staff on proper care and attitude when dealing with resident needs and ailments. Thus, knowledge of leadership skills and how to work with teams is important in the provision of health care as well as ways of becoming an effective leader.There is a growing understanding of the relationship between nurses work environments, patient/client outcomes and organizational and system performance. A number of studies have shown strong links between nurse staffing and adverse patient/client outcomes. Hence, knowledge of the importance of leadership in health care especially in managing nursing homes is an important tool to ensure quality care for patients.

SUMMARY

Leadership and staffing are recognized as important factors for quality of care. Nursing home care success heavily relies on team performance inspired by skillfully guided leader vision. Researchers find that leaders steer the organizational culture by strategically selecting people who fit the environment and future vision. Leadership is identified as an essential role within new nursing and allied health care professional consultant posts. It is no longer tenable for clinicians to avoid recognizing the importance of effective leadership in the current health care environment. An important characteristic of a good leader is the ability to explore personal and team motives/beliefs in accomplishing a change or perceived vision of success. As part of this process true leadership requires the ability to critically appraise the team process and outcomes on the path to achieving a shared goal. Leadership requires constant fine tuning of self as well as reflection on the individual needs and characteristics of the team. Clinicians should have an insight into leadership styles and responsibilities in order to gain a deeper understanding of the attributes required of being, or supporting, leaders within the organization.

A significant amount of analysis and theoretical discussion continues in the quest to attribute certain styles or characteristics to successful leadership. Adair (1998) confidently states that it is possible to become an effective leader not by teaching but by the individuals personal wish (or motivation) to acquire the expertise.

A leader is an individual who is able to demonstrate a specific set of role behaviors to influence the attitudes and behaviors of others. It is usually a group phenomenon. Two specific aspects of being a leader are:1. The individual attributes or styles needed to be an effective leader.2. The organizational skills required to manage the process of change. The process of change will be discussed in the section on change management.However, different situations call for different leadership styles. In an emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the rest of the team, an autocratic leadership style may be most effective; however, in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of expertise, a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective. The style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members. In the past, some researchers have argued that the actual influence of leaders on organizational outcomes is overrated and romanticized as a result of biased attributions about leaders. Despite these assertions, however, it is largely recognized and accepted by practitioners and researchers that leadership is important, and research supports the notion that leaders do contribute to key organizational outcomes. To facilitate successful performance it is important to understand and accurately measure leadership performance.Most theories in the 20th century argued that great leaders were born, not made. Current studies have indicated that leadership is much more complex and cannot be boiled down to a few key traits of an individual. Years of observation and study have indicated that one such trait or a set of traits does not make an extraordinary leader. What scholars have been able to arrive at is that leadership traits of an individual do not change from situation to situation; such traits include intelligence, assertiveness, or physical attractiveness. However, each key trait may be applied to situations differently, depending on the circumstances. Leadership can be defined as one's ability to get others to willingly follow. Every organization needs leaders at every level. One of the qualities a leader must have is that he must be able to communicate his or her vision in terms that cause followers to buy into it. He or she must communicate clearly and passionately, as passion is contagious. A good leader must have the discipline to work toward his or her vision single-mindedly, as well as to direct his or her actions and those of the team toward the goal. Action is the mark of a leader. A leader does not suffer "analysis paralysis" but is always doing something in pursuit of the vision, inspiring others to do the same.All organizations and groups have leaders, but not all leaders are effective. Two commonly used factors for evaluating effectiveness are follower support and goal achievement. The leader can have immediate or delayed influence on the outcomes for both factors. For instance, a policy or practice change may produce immediate results. The results from initiatives to build trusting relationships or to implement a quality management system are often realized over time.

The more recent studies of leadership are less concerned with how leadership originates and more concerned about what leaders do and how the organization experiences it. Research in leadership practices has found that highly effective leaders have a high concern for both task objectives and relationships, and tend to use a behavior pattern that is appropriate for the situation they are experiencing.

Leadership behaviors are primarily learned and are often categorized as task-oriented, relations-oriented, and participative. The task-orientation of effective managers is focused on planning, coordinating, and providing resources rather than doing the same kind of work as their subordinates. Effective managers showed relations-oriented behaviors that are supportive and considerate. They initiate efforts to understand subordinates, keep them informed, listen to their ideas, recognize them, and empower them. Effective managers also practice participative leadership. Rather than just individual supervision, they use more group activities to facilitate and encourage subordinates to work together and participate in decision-making. Practicing participative leadership does not mean that effective leaders always use group decision-making processes. In fact, effective managers consider the quality, subordinate acceptance, and timeliness of the decision when deciding whether to use autocratic, consultation, or a group decision process. For instance, an autocratic decision is appropriate when time is a key factor, the leader has sufficient information to make a good choice, and subordinates share the leaders goals and are likely to accept his/her decision. Leaders are more effective when they consult with subordinates if they lack essential information or if the subordinates may not share the leaders goals or accept an autocratic decision. The leader should empower a group to make a decision when the leader and subordinates share the same goals and the group is fully informed and capable of making a quality decision. In any case, the leader remains responsible for all decisions and their results.

Effective leaders are often described as transformational leaders. They practice delegating significant authority to others, developing co-worker skills and self-confidence, creating self-managed teams, providing direct access to sensitive information, eliminating unnecessary controls, and building a strong culture to support empowerment. Transformational leadership is relevant at all levels of an organization and to all types of situations. To be effective, these leaders have a contextual intelligence which gives them an almost uncanny ability to understand the context they live in and to seize the opportunities their times present. They are effective in leadership practices that guide the organization though the stages of change where people realize the inadequacy of the old way of doing things, explore and select a promising new approach, and institutionalize the new approach through changes in structure, policy, and rewards.

Some companies test applicants for employment to determine if the candidate is a good match for the jobs they are hiring for. Talent assessments, also called pre-employment tests or employment screening tests, are used to help employers identify candidates that will be a good fit for jobs at their company. Talent assessments help predict a new hires on-the-job performance and retainability, so, in theory, applicants that pass the screening test should perform better as employees if they're hired. Talent assessment tests are based on hiring and retention case studies and analyzing employee data. The test results will give the company an indication of how close a match the candidate taking the test will be to the company's hiring specifications. Coaching is a proven, effective tool for helping leaders to create a culture that fosters higher employee performance, increased engagement and retention, and enhanced business results. Coaching has become an increasingly relevant, and some say essential leadership skill set in recent years, driven by such factors as growing globalization, issues with finding and keeping talent in a challenged economy, an influx of millennial and emerging technologies that continue to increase the pace of business.At every level of an organization, teamwork and leadership are required for organizational success. Teamwork and leadership have always been critical to society, but they have acquired new significance in recent years during this era of heightened uncertainty, restructuring and change.

Collaboration is the lifeblood of any team. Even when project teams are not large or global, collaboration is essential. Collaboration is the act of working effectively with others to achieve a common goal. It needs to be built on trust, which can only be achieved through honesty, openness, consistency, and respect.Health care providers are only a part of the health team which includes support staff, administrative staff and those at satellite locations. The team consists of a group of people who share a common health goal and common objectives, as determined by community needs. Each member contributes according to his or her competence and skills and in coordination with the others. The health care team exists to serve the community.Nursing leadership is a vital component in the delivery of patient care. It shapes the profession, facilitates policies on mentoring and evidence-based practice and helps navigate change in challenging times. Effective leadership is important in all aspects of nursing whether that nurse leader is an educator, developing future leaders, a researcher mentoring new researchers, an administrator providing support and guidance to staff, a point-of-care staff nurse providing exemplary care and sharing professional knowledge, or someone who provides direction and support to practice through policy development.

The concept for developing and sustaining leadership consists of five evidence-based Transformational Leadership Practices, which are fundamental for transforming nurses work settings into healthy work environments. These practices can apply to all nursing roles and levels of leadership, including nurses providing direct care. Two predisposing factors, organizational supports and personal resources, influence each individuals ability to carry out leadership practices effectively. The five practices have been shown to result in positive outcomes for patients/clients, nurses and organizations. With feedback, those outcomes reinforce a positive workplace culture. All of this takes place in a context where policies, socio-cultural and professional and occupational factors influence how the predisposing factors, leadership practices and outcomes occur in nursing workplaces.

Leadership and staffing are renowned as essential features for quality of care. Leaders in nursing homes should focus on active leadership and particularly task-oriented behavior like structure, coordination, clarifying of staff roles and monitoring of operations to increase quality of care. Furthermore, nursing homes should minimize use of unlicensed staff and address factors related to high ratios of unlicensed staff, like low staff stability.

PRE-TEST

1. This leadership theory argues that the leader's main job is to see that whatever is necessary to group needs is taken care of; thus, a leader can be said to have done their job well when they have contributed to group effectiveness and cohesion. A. Fostering continuous communication B. Providing recognition and rewards C. Embracing change

2. Identify what leadership style is applied by a leader when he emphasizes communication within the group, shows trust and confidence in group members, and shows appreciation for work done.A. Relationship-Oriented Leadership StyleB. Laissez-Faire or Free-Rein StyleC. Participative or Democratic Style

3. It is one important leadership quality wherein a leader must have a complete, unflinching honesty with regard to everything that he says and does. This underlies all the other leadership qualities.A. InspirationB. CompetencyC. Integrity

4. This is also called pre-employment tests or employment screening tests, it is used to help employers identify candidates that will be a good fit for jobs at their company.A. Work AssessmentsB. Talent Assessments C. Evaluation Assessments

5. It is a is a proven, effective tool for helping leaders to create a culture that fosters higher employee performance, increased engagement and retention, and enhanced business results. A. Teamwork B. CoachingC. Collaboration

6. For a clinical leader, the role of leadership and how changes are implemented can be considered in a multiplicity of ways but a basic analysis would be that of addressing among those enumerated except one:A. The needs of the team B. The needs of the individuals of third parties C. The needs of the organization/patient group

7. Team development is said to consist of five stages. Which stage of development is when the team may reflect on completed tasks/projects and recognize the need for review of new plans or goals required.A. Forming B. Storming C. Adjourning

8. This leadership theory is an attempt to integrate the strengths of the older theories (i.e. traits, behavioral/styles, situational and functional) while addressing their limitations, largely by introducing a new element the need for leaders to develop their leadership presence, attitude toward others and behavioral flexibility by practicing psychological mastery. A. Functional theory B. Integrated Psychological theoryC. LeaderMember Exchange Theory

9. Nursing leadership is a vital component in the delivery of patient care. Among the five practices of transformational leaders, which among the following involves the active and participative implementation of change, resulting in improved clinical and organizational processes and outcomes.A. Leading and sustaining changeB. Creating an empowering work environmentC. Building relationships and trust

10. Which leadership style as used in nursing homes is to be the more influential of the two in relation to productivity - which in many cases will be systematically related to quality of careA. Relationship-Oriented Leadership StyleB. Task-oriented Leadership StyleC. Participative or Democratic Style

INTRODUCTIONAssessing, improving, and implementing quality nursing home resident care is an ongoing effort for many professionals in the industry. Nursing home administrators have worked hard to improve the quality of care provided to residents and to improve neglectful reputations earned by nursing homes in previous decades. Florence Nightingales words are interesting because she had clearly recognized the important concept of leadership by influencing the delivery of high quality care through delegation and empowerment. Achieving good leadership is more of a journey than a destination and is easy to recognize in action. Yet it is difficult to define the important characteristics of a good leader. A wealth of literature discusses different types of leadership and whether individuals are born natural leaders with intrinsic personality traits or whether they can be taught the key qualities required of an effective leader. To be an effective leader requires a complex mix of attributes, behaviors and skills but most of all it requires an ability to reflect upon and evaluate oneself.

Leadership and staffing are recognized as important factors for quality of care. Nursing home care success heavily relies on team performance inspired by skillfully guided leader vision. Researchers find that leaders steer the organizational culture by strategically selecting people who fit the environment and future vision. Nevertheless, leaders dictate the nursing home care quality by selecting individuals who positively contribute to the organizational cultures through proper talent assessment.Leadership is identified as an essential role within new nursing and allied health care professional consultant posts. It is no longer tenable for clinicians to avoid recognizing the importance of effective leadership in the current health care environment. Clinicians must have leadership expertise in all settings to implement change based upon good clinical decision making and around a patient-centered approach to care (Cooper, 2003). Improving leadership within the organization should enable not only a more effective implementation of quality care to patients but also changes but also retain staff, reduce stress, and improve job satisfaction and career advancement. I. LEADERSHIP

Leadership has been described as "a process of social influence in which one person can enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a common task", although there are alternative definitions of leadership. For example, some understand a leader simply as somebody whom people follow, or as somebody who guides or directs others, while others define leadership as "organizing a group of people to achieve a common goal." Studies of leadership have produced theories involving traits, situational interaction, function, behavior, power, vision and values, charisma, and intelligence, among others.An important characteristic of a good leader is the ability to explore personal and team motives/beliefs in accomplishing a change or perceived vision of success. As part of this process true leadership requires the ability to critically appraise the team process and outcomes on the path to achieving a shared goal. Leadership requires constant fine tuning of self as well as reflection on the individual needs and characteristics of the team. Clinicians should have an insight into leadership styles and responsibilities in order to gain a deeper understanding of the attributes required of being, or supporting, leaders within the organization.

The word leader has developed from the root meaning of a path, road or course of a ship at sea: according to Adair (1997) it is a journey word. It also implies authority or power that is used appropriately for the common goals of the organization or group. Empowered leaders are key to organizational development. One important difference in recent years has been the formal recognition of the role that nurses and allied health care professionals can play in effective change and as such becomeleaders within the organization (Department of Health, 2000).

A. WHAT IS A LEADER?A significant amount of analysis and theoretical discussion continues in the quest to attribute certain styles or characteristics to successful leadership. Adair (1998) confidently states that it is possible to become an effective leader not by teaching but by the individuals personal wish (or motivation) to acquire the expertise.

A leader is an individual who is able to demonstrate a specific set of role behaviors to influence the attitudes and behaviors of others. It is usually a group phenomenon. Two specific aspects of being a leader are:1. The individual attributes or styles needed to be an effective leader.2. The organizational skills required to manage the process of change. The process of change will be discussed in the section on change management.B. LEADERSHIP THEORIES 1. Early Western HistoryThe search for the characteristics or traits of leaders has been ongoing for centuries. Philosophical writings from Plato's Republic to Plutarch's Lives have explored the question "What qualities distinguish an individual as a leader?" Underlying this search was the early recognition of the importance of leadership and the assumption that leadership is rooted in the characteristics that certain individuals possess. This idea that leadership is based on individual attributes is known as the "trait theory of leadership".The trait theory was explored at length in a number of works in the 19th century. Most notable are the writings of Thomas Carlyle and Francis Galton, whose works have prompted decades of research. In Heroes and Hero Worship (1841), Carlyle identified the talents, skills, and physical characteristics of men who rose to power. In Galton's Hereditary Genius (1869), he examined leadership qualities in the families of powerful men. After showing that the numbers of eminent relatives dropped off when moving from first degree to second degree relatives, Galton concluded that leadership was inherited. In other words, leaders were born, not developed. Both of these notable works lent great initial support for the notion that leadership is rooted in characteristics of the leader. 2. Rise of Alternative TheoriesIn the late 1940s and early 1950s, however, a series of qualitative reviews of these studies prompted researchers to take a drastically different view of the driving forces behind leadership. In reviewing the extant literature, Stogdill and Mann found that while some traits were common across a number of studies, the overall evidence suggested that persons who are leaders in one situation may not necessarily be leaders in other situations. Subsequently, leadership was no longer characterized as an enduring individual trait, as situational approaches posited that individuals can be effective in certain situations, but not others. This approach dominated much of the leadership theory and research for the next few decades. 3. Reemergence of Trait TheoryNew methods and measurements were developed after these influential reviews that would ultimately reestablish the trait theory as a viable approach to the study of leadership. For example, improvements in researchers' use of the round robin research design methodology allowed researchers to see that individuals can and do emerge as leaders across a variety of situations and tasks. Additionally, during the 1980s statistical advances allowed researchers to conduct meta-analyses, in which they could quantitatively analyze and summarize the findings from a wide array of studies. This advent allowed trait theorists to create a comprehensive picture of previous leadership research rather than rely on the qualitative reviews of the past. Equipped with new methods, leadership researchers revealed the following: Individuals can and do emerge as leaders across a variety of situations and tasks. Significant relationships exist between leadership and such individual traits as: intelligence Adjustment extraversion conscientiousness openness to experience general self-efficacy While the trait theory of leadership has certainly regained popularity, its reemergence has not been accompanied by a corresponding increase in sophisticated conceptual frameworks. Specifically, Zaccaro (2007) noted that trait theories still:1. focus on a small set of individual attributes such as Big Five personality traits, to the neglect of cognitive abilities, motives, values, social skills, expertise, and problem-solving skills;2. fail to consider patterns or integrations of multiple attributes;3. do not distinguish between those leader attributes that are generally not malleable over time and those that are shaped by, and bound to, situational influences;4. do not consider how stable leader attributes account for the behavioral diversity necessary for effective leadership. 4. Attribute Pattern ApproachConsidering the criticisms of the trait theory outlined above, several researchers have begun to adopt a different perspective of leader individual differencesthe leader attribute pattern approach. In contrast to the traditional approach, the leader attribute pattern approach is based on theorists' arguments that the influence of individual characteristics on outcomes is best understood by considering the person as an integrated totality rather than a summation of individual variables. In other words, the leader attribute pattern approach argues that integrated constellations or combinations of individual differences may explain substantial variance in both leader emergence and leader effectiveness beyond that explained by single attributes, or by additive combinations of multiple attributes. 5. Behavioral and Style TheoriesIn response to the early criticisms of the trait approach, theorists began to research leadership as a set of behaviors, evaluating the behavior of successful leaders, determining behavior taxonomy, and identifying broad leadership styles. David McClelland, for example, posited that leadership takes a strong personality with a well-developed positive ego. To lead, self-confidence and high self-esteem are useful, perhaps even essential. Kurt Lewin, Ronald Lipitt, and Ralph White developed in 1939 the seminal work on the influence of leadership styles and performance. The researchers evaluated the performance of groups of eleven-year-old boys under different types of work climate. In each, the leader exercised his influence regarding the type of group decision making, praise and criticism (feedback), and the management of the group tasks (project management) according to three styles: authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire. The managerial grid model is also based on a behavioral theory. The model was developed by Robert Blake and Jane Mouton in 1964 and suggests five different leadership styles, based on the leaders' concern for people and their concern for goal achievement. Positive ReinforcementB.F. Skinner is the father of behavior modification and developed the concept of positive reinforcement. Positive reinforcement occurs when a positive stimulus is presented in response to a behavior, increasing the likelihood of that behavior in the future. The following is an example of how positive reinforcement can be used in a business setting. Assume praise is a positive reinforcer for a particular employee. This employee does not show up to work on time every day. The manager of this employee decides to praise the employee for showing up on time every day the employee actually shows up to work on time. As a result, the employee comes to work on time more often because the employee likes to be praised. In this example, praise (the stimulus) is a positive reinforcer for this employee because the employee arrives at work on time (the behavior) more frequently after being praised for showing up to work on time.The use of positive reinforcement is a successful and growing technique used by leaders to motivate and attain desired behaviors from subordinates. Organizations such as Frito-Lay, 3M, Goodrich, Michigan Bell, and Emery Air Freight have all used reinforcement to increase productivity. Empirical research covering the last 20 years suggests that reinforcement theory has a 17 percent increase in performance. Additionally, many reinforcement techniques such as the use of praise are inexpensive, providing higher performance for lower costs.

TEST QUESTIONS:

1. It has been described as "a process of social influence in which one person can enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a common task."A. Collaboration B. Communication C. Leadership

2. What leadership theory is based on theorists' arguments that the influence of individual characteristics on outcomes is best understood by considering the person as an integrated totality rather than a summation of individual variables. A. Reemergence of Trait TheoryB. Attribute Pattern Approach C. Behavioral and Style Theories

6. Situational and Contingency TheoriesSituational theory also appeared as a reaction to the trait theory of leadership. Social scientists argued that history was more than the result of intervention of great men as Carlyle suggested. Herbert Spencer (1884) (and Karl Marx) said that the times produce the person and not the other way around. This theory assumes that different situations call for different characteristics; according to this group of theories, no single optimal psychographic profile of a leader exists. According to the theory, "what an individual actually does when acting as a leader is in large part dependent upon characteristics of the situation in which he functions." Some theorists started to synthesize the trait and situational approaches. Building upon the research of Lewin et al., academics began to normalize the descriptive models of leadership climates, defining three leadership styles and identifying which situations each style works better in. The authoritarian leadership style, for example, is approved in periods of crisis but fails to win the "hearts and minds" of followers in day-to-day management; the democratic leadership style is more adequate in situations that require consensus building; finally, the laissez-faire leadership style is appreciated for the degree of freedom it provides, but as the leaders do not "take charge", they can be perceived as a failure in protracted or thorny organizational problems. Thus, theorists defined the style of leadership as contingent to the situation, which is sometimes classified as contingency theory. Four contingency leadership theories appear more prominently in recent years: Fiedler contingency model, Vroom-Yetton decision model, the path-goal theory, and the Hersey-Blanchard situational theory.The Fiedler contingency model bases the leader's effectiveness on what Fred Fiedler called situational contingency. This results from the interaction of leadership style and situational favorability (later called situational control). The theory defined two types of leader: those who tend to accomplish the task by developing good relationships with the group (relationship-oriented), and those who have as their prime concern carrying out the task itself (task-oriented). According to Fiedler, there is no ideal leader. Both task-oriented and relationship-oriented leaders can be effective if their leadership orientation fits the situation. When there is a good leader-member relation, a highly structured task, and high leader position power, the situation is considered a "favorable situation". Fiedler found that task-oriented leaders are more effective in extremely favorable or unfavorable situations, whereas relationship-oriented leaders perform best in situations with intermediate favorability.Victor Vroom, in collaboration with Phillip Yetton (1973) and later with Arthur Jago (1988), developed a taxonomy for describing leadership situations, which was used in a normative decision model where leadership styles were connected to situational variables, defining which approach was more suitable to which situation. This approach was novel because it supported the idea that the same manager could rely on different group decision making approaches depending on the attributes of each situation. This model was later referred to as situational contingency theory. The path-goal theory of leadership was developed by Robert House (1971) and was based on the expectancy theory of Victor Vroom. According to House, the essence of the theory is "the meta proposition that leaders, to be effective, engage in behaviors that complement subordinates' environments and abilities in a manner that compensates for deficiencies and is instrumental to subordinate satisfaction and individual and work unit performance". The theory identifies four leader behaviors, achievement-oriented, directive, participative, and supportive, that are contingent to the environment factors and follower characteristics. In contrast to the Fiedler contingency model, the path-goal model states that the four leadership behaviors are fluid, and that leaders can adopt any of the four depending on what the situation demands. The path-goal model can be classified both as a contingency theory, as it depends on the circumstances, and as a transactional leadership theory, as the theory emphasizes the reciprocity behavior between the leader and the followers.The situational leadership model proposed by Hersey and Blanchard suggests four leadership-styles and four levels of follower-development. For effectiveness, the model posits that the leadership-style must match the appropriate level of follower-development. In this model, leadership behavior becomes a function not only of the characteristics of the leader, but of the characteristics of followers as well. 7. Functional TheoryFunctional leadership theory (Hackman & Walton, 1986; McGrath, 1962; Adair, 1988; Kouzes & Posner, 1995) is a particularly useful theory for addressing specific leader behaviors expected to contribute to organizational or unit effectiveness. This theory argues that the leader's main job is to see that whatever is necessary to group needs is taken care of; thus, a leader can be said to have done their job well when they have contributed to group effectiveness and cohesion (Fleishman et al., 1991; Hackman & Wageman, 2005; Hackman & Walton, 1986). While functional leadership theory has most often been applied to team leadership (Zaccaro, Rittman, & Marks, 2001), it has also been effectively applied to broader organizational leadership as well (Zaccaro, 2001). In summarizing literature on functional leadership (see Kozlowski et al. (1996), Zaccaro et al. (2001), Hackman and Walton (1986), Hackman & Wageman (2005), Morgeson (2005)), Klein, Zeigert, Knight, and Xiao (2006) observed five broad functions a leader performs when promoting organization's effectiveness. These functions include environmental monitoring, organizing subordinate activities, teaching and coaching subordinates, motivating others, and intervening actively in the group's work.A variety of leadership behaviors are expected to facilitate these functions. In initial work identifying leader behavior, Fleishman (1953) observed that subordinates perceived their supervisors' behavior in terms of two broad categories referred to as consideration and initiating structure. Consideration includes behavior involved in fostering effective relationships. Examples of such behavior would include showing concern for a subordinate or acting in a supportive manner towards others. Initiating structure involves the actions of the leader focused specifically on task accomplishment. This could include role clarification, setting performance standards, and holding subordinates accountable to those standards.

8. Integrated Psychological TheoryThe Integrated Psychological theory of leadership is an attempt to integrate the strengths of the older theories (i.e. traits, behavioral/styles, situational and functional) while addressing their limitations, largely by introducing a new element the need for leaders to develop their leadership presence, attitude toward others and behavioral flexibility by practicing psychological mastery. It also offers a foundation for leaders wanting to apply the philosophies of servant leadership and authentic leadership. Integrated Psychological theory began to attract attention after the publication of James Scoullers Three Levels of Leadership model (2011). Scouller argued that the older theories offer only limited assistance in developing a persons ability to lead effectively. He pointed out, for example, that: Traits theories, which tend to reinforce the idea that leaders are born not made, might help us select leaders, but they are less useful for developing leaders. An ideal style (e.g. Blake & Moutons team style) would not suit all circumstances. Most of the situational/contingency and functional theories assume that leaders can change their behavior to meet differing circumstances or widen their behavioral range at will, when in practice many find it hard to do so because of unconscious beliefs, fears or ingrained habits. Thus, he argued, leaders need to work on their inner psychology. None of the old theories successfully address the challenge of developing leadership presence; that certain something in leaders that commands attention, inspires people, wins their trust and makes followers want to work with them.Scouller therefore proposed the Three Levels of Leadership model, which was later categorized as an Integrated Psychological theory on the Businessballs education website. In essence, his model aims to summarize what leaders have to do, not only to bring leadership to their group or organization, but also to develop themselves technically and psychologically as leaders.The three levels in his model are Public, Private and Personal leadership: The first two public and private leadership are outer or behavioral levels. These are the behaviors that address what Scouller called the four dimensions of leadership. These dimensions are: (1) a shared, motivating group purpose; (2) action, progress and results; (3) collective unity or team spirit; (4) individual selection and motivation. Public leadership focuses on the 34 behaviors involved in influencing two or more people simultaneously. Private leadership covers the 14 behaviors needed to influence individuals one to one. The third personal leadership is an inner level and concerns a persons growth toward greater leadership presence, knowhow and skill. Working on ones personal leadership has three aspects: (1) Technical knowhow and skill (2) Developing the right attitude toward other people which is the basis of servant leadership (3) Psychological self-mastery the foundation for authentic leadership.Scouller argued that self-mastery is the key to growing ones leadership presence, building trusting relationships with followers and dissolving ones limiting beliefs and habits, thereby enabling behavioral flexibility as circumstances change, while staying connected to ones core values (that is, while remaining authentic). To support leaders development, he introduced a new model of the human psyche and outlined the principles and techniques of self-mastery, which include the practice of mindfulness meditation. 9. Transactional and Transformational TheoriesEric Berne first analyzed the relations between a group and its leadership in terms of transactional analysis. The transactional leader (Burns, 1978) is given power to perform certain tasks and reward or punish for the team's performance. It gives the opportunity to the manager to lead the group and the group agrees to follow his lead to accomplish a predetermined goal in exchange for something else. Power is given to the leader to evaluate, correct, and train subordinates when productivity is not up to the desired level, and reward effectiveness when expected outcome is reached. Idiosyncrasy Credits, first posited by Edward Hollander (1971) is one example of a concept closely related to transactional leadership. 10. LeaderMember Exchange TheoryAnother theory that addresses a specific aspect of the leadership process is the leadermember exchange (LMX) theory, which evolved from an earlier theory called the vertical dyad linkage (VDL) model. Both of these models focus on the interaction between leaders and individual followers. Similar to the transactional approach, this interaction is viewed as a fair exchange whereby the leader provides certain benefits such as task guidance, advice, support, and/or significant rewards and the followers reciprocate by giving the leader respect, cooperation, commitment to the task and good performance. However, LMX recognizes that leaders and individual followers will vary in the type of exchange that develops between them. LMX theorizes that the type of exchanges between the leader and specific followers can lead to the creation of in-groups and out-groups. In-group members are said to have high-quality exchanges with the leader, while out-group members have low-quality exchanges with the leader. In-group membersIn-group members are perceived by the leader as being more experienced, competent, and willing to assume responsibility than other followers. The leader begins to rely on these individuals to help with especially challenging tasks. If the follower responds well, the leader rewards him/her with extra coaching, favorable job assignments, and developmental experiences. If the follower shows high commitment and effort followed by additional rewards, both parties develop mutual trust, influence, and support of one another. Research shows the in-group members usually receive higher performance evaluations from the leader, higher satisfaction, and faster promotions than out-group members. In-group members are also likely to build stronger bonds with their leaders by sharing the same social backgrounds and interests. Out-group membersOut-group members often receive less time and more distant exchanges than their in-group counterparts. With out-group members, leaders expect no more than adequate job performance, good attendance, reasonable respect, and adherence to the job description in exchange for a fair wage and standard benefits. The leader spends less time with out-group members, they have fewer developmental experiences, and the leader tends to emphasize his/her formal authority to obtain compliance to leader requests. Research shows that out-group members are less satisfied with their job and organization, receive lower performance evaluations from the leader, see their leader as less fair, and are more likely to file grievances or leave the organization. 11. EmotionsLeadership can be perceived as a particularly emotion-laden process, with emotions entwined with the social influence process. In an organization, the leader's mood has some effects on his/her group. These effects can be described in three levels: 1. The mood of individual group members. Group members with leaders in a positive mood experience more positive mood than do group members with leaders in a negative mood. The leaders transmit their moods to other group members through the mechanism of emotional contagion. Mood contagion may be one of the psychological mechanisms by which charismatic leaders influence followers. 2. The affective tone of the group. Group affective tone represents the consistent or homogeneous affective reactions within a group. Group affective tone is an aggregate of the moods of the individual members of the group and refers to mood at the group level of analysis. Groups with leaders in a positive mood have a more positive affective tone than do groups with leaders in a negative mood. 3. Group processes like coordination, effort expenditure, and task strategy. Public expressions of mood impact how group members think and act. When people experience and express mood, they send signals to others. Leaders signal their goals, intentions, and attitudes through their expressions of moods. For example, expressions of positive moods by leaders signal that leaders deem progress toward goals to be good. The group members respond to those signals cognitively and behaviorally in ways that are reflected in the group processes. In research about client service, it was found that expressions of positive mood by the leader improve the performance of the group, although in other sectors there were other findings. Beyond the leader's mood, her/his behavior is a source for employee positive and negative emotions at work. The leader creates situations and events that lead to emotional response. Certain leader behaviors displayed during interactions with their employees are the sources of these affective events. Leaders shape workplace affective events. Examples feedback giving, allocating tasks, resource distribution. Since employee behavior and productivity are directly affected by their emotional states, it is imperative to consider employee emotional responses to organizational leaders. Emotional intelligence, the ability to understand and manage moods and emotions in the self and others, contributes to effective leadership within organizations. 12. Neo-Emergent TheoryThe neo-emergent leadership theory (from the Oxford school of leadership) espouses that leadership is created through the emergence of information by the leader or other stakeholders, not through the true actions of the leader himself. In other words, the reproduction of information or stories form the basis of the perception of leadership by the majority. It is well known that the great naval hero Lord Nelson often wrote his own versions of battles he was involved in, so that when he arrived home in England he would receive a true hero's welcome. In modern society, the press, blogs and other sources report their own views of a leader, which may be based on reality, but may also be based on a political command, a payment, or an inherent interest of the author, media, or leader. Therefore, it can be contended that the perception of all leaders is created and in fact does not reflect their true leadership qualities at all.

TEST QUESTIONS:

1. This leadership theory assumes that different situations call for different characteristics; according to this group of theories, no single optimal psychographic profile of a leader exists.A. Integrated Psychological Theory B. Functional TheoryC. Situational and Contingency Theories

3. This leadership theory is an attempt to integrate the strengths of the older theories (i.e. traits, behavioral/styles, situational and functional) while addressing their limitations, largely by introducing a new element the need for leaders to develop their leadership presence, attitude toward others and behavioral flexibility by practicing psychological mastery. A. Functional theory B. Integrated Psychological theoryC. LeaderMember Exchange Theory

C. LEADERSHIP STYLESA leadership style is a leader's style of providing direction, implementing plans, and motivating people. It is the result of the philosophy, personality, and experience of the leader. Rhetoric specialists have also developed models for understanding leadership.Different situations call for different leadership styles. In an emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the rest of the team, an autocratic leadership style may be most effective; however, in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of expertise, a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective. The style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members. 1. Engaging StyleEngaging as part of leadership style has been mentioned in various literature earlier. Dr. Stephen L. Cohen, the Senior Vice President for Right Managements Leadership Development Center of Excellence, has in his article Four Key Leadership Practices for Leading in Tough Times has mentioned Engagement as the fourth Key practice. He writes, "these initiatives do for the organization is engage both leaders and employees in understanding the existing conditions and how they can collectively assist in addressing them. Reaching out to employees during difficult times to better understand their concerns and interests by openly and honestly conveying the impact of the downturn on them and their organizations can provide a solid foundation for not only engaging them but retaining them when things do turn around. Engagement as the key to Collaborative Leadership is also emphasized in several original research papers and programs. Becoming an agile has long been associated with Engaging leaders - rather than leadership with a hands-off approach. 2. Autocratic or Authoritarian StyleUnder the autocratic leadership style, all decision-making powers are centralized in the leader, as with dictators.Leaders do not entertain any suggestions or initiatives from subordinates. The autocratic management has been successful as it provides strong motivation to the manager. It permits quick decision-making, as only one person decides for the whole group and keeps each decision to him/herself until he/she feels it needs to be shared with the rest of the group. 3. Participative or Democratic StyleThe democratic leadership style consists of the leader sharing the decision-making abilities with group members by promoting the interests of the group members and by practicing social equality. This has also been called shared leadership. 4. Laissez-Faire or Free-Rein StyleA person may be in a leadership position without providing leadership, leaving the group to fend for itself. Subordinates are given a free hand in deciding their own policies and methods. The subordinates are motivated to be creative and innovative. 5. Narcissistic LeadershipNarcissistic leadership is a leadership style in which the leader is only interested in him/herself. Their priority is themselves - at the expense of their people/group members. This leader exhibits the characteristics of a narcissist: arrogance, dominance and hostility. It is a common leadership style. The narcissism may range from anywhere between healthy and destructive. To critics, "narcissistic leadership (preferably destructive) is driven by unyielding arrogance, self-absorption, and a personal egotistic need for power and admiration." 6. Toxic LeadershipA toxic leader is someone who has responsibility over a group of people or an organization, and who abuses the leaderfollower relationship by leaving the group or organization in a worse-off condition than when he/she joined it. 7. Task-Oriented and Relationship-Oriented LeadershipTasks that need to be performed in order to meet a certain production goal. Task-oriented leaders are generally more concerned with producing a step-by-step solution for given problem or goal, strictly making sure these deadlines are met, results and reaching target outcomes. Relationship-oriented leadership is a contrasting style in which the leader is more focused on the relationships amongst the group and is generally more concerned with the overall well-being and satisfaction of group members. Relationship-oriented leaders emphasize communication within the group, shows trust and confidence in group members, and shows appreciation for work done.Task-oriented leaders are typically less concerned with the idea of catering to group members, and more concerned with acquiring a certain solution to meet a production goal. For this reason, they typically are able to make sure that deadlines are met, yet their group members' well-being may suffer. Relationship-oriented leaders are focused on developing the team and the relationships in it. The positives to having this kind of environment are that team members are more motivated and have support, however, the emphasis on relations as opposed to getting a job done might make productivity suffer. 8. Sex Differences in Leadership Behavior

Another factor that varies with leadership style is whether the person is male or female. When men and women come together in groups, they tend to adopt different leadership styles. Men generally assume an agentic leadership style. They are task-oriented, active, decision focused, independent and goal oriented. Women, on the other hand, are generally more communal when they assume a leadership position; they strive to be helpful towards others, warm in relation to others, understanding, and mindful of others' feelings. In general, when women are asked to describe themselves to others in newly formed groups, they emphasize their open, fair, responsible, and pleasant communal qualities. They give advice, offer assurances, and manage conflicts in an attempt to maintain positive relationships among group members. Women connect more positively to group members by smiling, maintaining eye contact and respond tactfully to others comments. Men, conversely, describe themselves as influential, powerful and proficient at the task that needs to be done. They tend to place more focus on initiating structure within the group, setting standards and objectives, identifying roles, defining responsibilities and standard operating procedures, proposing solutions to problems, monitoring compliance with procedures, and finally, emphasizing the need for productivity and efficiency in the work that needs to be done. As leaders, men are primarily task-oriented, but women tend to be both task- and relationship-oriented. However, it is important to note that these sex differences are only tendencies, and do not manifest themselves within men and women across all groups and situations. D. LEADERSHIP PERFORMANCEIn the past, some researchers have argued that the actual influence of leaders on organizational outcomes is overrated and romanticized as a result of biased attributions about leaders (Meindl & Ehrlich, 1987). Despite these assertions, however, it is largely recognized and accepted by practitioners and researchers that leadership is important, and research supports the notion that leaders do contribute to key organizational outcomes (Day & Lord, 1988; Kaiser, Hogan, & Craig, 2008). To facilitate successful performance it is important to understand and accurately measure leadership performance.Job performance generally refers to behavior that is expected to contribute to organizational success (Campbell, 1990). Campbell identified a number of specific types of performance dimensions; leadership was one of the dimensions that he identified. There is no consistent, overall definition of leadership performance (Yukl, 2006). Many distinct conceptualizations are often lumped together under the umbrella of leadership performance, including outcomes such as leader effectiveness, leader advancement, and leader emergence (Kaiser et al., 2008). For instance, leadership performance may be used to refer to the career success of the individual leader, performance of the group or organization, or even leader emergence. Each of these measures can be considered conceptually distinct. While these aspects may be related, they are different outcomes and their inclusion should depend on the applied or research focus.

E. LEADERSHIP TRAITSMost theories in the 20th century argued that great leaders were born, not made. Current studies have indicated that leadership is much more complex and cannot be boiled down to a few key traits of an individual. Years of observation and study have indicated that one such trait or a set of traits does not make an extraordinary leader. What scholars have been able to arrive at is that leadership traits of an individual do not change from situation to situation; such traits include intelligence, assertiveness, or physical attractiveness. However, each key trait may be applied to situations differently, depending on the circumstances. The following summarizes the main leadership traits found in research by Jon P. Howell, business professor at New Mexico State University and author of the book Snapshots of Great Leadership.Determination and drive include traits such as initiative, energy, assertiveness, perseverance, masculinity, and sometimes dominance. People with these traits often tend to wholeheartedly pursue their goals, work long hours, are ambitious, and often are very competitive with others. Cognitive capacity includes intelligence, analytical and verbal ability, behavioral flexibility, and good judgment. Individuals with these traits are able to formulate solutions to difficult problems, work well under stress or deadlines, adapt to changing situations, and create well-thought-out plans for the future. Howell provides examples of Steve Jobs and Abraham Lincoln as encompassing the traits of determination and drive as well as possessing cognitive capacity, demonstrated by their ability to adapt to their continuously changing environments. Self-confidence encompasses the traits of high self-esteem, assertiveness, emotional stability, and self-assurance. Individuals that are self-confident do not doubt themselves or their abilities and decisions; they also have the ability to project this self-confidence onto others, building their trust and commitment. Integrity is demonstrated in individuals who are truthful, trustworthy, principled, consistent, dependable, loyal, and not deceptive. Leaders with integrity often share these values with their followers, as this trait is mainly an ethics issue. It is often said that these leaders keep their word and are honest and open with their cohorts. Sociability describes individuals who are friendly, extroverted, tactful, flexible, and interpersonally competent. Such a trait enables leaders to be accepted well by the public, use diplomatic measures to solve issues, as well as hold the ability to adapt their social persona to the situation at hand. According to Howell, Mother Teresa is an exceptional example that embodies integrity, assertiveness, and social abilities in her diplomatic dealings with the leaders of the world. Few great leaders encompass all of the traits listed above, but many have the ability to apply a number of them to succeed as front-runners of their organization or situation.

TEST QUESTIONS:

1. This leadership style does not entertain any suggestions or initiatives from subordinates. This type of management has been successful as it provides strong motivation to the manager. It permits quick decision-making, as only one person decides for the whole group and keeps each decision to him/herself until he/she feels it needs to be shared with the rest of the group. A. Engaging StyleB. Narcissistic Leadership C. Autocratic or Authoritarian Style

2. This leadership style is wherein the leader is typically less concerned with the idea of catering to group members, and more concerned with acquiring a certain solution to meet a production goal A. Task-oriented leadership B. Relationship-oriented leadership C. Laissez-Faire Leadership Style

F. LEADERSHIP CONTEXTS 1. OrganizationsAn organization that is established as an instrument or means for achieving defined objectives has been referred to as a formal organization. Its design specifies how goals are subdivided and reflected in subdivisions of the organization. Divisions, departments, sections, positions, jobs, and tasks make up this work structure. Thus, the formal organization is expected to behave impersonally in regard to relationships with clients or with its members. According to Weber's definition, entry and subsequent advancement is by merit or seniority. Employees receive a salary and enjoy a degree of tenure that safeguards them from the arbitrary influence of superiors or of powerful clients. The higher one's position in the hierarchy, the greater one's presumed expertise in adjudicating problems that may arise in the course of the work carried out at lower levels of the organization. It is this bureaucratic structure that forms the basis for the appointment of heads or chiefs of administrative subdivisions in the organization and endows them with the authority attached to their position. In contrast to the appointed head or chief of an administrative unit, a leader emerges within the context of the informal organization that underlies the formal structure. The informal organization expresses the personal objectives and goals of the individual membership. Their objectives and goals may or may not coincide with those of the formal organization. The informal organization represents an extension of the social structures that generally characterize human life the spontaneous emergence of groups and organizations as ends in themselves.In prehistoric times, humanity was preoccupied with personal security, maintenance, protection, and survival. Now humanity spends a major portion of waking hours working for organizations. The need to identify with a community that provides security, protection, maintenance, and a feeling of belonging has continued unchanged from prehistoric times. This need is met by the informal organization and its emergent, or unofficial, leaders. Leaders emerge from within the structure of the informal organization. Their personal qualities, the demands of the situation, or a combination of these and other factors attract followers who accept their leadership within one or several overlay structures. Instead of the authority of position held by an appointed head or chief, the emergent leader wields influence or power. Influence is the ability of a person to gain co-operation from others by means of persuasion or control over rewards. Power is a stronger form of influence because it reflects a person's ability to enforce action through the control of a means of punishment. A leader is a person who influences a group of people towards a specific result. It is not dependent on title or formal authority. (Elevos, paraphrased from Leaders, Bennis, and Leadership Presence, Halpern & Lubar.) Ogbonnia (2007) defines an effective leader "as an individual with the capacity to consistently succeed in a given condition and be viewed as meeting the expectations of an organization or society." Leaders are recognized by their capacity for caring for others, clear communication, and a commitment to persist. An individual who is appointed to a managerial position has the right to command and enforce obedience by virtue of the authority of their position. However, she or he must possess adequate personal attributes to match this authority, because authority is only potentially available to him/her. In the absence of sufficient personal competence, a manager may be confronted by an emergent leader who can challenge her/his role in the organization and reduce it to that of a figurehead. However, only authority of position has the backing of formal sanctions. It follows that whoever wields personal influence and power can legitimize this only by gaining a formal position in the hierarchy, with commensurate authority. Leadership can be defined as one's ability to get others to willingly follow. Every organization needs leaders at every level. 2. ManagementOver the years the philosophical terminology of "management" and "leadership" have, in the organizational context, been used both as synonyms and with clearly differentiated meanings. Debate is fairly common about whether the use of these terms should be restricted, and generally reflects an awareness of the distinction made by Burns (1978) between "transactional" leadership (characterized by e.g. emphasis on procedures, contingent reward, management by exception) and "transformational" leadership (characterized by e.g. charisma, personal relationships, creativity). 3. GroupIn contrast to individual leadership, some organizations have adopted group leadership. In this situation, more than one person provides direction to the group as a whole. Some organizations have taken this approach in hopes of increasing creativity, reducing costs, or downsizing. Others may see the traditional leadership of a boss as costing too much in team performance. In some situations, the team members best able to handle any given phase of the project become the temporary leaders. Additionally, as each team member has the opportunity to experience the elevated level of empowerment, it energizes staff and feeds the cycle of success. Leaders who demonstrate persistence, tenacity, determination, and synergistic communication skills will bring out the same qualities in their groups. Good leaders use their own inner mentors to energize their team and organizations and lead a team to achieve success. According to the National School Boards Association (USA): These Group Leaderships or Leadership Teams have specific characteristics: Characteristics of a Team There must be an awareness of unity on the part of all its members. There must be interpersonal relationship. Members must have a chance to contribute, and learn from and work with others. The members must have the ability to act together toward a common goal. Ten characteristics of well-functioning teams: Purpose: Members proudly share a sense of why the team exists and are invested in accomplishing its mission and goals. Priorities: Members know what needs to be done next, by whom, and by when to achieve team goals. Roles: Members know their roles in getting tasks done and when to allow a more skillful member to do a certain task. Decisions: Authority and decision-making lines are clearly understood. Conflict: Conflict is dealt with openly and is considered important to decision-making and personal growth. Personal traits: members feel their unique personalities are appreciated and well utilized. Norms: Group norms for working together are set and seen as standards for every one in the groups. Effectiveness: Members find team meetings efficient and productive and look forward to this time together. Success: Members know clearly when the team has met with success and share in this equally and proudly. Training: Opportunities for feedback and updating skills are provided and taken advantage of by team members. Self-leadershipSelf-leadership is a process that occurs within an individual, rather than an external act. It is an expression of who we are as people. PrimatesMark van Vugt and Anjana Ahuja in Naturally Selected: The Evolutionary Science of Leadership present evidence of leadership in nonhuman animals, from ants and bees to baboons and chimpanzees. They suggest that leadership has a long evolutionary history and that the same mechanisms underpinning leadership in humans can be found in other social species, too. Richard Wrangham and Dale Peterson, in Demonic Males: Apes and the Origins of Human Violence, present evidence that only humans and chimpanzees, among all the animals living on Earth, share a similar tendency for a cluster of behaviors: violence, territoriality, and competition for uniting behind the one chief male of the land. This position is contentious. Many animals beyond apes are territorial, compete, exhibit violence, and have a social structure controlled by a dominant male (lions, wolves, etc.), suggesting Wrangham and Peterson's evidence is not empirical. However, we must examine other species as well, including elephants (which are matriarchal and follow an alpha female), meerkats (who are likewise matriarchal), and many others.By comparison, bonobos, the second-closest species-relatives of humans, do not unite behind the chief male of the land. The bonobos show deference to an alpha or top-ranking female that, with the support of her coalition of other females, can prove as strong as the strongest male. Thus, if leadership amounts to getting the greatest number of followers, then among the bonobos, a female almost always exerts the strongest and most effective leadership. However, not all scientists agree on the allegedly peaceful nature of the bonobo or its reputation as a "hippie chimp".

TEST QUESTION:

1. With regards to leadership contexts, it is an organization that is established as an instrument or means for achieving defined objectives. A. Engaging organizationB. Informal organization C. Formal organization

G. LEADERSHIP QUALITIESLeadership can be defined as one's ability to get others to willingly follow. Every organization needs leaders at every level. 1. VisionOne of the most important leadership qualities of great leaders is vision. This is the one single quality that, more than anything, separates leaders from followers. Great leaders have vision. Followers do not. Leaders have the ability to stand back and see the big picture. Followers are caught up in day-to-day activities. Great leaders have developed the ability to fix their eyes on the horizon and see greater possibilities. Followers are those whose eyes are fixed on the ground in front of them and who are so busy that they seldom look at themselves and their activities in a larger context.The whole point of leadership is figuring out where to go from where you are now. While a leader may know where he wants to go, people wont see that unless he actively communicates it with them. Remember, these traits arent just things a leader needs to have, they are things he needs to actively display to those around him. When people do not consider their leader forward-looking, that leader is usually suffering from one of two possible problems, that a leader doesnt have a forward-looking vision or that the leader is unwilling or scared to share the vision with others.When a leader doesnt have a vision for the future, it usually because they are spending so much time on today, that they havent really thought about tomorrow. On a very simplistic level this can be solved simply by setting aside some time for planning, strategizing and thinking about the future.A leader with vision has a clear, vivid picture of where to go, as well as a firm grasp on what success looks like and how to achieve it. But it's not enough to have a vision; leaders must also share it and act upon it. Jack Welch, former chairman and CEO of General Electric Co., said, "Good business leaders create a vision, articulate the vision, passionately own the vision and relentlessly drive it to completion."The best way for you to be motivational and inspirational to others is to be motivated yourself. The fastest way to get others excited about a project is to get excited yourself. The way to get others committed to achieving a goal or a result is to be totally committed yourself. The way to build loyalty to your organization, and to other people, is to be an example of loyalty in everything you say and do. These all are applications of the Law of Indirect Effort. They very neatly tie in to the quality of vision.One requirement of leadership is the ability to choose an area of excellence. Just as a good general chooses the terrain on which to do battle, great leaders choose the area in which he and others are going to do an outstanding job. The commitment to excellence is one of the most powerful of all motivational and inspirational techniques. All great leaders who change people and organizations are enthusiastic about achieving excellence in a particular area.The most motivational and inspirational vision a leader can have for himself and others is to Be the best! Many people dont yet realize that excellent performance in serving other people is an absolute, basic essential for survival in the economy of the future. Many individuals and companies still adhere to the idea that as long as they are no worse than anyone else, they can remain in business. That is just plain silly! It is prehistoric thinking. We are now in the age of excellence. Customers assume that they will get excellent quality, and if they dont, they will go to your competitors so fast, peoples heads will spin.As a leader, ones job is to develop leadership qualities that exude excellence as his own individual, to be the best in his chosen field of endeavor. A leaders job is to have a vision of high standards in serving people. 2. IntegrityThe second most important of all leadership qualities is integrity. Integrity is complete, unflinching honesty with regard to everything that one says and does. Integrity underlies all the other leadership qualities. A leaders measure of integrity is determined by how honest he is in the critical areas of his life. The core of integrity is truthfulness. Integrity requires that one always tell the truth, to all people, in every situation. Truthfulness is the foundation quality of the trust that is necessary for the success of any business.Integrity means this: When someone asks you at the end of the day, Did you do your very best? you can look him in the eye and say, Yes! Integrity means this: When someone asks you if you could have done it better, you can honestly say, No, I did everything I possibly could.Integrity might be one of the most challenging of the leadership qualities because it means that one, as a leader, must admit his shortcomings. It means that he works to develop his strengths and compensate for his weaknesses. Integrity means that he tells the truth, and that he lives the truth in everything that he does and in all his relationships. Integrity means that he deals straightforwardly with people and situations and that he does not compromise what he believes to be true. 3. TrustworthyTrust is the basis for all the relationships in life. Without trust, it's impossible to create healthy and productive environments, either in work or personal situations. A leader must be aware that others are watching him, assessing his values system and integrity. People want to be assured that their trust, followed closely by their respect is being placed in a safe place in their leaders hands and that they are indeed wise to follow where he leads. When people trust a leader, they are more willing to give their best, as they know that they always get their leaders best. This leadership quality is sometime referred as integrity or honor, but all these terms have the same basic meaning: a leader says what he does and does what he says. 4. Honesty People want to follow an honest leader. Years ago, many employees started out by assuming that their leadership was honest simply because the authority of their position. With modern scandals, this is no longer true.When one starts a leadership position, he needs to assume that people will think he is a little dishonest. In order to be seen as an honest individual, he will have to go out of his way to display honesty. People will not assume he is honest simply because he has never been caught lying. One of the most frequent places where leaders miss an opportunity to display honesty is in handling mistakes. Much of a leaders job is to try new things and refine the ideas that dont work. However, many leaders want to avoid failure to the extent that they dont admit when something did not work.Whatever ethical plane a leader holds himself to, when he is responsible for a team of people, its important to raise the bar even higher. His business and its employees are a reflection of himself, and if he makes honest and ethical behavior a key value, his team will follow suit.Opportunities to display honesty on a large scale may not happen every day. As a leader, showing people that one is honest, even when it means admitting to a mistake, displays a key trait that people are looking for in their leaders. By demonstrating honesty with oneself, with ones organization and with outside organizations, one will increase his leadership influence. People will trust someone who actively displays honestynot just as an honest individual, but as someone who is worth following. 5. Competency People want to follow someone who is competent. This doesnt mean a leader needs to be the foremost expert on every area of the entire organization, but they need to be able to demonstrate competency. For a leader to demonstrate that they are competent, it isnt enough to just avoid displaying incompetency. Some people will assume he is competent because of his leadership position, but most will have to see demonstrations before deciding that a leader is competent.Nevertheless, a leader must be seen by his advisors, stakeholders, employees, and the public as being an expert in his field or an expert in leadership. Unless his constituents see him as highly credentialed--either by academic degree or with specialized experience--and capable of leading your company to success, it will be more difficult for him to be as respected, admired, or followed. Practically speaking, not all executives immediately possess all of the characteristics that spell success. Many leaders learn along the way with hard work. As crises and challenges arise, those at the top of the hierarchy have key opportunities to demonstrate to others that they are in fact, qualified to be leaders. In actuality, greater competency can be achieved as a leader gains more on-the-job experiences.When people under ones leadership look at some action he has taken and think, that just goes to show why he is the one in charge, he is demonstrating competency. If these moments are infrequent, it is likely that some demonstrations of competency will help boost his leadership influence.Like the other traits, it isnt enough for a leader to be competent. They must demonstrate competency in a way that people notice. This can be a delicate balance. There is a danger of drawing too much attention to oneself in a way that makes the leader seem arrogant. Another potential danger is that of minimizing others contributions and appearing to take credit for the work of others. As a leader, one of the safest ways to toot you own horn without blowing it, is to celebrate and bring attention to team achievements. In this way he indirectly points out his competency as a leader. For example: Last year I set a goal of reaching $12 million in sales and, thanks to everyones hard word, as of today, we have reached $13.5 million. 6. Inspiration People want to be inspired. In fact, there is a whole class of people who will follow an inspiring leadereven when the leader has no other qualities. If a leader ha developed the other traits in leadership, being inspiring is usually just a matter of communicating clearly and with passion. Being inspiring means telling people how ones organization is going to change the world.Quite often, employees need someone to look up to for direction, guidance, and motivation. The leader needs to be that person. Nevertheless, there are times, when many employees need the leader to inspire them by word or action. Employees need someone to look up to, admire, and follow. Even when the production or delivery of services looks like "it is all going well," the leader may at times need to step in personally to offer a suggestion or encouragement to ensure that employees perform their jobs in an optimal manner.A great example of inspiration is when Steve Jobs stole the CEO from Pepsi by asking him, Do you want to sell sugar water for the rest of your life, or do you want to change the world? Being inspiring means showing people the big picture and helping them see beyond a narrow focus and understand how their part fits into the big picture.One technique to develop a leaders ability to inspire is telling stories. Stories can be examples from your customers, fictitious examples from your customers, or even historical fables and myths. Stories can help you vividly illustrate what you are trying to communicate. Stories that communicate on an emotional level help communicate deeper than words and leave an imprint much stronger than anything you can achieve through a simple stating of the facts.Learning to be inspiring is not easyparticularly for individuals lacking in charisma. It can be learned. Take note of people who inspire and analyze the way they communicate. A leader must look for ways to passionately express his vision. While there will always be room for improvement, a small investment in effort and awareness will give him a significant improvement in this leadership trait. 7. Intelligence Intelligence is something that can be difficult to develop. The road toward becoming more intelligent is difficult, long and cant be completed without investing considerable time. Developing intelligence is a lifestyle choice. College graduation was the beginning of ones education, not the end. In fact, much of what is taught in college functions merely as a foundational language for lifelong educational experiences. To develop intelligence, a leader needs to commit to continual learningboth formally and informally. Informally, one can develop a great deal of intelligence in any field simply by investing a reasonable amount of time to reading on a daily basis. The fact is that most people wont make a regular investment in their education. Spending 30 minutes of focused reading every day will give a person 182 hours of study time each year.For the most part, people will notice if a leader is intelligent by observing his behavior and attitude. Trying to display his intelligence is likely to be counterproductive. One of the greatest signs of someone who is truly intelligent is humility. The greater ones education, the greater is his understanding of how little we really understand.A leader can demonstrate his intelligence by gently leading people toward understandingeven when he knows the answer. His focus needs to be on helping others learnnot demonstrating how smart he is. Arrogance will put him in a position where people are secretly hopeful that hell make a mistake and appear foolish. As unintuitive as it may seem, one of the best ways to exhibit intelligence is by asking questions. Learning from the people you lead by asking intelligent thoughtful questions will do more to enhance your intelligence credibility than just about anything. Of course this means you need to be capable of asking intelligent questions. Nevertheless, a leaders ability to demonstrate respect for the intellect of others will probably do more to influence the perception of your intellect than your actual intelligence. 8. PassionGood leaders have a passion for the work they do and feel it is important. Sharing that passion and enthusiasm with employees can help a leader motivate his employees to become more productive. Praising ones employees when they do a good job can be a natural extension of passion. Survey reports that morale sinks and employees soon hate to come to work without occasional praise. 9. CommunicationStrong leaders know how to communicate effectively with staff at both higher and lower levels in the company. Understanding how to clearly explain tasks and projects to staff while communicating the importance of ones departments work to administrators is a crucial skill that takes practice. Good communicators keep staff informed when changes or updates to projects occur, are readily available to staff and hold regular meetings to ensure that all team members are aware of the status of projects.Knowing what a leader wants to accomplish may seem clear in his head, but if he tries to explain it to someone else and is met with a blank expression, he knows there is a problem. A leader must focus on honing his communication skills if he wants to lead effectively. Being able to clearly and succinctly describe what he wants to be done is extremely important. If a leader cant relate his vision to his team, he wont all be working towards the same goal. Nevertheless, training new members and creating a productive work environment all depend on healthy lines of communication. It does little good to have a strong mission, vision, and goals--and even a solid budget--if the leader cannot easily and effectively convey his ideas to his team inside and outside of the organization. He must regularly be in touch with key individuals, by email, v-mail, meetings, or other forms of correspondence. Of course, the best way to ensure other people receive and understand the message is with face-to-face interactions. Getting out of the office or touring different sites is an irreplaceable method of building rapport and sending and receiving messages. "Management By Walking Around," or MBWA, meeting employees at their workstations or conference rooms, or joining them for lunch are just a few of the many effective approaches leaders can use to develop positive contacts with employees. 10. CommitmentIf a leader expects his team to work hard and produce quality content, he is going to need to lead by example. There is no greater motivation than seeing the boss down in the trenches working alongside everyone else, showing that hard work is being done on every level. By proving a leaders commitment to the job and his role, he will not only earn the respect of his team, but will also instill that same hardworking energy among his staff. Its important for a leader to show his commitment not only to the work at hand, but also to his promises. If he pledged to host a holiday party, or uphold summer Fridays, he must keep his word. He wants to create a reputation for not just worki