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Top left: The Tennessee Valley Authority, partof the New Deal, being signed into law in1933.Top right: Franklin Delano Roosevelt, whowas responsible for initiatives and programscollectively known as the New Deal.Bottom: A public mural from one of the artistsemployed by the New Deal.

New DealFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The New Deal was a series ofeconomic programs enacted in theUnited States between 1933 and1936. They involved presidentialexecutive orders or laws passed byCongress during the first term ofPresident Franklin D. Roosevelt. Theprograms were in response to theGreat Depression, and focused onwhat historians call the "3 Rs":Relief, Recovery, and Reform. Thatis, Relief for the unemployed andpoor; Recovery of the economy tonormal levels; and Reform of thefinancial system to prevent a repeatdepression.[1]

The New Deal produced a politicalrealignment, making the DemocraticParty the majority (as well as theparty that held the White House for seven out of nine Presidential terms from 1933 to1969), with its base in liberal ideas, the white South, traditional Democrats, big citymachines, and the newly empowered labor unions and ethnic minorities. TheRepublicans were split, with conservatives opposing the entire New Deal as anenemy of business and growth, and liberals accepting some of it and promising tomake it more efficient. The realignment crystallized into the New Deal Coalition thatdominated most presidential elections into the 1960s, while the oppositionConservative Coalition largely controlled Congress from 1937 to 1963. By 1936 theterm "liberal" typically was used for supporters of the New Deal, and "conservative"for its opponents. From 1934 to 1938, Roosevelt was assisted in his endeavours by a“pro-spender” majority in Congress.

Many historians distinguish between a "First New Deal" (1933–34) and a "Second

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New Deal" (1935–38), with the second one more liberal and more controversial. The"First New Deal" (1933–34) dealt with diverse groups, from banking and railroads toindustry and farming, all of which demanded help for economic survival. TheFederal Emergency Relief Administration, for instance, provided $500 million forrelief operations by states and cities, while the short-lived CWA (Civil WorksAdministration) gave localities money to operate make-work projects in 1933-34.[2]

The "Second New Deal" in 1935–38 included the Wagner Act to promote laborunions, the Works Progress Administration (WPA) relief program (which made thefederal government by far the largest single employer in the nation),[3] the SocialSecurity Act, and new programs to aid tenant farmers and migrant workers. The finalmajor items of New Deal legislation were the creation of the United States HousingAuthority and Farm Security Administration, both in 1937, and the Fair LaborStandards Act of 1938, which set maximum hours and minimum wages for mostcategories of workers.[4]

The economic downturn of 1937–38, and the bitter split between the AFL and CIOlabor unions led to major Republican gains in Congress in 1938. ConservativeRepublicans and Democrats in Congress joined in the informal ConservativeCoalition. By 1942–43 they shut down relief programs such as the WPA and CCCand blocked major liberal proposals. Roosevelt himself turned his attention to thewar effort, and won reelection in 1940 and 1944. The Supreme Court declared theNational Recovery Administration (NRA) and the first version of the AgriculturalAdjustment Act (AAA) unconstitutional, however the AAA was rewritten and thenupheld. As the first Republican president elected after FDR, Dwight D. Eisenhower(1953–61) left the New Deal largely intact, even expanding it in some areas.[5] In the1960s, Lyndon B. Johnson's Great Society used the New Deal as inspiration for adramatic expansion of liberal programs, which Republican Richard M. Nixongenerally retained. After 1974, however, the call for deregulation of the economygained bipartisan support.[6] The New Deal regulation of banking (Glass–SteagallAct) was suspended in the 1990s. Many New Deal programs remain active, withsome still operating under the original names, including the Federal DepositInsurance Corporation (FDIC), the Federal Crop Insurance Corporation (FCIC), theFederal Housing Administration (FHA), and the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA).The largest programs still in existence today are the Social Security System and theSecurities and Exchange Commission (SEC).

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Contents1 Origins

1.1 Economic collapse (1929–1933)1.2 New Deal (1933–1938)1.3 World comparisons

1.3.1 Origins of the Great Depression1.3.2 International reaction

1.3.2.1 Europe1.3.2.2 Canada and the Caribbean1.3.2.3 Asia1.3.2.4 Australia and New Zealand

2 First New Deal (1933–1934)2.1 The First Hundred Days (1933)

2.1.1 Fiscal policy2.1.2 Banking reform2.1.3 Monetary reform2.1.4 Securities regulation2.1.5 Repeal of Prohibition

2.2 Relief2.2.1 Public works2.2.2 Farm and rural programs

2.3 Recovery2.3.1 NRA "Blue Eagle" campaign2.3.2 Housing Sector

2.4 Reform2.4.1 Trade liberalization2.4.2 Puerto Rico

3 Second New Deal (1935–1938)3.1 Social Security Act3.2 Labor relations3.3 Works Progress Administration3.4 Tax policy3.5 Housing Act of 1937

4 Court-packing plan and jurisprudential shift5 Recession of 1937 and recovery

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6 World War II and the end of the Great Depression7 Legacy and historiography8 The New Deal in Retrospect

8.1 Fiscal conservatism8.2 Race and Gender

8.2.1 African Americans8.2.2 Women and the New Deal

8.3 Charges of radicalism8.3.1 Charges of communism8.3.2 Charges of fascism

8.4 New Left critique8.5 Political metaphor

9 Evaluation of New Deal policies9.1 Relief9.2 Recovery

9.2.1 Keynesian interpretation9.2.2 Monetarist interpretation9.2.3 Economic growth and unemployment (1933-1941)9.2.4 Effect on the Depression

9.3 Reform10 The works of art and music11 New Deal Programs12 Statistics

12.1 Depression statistics12.2 Relief statistics

13 See also14 References15 Further reading

15.1 Surveys15.2 Biographies15.3 Economics, farms, labor, relief15.4 Politics15.5 Primary sources

16 External links

Origins

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USA annual real GDP from 1910 to 1960, withthe years of the Great Depression (1929–1939)highlighted.

Unemployment rate in the US 1910–1960, withthe years of the Great Depression (1929–1939)highlighted; accurate data begins in 1939.

Economic collapse (1929–1933)

From 1929 to 1933 manufacturingoutput decreased by one third. Pricesfell by 20%, causing a deflationwhich made the repayments of debtsmuch harder. Unemployment in theU.S. increased from 4% to 25%.Additionally, one-third of allemployed persons were downgradedto working part-time on muchsmaller paychecks. In the aggregate,almost 50% of the nation's humanwork-power was going unused.[7]

Before the New Deal, there was noinsurance on deposits at banks. Whenthousands of banks faced bankruptcy,many people lost all their savings. Atthat time there was no national safetynet, no public unemploymentinsurance, and no Social Security.[8]

Relief for the poor was theresponsibility of families, privatecharity, and local governments, butas conditions worsened year by year,their combined resourcesincreasingly fell far short ofdemand.[7]

The depression had devastated thenation. As Roosevelt took the oath of office at noon on March 4, 1933, the stategovernors had closed every bank in the nation; no one could cash a check or get attheir savings.[9] The unemployment rate was about 25% and higher in majorindustrial and mining centers. Farm income had fallen by over 50% since 1929.844,000 nonfarm mortgages had been foreclosed, 1930–33, out of five million in

all.[10] Political and business leaders feared revolution and anarchy. Joseph P.

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all.[10] Political and business leaders feared revolution and anarchy. Joseph P.Kennedy, Sr., who remained wealthy during the Depression, stated years later that "inthose days I felt and said I would be willing to part with half of what I had if I couldbe sure of keeping, under law and order, the other half."[11]

New Deal (1933–1938)

Upon accepting the 1932 Democratic nomination for president, Franklin Rooseveltpromised "a new deal for the American people".[12]

“ Throughout the nation men and women, forgotten in the politicalphilosophy of the Government, look to us here for guidance and for moreequitable opportunity to share in the distribution of national wealth... Ipledge myself to a new deal for the American people. This is more than apolitical campaign. It is a call to arms.[13] ”

Roosevelt entered office without a specific set of plans for dealing with the GreatDepression; so he improvised as Congress listened to a very wide variety ofvoices.[14] Among Roosevelt's more famous advisers was an informal "Brain Trust":a group that tended to view pragmatic government intervention in the economypositively.[15] His choice for Secretary of Labor, Frances Perkins, greatly influencedhis initiatives. Her list of what her priorities would be if she took the job illustrates:"a forty-hour workweek, a minimum wage, worker's compensation, unemploymentcompensation, a federal law banning child labor, direct federal aid for unemploymentrelief, Social Security, a revitalized public employment service and healthinsurance."[16]

The New Deal policies drew from many different ideas proposed earlier in the 20thcentury. Assistant Attorney General Thurman Arnold led efforts that hearkened backto an anti-monopoly tradition rooted in American politics by figures such as AndrewJackson and Thomas Jefferson. Supreme Court Justice Louis Brandeis, an influentialadviser to many New Dealers, argued that "bigness" (referring, presumably, tocorporations) was a negative economic force, producing waste and inefficiency.However, the anti-monopoly group never had a major impact on New Dealpolicy.[17] Other leaders such as Hugh Johnson of the NRA took ideas from theWoodrow Wilson Administration, advocating techniques used to mobilize the

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economy for World War I. They brought ideas and experience from the governmentcontrols and spending of 1917–18. Other New Deal planners revived experimentssuggested in the 1920s, such as the TVA.

The "First New Deal" (1933–34) encompassed the proposals offered by a widespectrum of groups. (Not included was the Socialist Party, whose influence was allbut destroyed.)[18] This first phase of the New Deal was also characterized by fiscalconservatism (see Economy Act, below) and experimentation with several different,sometimes contradictory, cures for economic ills. The consequences were uneven.Some programs, especially the National Recovery Administration (NRA) and thesilver program, have been widely seen as failures.[19][20] Other programs lastedabout a decade; some became permanent. The economy shot upward, with FDR's firstterm marking one of the fastest periods of GDP growth in history. Though adownturn in 1937–38 raised questions about just how successful the policies were,the great majority of economists and historians agree that they were an overallbenefit.

The New Deal faced some vocal conservative opposition. The first organizedopposition in 1934 came from the American Liberty League led by conservativeDemocrats such as 1924 and 1928 presidential candidates John W. Davis and AlSmith. There was also a large but loosely affiliated group of New Deal opponents,who are commonly called the Old Right. This group included politicians,intellectuals, writers, and newspaper editors of various philosophical persuasionsincluding classical liberals and conservatives, both Democrats and Republicans.

The New Deal represented a significant shift in politics and domestic policy. Itespecially led to greatly increased federal regulation of the economy. It also markedthe beginning of complex social programs and growing power of labor unions. Theeffects of the New Deal remain a source of controversy and debate amongeconomists and historians.[21]

World comparisons

Origins of the Great Depression

There is little agreement on what caused the Great Depression, and the topic has

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The Great Depression in an international context.

become highly politicized. Marxist Economics maintains that unrestrained marketeconomies inevitablylead to extreme wealthinequality whichbecomes unstable andcollapses in boom andbust cycles. Austrianeconomists like FriedrichHayek and MurrayRothbard said that in the1920s credit-induceddistortions produced aboom that in theirexpectations should haveended in a short bust.They suggest that thelong duration of thedepression in America was due to unprecedented government interventions byHoover and FDR that, in their opinion, actually prevented self-adjustment of theeconomy. These views however are evidentially untenable, since Herbert Hoovertook the balanced budget approach,[22] what's known now as Austerity, and didn'tstart to intervene with stimulus spending until the tail end of his presidency with theEmergency Relief and Construction Act. And when this along with the New Dealkicked in, unemployment started its climb downwards only to be interrupted whenthe New Deal spending ended and the money supply froze and caused the recessionof 1937.[23] When the new wave of stimulus spending began along with the warspending, the unemployment rate was below that of the 1920s. Furthermore thetheory of easy central bank credit offered by the Austrian School explains only thatbanks will have money and not what they would spend it on, thus it gives noexplanation as to why finance turned to the particular stock market bubble of the1920s, only that it had the wherewithal to do so.[24][25] In contrary Keynesians andMonetarists like Milton Friedman and Ben Bernanke suggest the crisis was caused bythe Federal Reserve Bank's strict adherence to the Gold Standard. John MaynardKeynes was one of the first contemporary economists to advocate policies ofmonetary expansion identical to those Friedman later said should have beenadopted.[26] In contrary to Monetarists Keynesian Economics asserts that markets

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can fail to self-correct, and investment can dry up in response to a perceived long-term lack of demand and lead to persistent high levels of unemployment.[27]

For details see Causes of the Great Depression.

International reaction

Europe

Britain was unable to agree on major programs to stop its depression. This led tothe collapse of the Labour Party government and its replacement in 1931 by aNational Coalition dominated by Conservatives. However, the Depressionaffected Britain less than most countries due to Britain's exit from the goldstandard in 1931 (which deal crisis and the Third Republic very muchcontested.)

In France, the "Front Populaire" government, led by Léon Blum, in power 1936–1938, instigated major social reforms. As the coalition united representativesfrom the center-left to the communist party, right-wing opposition was verystrong and social turmoil marred the Front Populaire term. This division left thecountry bitterly divided in 1938–1939.

In Germany during the Weimar Republic, the economy spiraled down, leadingto a political crisis and the rise to power of the Nazis in January 1933. Economicrecovery was pursued through autarky, pressure on economic partners, wagecontrols, price controls, and spending programs such as public works and,especially, military spending.

Spain endured mounting political crises that led in 1936 to civil war.

In Benito Mussolini's Italy, the economic controls of his corporate state weretightened.

The Soviet Union was mostly isolated from the world trading system during the1930s.

Canada and the Caribbean

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In Canada, Between 1929 and 1939, the gross national product dropped 40%,compared to 37% in the U.S. Unemployment reached 28% at the depth of theDepression in 1933. Many businesses closed, as corporate profits of C$396million in 1929 turned into losses of $98 million in 1933. Exports shrank by50% from 1929 to 1933. Worst hit were areas dependent on primary industriessuch as farming, mining and logging, as prices fell and there were fewalternative jobs. Families saw most or all of their assets disappear and theirdebts became heavier as prices fell. Local and provincial government set uprelief programs but there was no nationwide New-Deal-like program. TheConservative government of Prime Minister R. B. Bennett retaliated against theSmoot–Hawley Tariff Act by raising tariffs against the U.S. but lowered themon British Empire goods. Nevertheless the economy suffered. In 1935, Bennettproposed a series of programs that resembled the New Deal; the proposals wereall rejected and led to his defeat in the elections of 1935.[28]

The Caribbean saw its greatest unemployment during the 1930s because of adecline in exports to the U.S., and a fall in export prices.

Asia

China was at war with Japan during most of the 1930s, in addition to internalstruggles between Chiang Kai Shek's nationalists and Mao Zedong'scommunists.

Japan's economy expanded at the rate of 5% of GDP per year after the years ofmodernization. Manufacturing and mining came to account for more than 30%of GDP, more than twice the value for the agricultural sector. Most industrialgrowth, however, was geared toward expanding the nation's military power.Beginning in 1937 with significant land seizures in China, and then to a muchgreater extent after 1941, which saw annexations and invasions all acrossSoutheast Asia and the Pacific, Japan seized and developed natural resourcessuch as: sugarcane in the Philippines; petroleum from the Dutch East Indies andBurma; tin and bauxite from the Dutch East Indies and Malaya; and coal inChina (where production increased from 15,000,000 t (17,000,000 short tons) in1936, to 58,000,000 t (64,000,000 short tons) in 1942).[citation needed] Duringthe early stages of Japan's expansion, its economy expanded considerably. Ironproduction rose from 3,355,000 t (3,698,000 short tons) in 1937 to 6,148,000 t

(6,777,000 short tons) in 1943.[citation needed] Steel production rose from

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(6,777,000 short tons) in 1943.[citation needed] Steel production rose from6,442,000 t (7,101,000 short tons) to 8,838,000 t (9,742,000 short tons) over thesame time period. In 1941, Japanese aircraft industries had capacity tomanufacture 10,000 aircraft per year. From 1941 – September 1944, defenseproduction (including airplanes and vessels) rose by 94%.[citation needed]

Australia and New Zealand

In Australia, 1930s conservative and Labor-led governments concentrated oncutting spending and reducing the national debt. It was not until World War IIthat the Australian government (first conservative, then Labor) introducedKeynesian policies similar to the New Deal; increasing taxes in order to fundstimulative spending, economic oversight/regulation, and rationing ofpetroleum products are prominent examples of an evolving view of the role ofgovernment in Australia throughout that period. Many progressive policiesremained in place after the end of World War II. Labor Prime Minister BenChifley outlined these policies in his "The light on the hill"speech.[citation needed]

In New Zealand, a series of economic and social policies similar to the NewDeal were adopted after the election of the first Labour Government in 1935.[29]

First New Deal (1933–1934)

The First Hundred Days (1933)

The American people were generally extremely dissatisfied with the crumblingeconomy, mass unemployment, declining wages and profits and especially Hoover'spolicies such as the Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act and the Revenue Act of 1932.Roosevelt entered office with enormous political capital. Americans of all politicalpersuasions were demanding immediate action, and Roosevelt responded with aremarkable series of new programs in the “first hundred days” of the administration,in which he met with Congress for 100 days. During those 100 days of lawmaking,Congress granted every request Roosevelt asked, and passed a few programs (such asthe FDIC to insure bank accounts) that he opposed. Ever since, presidents have beenjudged against FDR for what they accomplished in their first 100 days. Walter

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Chart 2: Total employment in the U.S. from 1920 to1940, excluding farms and WPA.

Lippmann famously noted:

At the end of February we were a congeries of disorderly panic-strickenmobs and factions. In the hundred days from March to June we becameagain an organized nation confident of our power to provide for our ownsecurity and to control our own destiny.[30]

The economy had hit bottom in March 1933 and then started to expand. Economicindicators show the economy reached nadir in the first days of March, then began asteady, sharp upward recovery. Thus the Federal Reserve Index of IndustrialProduction sank to its lowestpoint of 52.8 in July 1932 (with1935–39 = 100) and waspractically unchanged at 54.3in March 1933; however byJuly 1933, it reached 85.5, adramatic rebound of 57% infour months. Recovery wassteady and strong until 1937.Except for employment, theeconomy by 1937 surpassed thelevels of the late 1920s. TheRecession of 1937 was atemporary downturn. Privatesector employment, especiallyin manufacturing, recovered tothe level of the 1920s but failedto advance further until thewar. Chart 2 shows the growth in employment without adjusting for populationgrowth. The U.S. population was 124,840,471 in 1932 and 128,824,829 in 1937, anincrease of 3,984,468.[31] The ratio of these numbers, times the number of jobs in1932, means there was a need for 938,000 more 1937 jobs to maintain the sameemployment level.

Fiscal policy

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The Economy Act, drafted by Budget Director Lewis Williams Douglas, was passedon March 14, 1933. The act proposed to balance the "regular" (non-emergency)federal budget by cutting the salaries of government employees and cutting pensionsto veterans by fifteen percent. It saved $500 million per year and reassured deficithawks, such as Douglas, that the new President was fiscally conservative. Rooseveltargued there were two budgets: the "regular" federal budget, which he balanced, andthe "emergency budget", which was needed to defeat the depression; it wasimbalanced on a temporary basis.[32]

Roosevelt was initially in favor of balancing the budget, but he soon found himselfrunning spending deficits in order to fund the numerous programs he created.Douglas, however, rejecting the distinction between a regular and emergency budget,resigned in 1934 and became an outspoken critic of the New Deal. Rooseveltstrenuously opposed the Bonus Bill that would give World War I veterans a cashbonus. Finally, Congress passed it over his veto in 1936, and the Treasury distributed$1.5 billion in cash as bonus welfare benefits to 4 million veterans just before the1936 election.[33]

New Dealers never accepted the Keynesian argument for government spending as avehicle for recovery. Most economists of the era, along with Henry Morgenthau ofthe Treasury Department, rejected Keynesian solutions and favored balancedbudgets.[34]

Banking reform

At the beginning of the Great Depression the economy was destabilized by bankfailures followed by credit crunches. The initial reasons were substantial losses ininvestment banking, followed by bank runs. Bank runs occurred when a large numberof customers withdraw their deposits because they believed the bank might becomeinsolvent. As the bank run progressed, it generated a self-fulfilling prophecy: asmore people withdraw their deposits, the likelihood of default increased, and thisencouraged further withdrawals. It destabilized many banks to the point where theyfaced bankruptcy. Between 1929 and 1933 40% of all banks (9.490 out of 23.697banks) went bankrupt.[35] Much of the Great Depression's economic damage wascaused directly by bank runs.[36]

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Crowd at New York's AmericanUnion Bank during a bank runearly in the Great Depression.

Herbert Hoover had already considered a bankholiday to prevent further bank runs, but rejectedthe idea because he was afraid to trip a panic.Roosevelt, however, gave a radio address, held inthe atmosphere of a Fireside Chat, and explainedto the public in simple terms the causes of thebanking crisis, what the government will do andhow the population could help. He closed all thebanks in the country and kept them all closeduntil he could pass new legislation.[37]

On March 9, Roosevelt sent to Congress theEmergency Banking Act, drafted in large part byHoover's top advisors. The act was passed and signed into law the same day. Itprovided for a system of reopening sound banks under Treasury supervision, withfederal loans available if needed. Three-quarters of the banks in the Federal ReserveSystem reopened within the next three days. Billions of dollars in hoarded currencyand gold flowed back into them within a month, thus stabilizing the banking system.By the end of 1933, 4,004 small local banks were permanently closed and mergedinto larger banks. Their deposits totalled $3.6 billion; depositors lost a total of $540million, and eventually received on average 85 cents on the dollar of their deposits; itis a common myth that they received nothing back.)[38] The Glass–Steagall Actlimited commercial bank securities activities and affiliations between commercialbanks and securities firms to regulate speculations. It also established the FederalDeposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), which insured deposits for up to $2,500,ending the risk of runs on banks.[39]

This banking reform offered unprecedented stability: While throughout the 1920smore than five hundred banks failed per year; it was less than ten banks per year after1933.[40]

Monetary reform

Under the gold standard the United States kept the Dollar convertible to gold. If thegold reserves fell, the Federal Reserve System would be forced to reduce the moneysupply. At the end of the 1920s the United States were confronted with a bigger

outflow of gold, thus in 1928 the Federal Reserve System began to raise its discount

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outflow of gold, thus in 1928 the Federal Reserve System began to raise its discountrate to stem the outflow of American gold. This deflationary policy was successful incontaining the gold reserves but restricted economic activity. In the 1970smonetarists like Milton Friedman explored, that the rise of the discount rate in 1931from 1.5% to 3.5% alone caused a 25% fall in industrial production.[41]

In March and April in a series of laws and executive orders, the governmentsuspended the gold standard. Roosevelt stopped the outflow of gold by forbidding theexport of gold except under licence from the treasury. Anyone holding significantamounts of gold coinage was mandated to exchange it for the existing fixed price ofUS dollars, after which the US would no longer pay gold on demand for the dollar,and gold would no longer be considered valid legal tender for debts in private andpublic contracts.[42]

The dollar was allowed to float freely on foreign exchange markets with noguaranteed price in gold. With the passage of the Gold Reserve Act in 1934 thenominal price of gold was changed from $20.67 per troy ounce to $35. Thesemeasures enabled the Fed to increase the amount of money in circulation to the levelthe economy needed. Markets immediately responded well to the suspension, in thehope that the decline in prices would finally end.[42] In her work What ended theGreat Depression? (1992) Christina Romer argued that this policy raised industrialproduction by 25% until 1937 and by 50% until 1942.[43]

Securities regulation

Before the Wall Street Crash of 1929, there was little regulation of securities. Evenfirms whose securitites were publicly traded published no regular reports or evenworse rather misleading reports based on arbitrarily selected data. To avoid anotherWall Street Crash the Securities Act of 1933 was enacted. It required the disclosureof the balance sheet, profit and loss statement, the names and compensations ofcorporate officers, about firms whose securities were traded. Additionally thosereports had to be verified by independent auditors. In 1934 the U.S. Securities andExchange Commission was established to regulate the stock market and preventcorporate abuses relating to the sale of securities and corporate reporting.[44]

Repeal of Prohibition

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Public Works AdministrationProject: Bonneville Dam.

In a measure that garnered substantial popular support for his New Deal, Roosevelt,on March 13, 1933, moved to put to rest one of the most divisive cultural issues ofthe 1920s. Just nine days later he signed the bill to legalize the manufacture and saleof alcohol, an interim measure pending the repeal of Prohibition, for which aconstitutional amendment (the 21st) was already in process. The repeal amendmentwas ratified later in 1933. States and cities gained additional new revenue, andRoosevelt secured his popularity in the cities for supporting or permitting the legalproduction and sale of alcoholic beverages.[45]

Relief

Public works

To prime the pump and cut unemployment, theNIRA created the Public Works Administration(PWA), a major program of public works, whichorganised and provided funds for the building ofuseful works such as government buildings,airports, hospitals, schools, roads, bridges, anddams.[46] From 1933 to 1935 PWA spent $3.3billion with private companies to build 34,599projects, many of them quite large.[47]

Under Roosevelt, many unemployed persons wereput to work on a wide range of governmentfinanced public works projects, building bridges, airports, dams, post offices,courthouses, and thousands of kilometres of road. Through reforestation and floodcontrol, they reclaimed millions of hectares of soil from erosion and devastation. Asnoted by one authority, Roosevelt’s New Deal "was literally stamped on theAmerican landscape".[48]

Farm and rural programs

Many rural people lived in severe poverty, especially in the South. Major programsaddressed to their needs included the Resettlement Administration (RA), the RuralElectrification Administration (REA), rural welfare projects sponsored by the WPA,

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Pumping water by hand fromsole water supply in this sectionof Wilder, Tennessee (TennesseeValley Authority, 1942).

NYA, Forest Service and Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), including schoollunches, building new schools, opening roads in remote areas, reforestation, andpurchase of marginal lands to enlarge nationalforests. In 1933, the Administration launched theTennessee Valley Authority, a project involvingdam construction planning on an unprecedentedscale in order to curb flooding, generateelectricity, and modernize the very poor farms inthe Tennessee Valley region of the SouthernUnited States. Under the Farmers’ Relief Act of1933, the government paid compensation tofarmers who reduced output, thereby risingprices. As a result of this legislation, the averageincome of farmers almost doubled by 1937.[46]

In the 1920s farm production had increaseddramatically thanks to mechanization, more potent insecticides and increased use offertilizer. Due to an overproduction of agricultural products farmers faced an severeand chronic agricultural depression throughout the 1920s. The Depression evenworsened the agricultural crises. At the beginning of 1933 agricultural marketsnearly faced collapse.[49] Farm prices were so low that for example in Montanawheat was rotting in the fields because it could not be profitably harvested. InOregon sheep were slaughtered and left to the buzzards because meat prices were notsufficient to warrant transportation to markets.[50]

Roosevelt was keenly interested in farm issues and believed that true prosperitywould not return until farming was prosperous. Many different programs weredirected at farmers. The first 100 days produced the Farm Security Act to raise farmincomes by raising the prices farmers received, which was achieved by reducing totalfarm output. The Agricultural Adjustment Act created the Agricultural AdjustmentAdministration (AAA) in May 1933. The act reflected the demands of leaders ofmajor farm organizations, especially the Farm Bureau, and reflected debates amongRoosevelt's farm advisers such as Secretary of Agriculture Henry A. Wallace, M.L.Wilson, Rexford Tugwell, and George Peek.[51]

The aim of the AAA was to raise prices for commodities through artificial scarcity.

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The AAA used a system of "domestic allotments", setting total output of corn,cotton, dairy products, hogs, rice, tobacco, and wheat. The farmers themselves had avoice in the process of using government to benefit their incomes. The AAA paidland owners subsidies for leaving some of their land idle with funds provided by anew tax on food processing. To force up farm prices to the point of "parity" 10million acres (40,000 km2) of growing cotton was plowed up, bountiful crops wereleft to rot, and six million piglets were killed and discarded.[52]

The idea was to give farmers a “fair exchange value” for their products in relation tothe general economy (“parity level”).[53] Farm incomes and the income for thegeneral population recovered fast since the Beginning of 1933.[54][55] Still, foodprices remained well below the 1929 peak.[56] John T. Flynn stated that thedepartment of Agriculture issued a bulletin telling the nation that the great problemof our time was "our failure to produce enough food to provide the people with amere subsistence diet".[57] In fact the problem of agricultural overproduction,especially food and cotton, remained until World War II, the AAA just downsizedthe level of overproduction.[53]

The AAA established an important and long-lasting federal role in the planning onthe entire agricultural sector of the economy and was the first program on such ascale on behalf of the troubled agricultural economy. The original AAA did notprovide for any sharecroppers or tenants or farm laborers who might becomeunemployed, but there were other New Deal programs especially for them.

A Gallup Poll printed in the Washington Post revealed that a majority of theAmerican public opposed the AAA.[58] In 1936, the Supreme Court declared theAAA to be unconstitutional, stating that "a statutory plan to regulate and controlagricultural production, [is] a matter beyond the powers delegated to the federalgovernment..." The AAA was replaced by a similar program that did win Courtapproval. Instead of paying farmers for letting fields lie barren, this program insteadsubsidized them for planting soil enriching crops such as alfalfa that would not besold on the market. Federal regulation of agricultural production has been modifiedmany times since then, but together with large subsidies is still in effect in 2012.

The last major New Deal legislation concerning farming was in 1937, when the FarmTenancy Act was created which in turn created the Farm Security Administration

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NRA Blue Eagle.

(FSA), replacing the Resettlement Administration.

A major new welfare program was the Food Stamp Plan established in 1939.Although abolished by Congress in 1943, it was restored in 1961 and survives intothe 21st century with little controversy because it benefits the urban poor, foodproducers, grocers and wholesalers, as well as farmers, thereby winning support fromboth liberal and conservative Congressmen.[59]

Recovery

NRA "Blue Eagle" campaign

Main article: National Recovery Administration

Roosevelt's advisers believed, that excessivecompetition and technical progress had led tooverproduction and lowered wages and prices, whichthey believed lowered demand and employment(Deflation).[61] He argued that government economicplanning was necessary to remedy this:

...A mere builder of more industrial plants, acreator of more railroad systems, an organizer ofmore corporations, is as likely to be a danger as ahelp. Our task is not ... necessarily producing moregoods. It is the soberer, less dramatic business ofadministering resources and plants already in hand.

From 1929 to 1933, the industrial economy had been suffering from a vicious cycleof deflation. Since 1931, the U.S. Chamber of Commerce, the voice of the nation'sorganized business, promoted an anti-deflationary scheme that would permit tradeassociations to cooperate in government-instigated[61] cartels to stabilize priceswithin their industries. While existing antitrust laws clearly forbade such practices,organized business found a receptive ear in the Roosevelt Administration.[62]

New Deal economists argued that cut-throat competition had hurt many businesses

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Chart 3: Manufacturing employment in the UnitedStates from 1920 to 1940[60]

and that with prices havingfallen 20% and more,"deflation" exacerbated theburden of debt and would delayrecovery. They rejected astrong move in Congress tolimit the workweek to 30hours. Instead their remedy,designed in cooperation withbig business, was the NIRA. Itincluded stimulus funds for theWPA to spend, and sought toraise prices, give morebargaining power for unions(so the workers could purchase more) and reduce harmful competition. At the centerof the NIRA was the National Recovery Administration (NRA), headed by formerGeneral Hugh Johnson, who had been a senior economic official in World War I.Johnson called on every business establishment in the nation to accept a stopgap"blanket code": a minimum wage of between 20 and 45 cents per hour, a maximumworkweek of 35–45 hours, and the abolition of child labor. Johnson and Rooseveltcontended that the "blanket code" would raise consumer purchasing power andincrease employment.[63]

To mobilize political support for the NRA, Johnson launched the "NRA Blue Eagle"publicity campaign to boost what he called "industrial self-government". The NRAbrought together leaders in each industry to design specific sets of codes for thatindustry; the most important provisions were anti-deflationary floors below which nocompany would lower prices or wages, and agreements on maintaining employmentand production. In a remarkably short time, the NRA announced agreements fromalmost every major industry in the nation. By March 1934, industrial production was45% higher than in March 1933.[64] Donald Richberg, who soon replaced Johnson asthe head of the NRA said:

There is no choice presented to American business between intelligentlyplanned and uncontrolled industrial operations and a return to the gold-plated anarchy that masqueraded as "rugged individualism" ... Unless

industry is sufficiently socialized by its private owners and managers so

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industry is sufficiently socialized by its private owners and managers sothat great essential industries are operated under public obligationappropriate to the public interest in them, the advance of political controlover private industry is inevitable.[65]

By the time NRA ended in May 1935, industrial production was 55% higher than inMay 1933. In addition, well over 2 million employers accepted the new standardslaid down by the NRA, which had introduced a minimum wage and an eight-hourworkday, together with abolishing child labor.[46] On May 27, 1935, the NRA wasfound to be unconstitutional by a unanimous decision of the U.S. Supreme Court inthe case of Schechter v. United States. On that same day, the Court unanimouslystruck down the Frazier-Lemke Act portion of the New Deal as unconstitutional.After the end of the NRA quotas in the oil industry were fixed by the RailroadCommission of Texas with Tom Connally's federal Hot Oil Act of 1935, whichguaranteed that illegal "hot oil" would not be sold.[66]

Employment in private sector factories recovered to the level of the late 1920s by1937 but did not grow much bigger until the war came and manufacturingemployment leaped from 11 million in 1940 to 18 million in 1943.

Housing Sector

The New Deal had an important impact in the housing field. The New Deal followedand increased President Hoover's lead and seek measures. The New Deal sought tostimulate the private home building industry and increase the number of individualswho owned homes.[67] The New Deal implemented two new housing agencies; HomeOwners' Loan Corporation (HOLC) and the Federal Housing Administration (FHA).HOLC set uniform national appraisal methods and simplified the mortgage process.The Federal Housing Administration (FHA) created national standards for homeconstruction.

The New Deal helped increase the number of Americans who owned homes. Beforethe New Deal only four out of 10 Americans owned homes; this was because thestandard mortgage lasted only five to 10 years and had interest as high as 8%. Theseconditions severely limited the accessibility to housing for most Americans. Underthe New Deal, Americans had access to 30-year mortgages, the standardized

appraisal and construction standards helped open up the housing market to more

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appraisal and construction standards helped open up the housing market to moreAmericans.

Reform

Trade liberalization

There is consensus amongst economic historians that protectionist policies,culminating in the Smoot-Hawley Act of 1930 worsened the Depression.[68] FranklinD. Roosevelt already spoke against the act while campaigning for president during1932.[69] In 1934 the Reciprocal Tariff Act was drafted by Cordell Hull. It gave thepresident power to negotiate bilateral, reciprocal trade agreements with othercountries. The act enabled Roosevelt to liberalize American trade policy around theglobe. It is widely credited with ushering in the era of liberal trade policy thatpersists to this day.[70]

Puerto Rico

A separate set of programs operated in Puerto Rico, headed by the Puerto RicoReconstruction Administration. It promoted land reform and helped small farms; itset up farm cooperatives, promoted crop diversification, and helped local industry.The Puerto Rico Reconstruction Administration was directed by Juan Pablo MontoyaSr. from 1935 to 1937.

Second New Deal (1935–1938)In the spring of 1935, responding to the setbacks in the Court, a new skepticism inCongress, and the growing popular clamor for more dramatic action, theAdministration proposed or endorsed several important new initiatives. Historiansrefer to them as the "Second New Deal" and note that it was more liberal and morecontroversial than the "First New Deal" of 1933–34.

Social Security Act

Until 1935 there were just a dozen states that had old age insurance laws but theseprograms were woefully underfunded and therefore almost worthless. Just one state

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A poster for the expansion of theSocial Security Act.

programs were woefully underfunded and therefore almost worthless. Just one state(Wisconsin) had an insurance program. TheUnited States was the only modern industrialcountry, where people faced the Depressionwithout any national system of socialsecurity.[71] Even the work programs of the "FirstNew Deal" were just meant as immediate relief,destined to run less than a decade.[72]

The most important program of 1935, andperhaps the New Deal as a whole, was the SocialSecurity Act, drafted by Francis Perkins. Itestablished a permanent system of universalretirement pensions (Social Security),unemployment insurance, and welfare benefitsfor the handicapped and needy children infamilies without father present.[73] It establishedthe framework for the U.S. welfare system.Roosevelt insisted that it should be funded by payroll taxes rather than from thegeneral fund; he said, "We put those payroll contributions there so as to give thecontributors a legal, moral, and political right to collect their pensions andunemployment benefits. With those taxes in there, no damn politician can ever scrapmy social security program."

Compared with the social security systems in western European countries, the SocialSecurity Act of 1935 was rather conservative. But for the first time the federalgovernment took responsibility for the economic security of the aged, thetemporarily unemployed, dependent children and the handicapped.[74]

Labor relations

The National Labor Relations Act of 1935, also known as the Wagner Act, finallyguaranteed workers the rights to collective bargaining through unions of their ownchoice. The Act also established the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) tofacilitate wage agreements and to suppress the repeated labor disturbances. TheWagner Act totally did not compel employers to reach agreement with their

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WPA employed 2 to 3 millionunemployed at unskilled labor.

employees. But it opened possibilities for American labor.[75] The result was atremendous growth of membership in the labor unions, especially in the mass-production sector,[76] composing the American Federation of Labor. Labor thusbecame a major component of the New Deal political coalition.

The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 set maximum hours (44 per week) andminimum wages (25 cents per hour) for most categories of workers. Child labour ofchildren under the age of 16 was forbidden, children under 18 years were forbiddento work in hazardous employment. As a result the wages of 300,000 people wereincreased and the hours of 1.3 million were reduced.[41]

Works Progress Administration

Roosevelt nationalized unemployment reliefthrough the Works Progress Administration(WPA), headed by close friend Harry Hopkins.Roosevelt had insisted that the projects had to becostly in terms of labor, long-term beneficial, andthe WPA was forbidden to compete with privateenterprises (therefore the workers had to be paidsmaller wages).[77] The Works ProgressAdministration (WPA) was created to return theunemployed to the work force.[78] The WPAfinanced a variety of projects such as hospitals,schools, and roads,[46] and employed more than8.5 million workers who built 650,000 miles of highways and roads, 125,000 publicbuildings, as well as bridges, reservoirs, irrigation systems, parks, playgrounds andso on.[79]

Prominent projects were the Lincoln Tunnel, the Robert F. Kennedy Bridge, theLaGuardia Airport, the Overseas Highway and the San Francisco – Oakland BayBridge.[80] The Rural Electrification Administration used co-ops to bring electricityto rural areas, many of which still operate.[81] The National Youth Administrationwas another the semi-autonomous WPA program for youth. Its Texas director,Lyndon Baines Johnson, later used the NYA as a model for some of his Great Society

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programs in the 1960s.[82] The WPA was organized by states, but New York City hadits own branch Federal One, which created jobs for writers, musicians, artists, andtheater personnel. It became a hunting ground for conservatives searching forCommunist employees.[83]

The Federal Writer’s Project operated in every state, where it created a famous guidebook; it also catalogued local archives and hired many writers, including MargaretWalker, Zora Neale Hurston, and Anzia Yezierska, to document folklore. Otherwriters interviewed elderly ex-slaves and recorded their stories. Under the FederalTheater Project, headed by charismatic Hallie Flanagan, actresses and actors,technicians, writers, and directors put on stage productions. The tickets wereinexpensive or sometimes free, making theater available to audiences unaccustomedto attending plays.[82] One Federal Art Project paid 162 trained woman artists onrelief to paint murals or create statues for newly built post offices and courthouses.Many of these works of art can still be seen in public buildings around the country,along with murals sponsored by the Treasury Relief Art Project of the TreasuryDepartment.[84][85] During its existence, the Federal Theatre Project provided jobsfor circus people, musicians, actors, artists, and playwrights, together with increasingpublic appreciation of the arts.[46]

Tax policy

In 1935, Roosevelt called for a tax program called the Wealth Tax Act (Revenue Actof 1935) to redistribute wealth. But there was more rhetoric than revenue in thatproposal. The bill imposed an income tax of 79% on incomes over $5 million. Sincethat was an extraordinary high income in the 1930s, the highest tax rate actuallycovered just one individual – John D. Rockefeller. The bill was expected to raise onlyabout $ 250 million in additional funds, so revenue was not the primary goal.Morgenthau called it “more or less a campaign document”. In a private conversationwith Raymond Moley, Roosevelt admitted that the purpose of the bill was “stealingHuey Long´s thunder” by making Long's supporters his own. At the same time, itraised the bitterness of the rich who called Roosevelt “a traitor to his class” and thewealth tax act a “Soak the rich tax”.[86]

A tax called the Undistributed profits tax was enacted in 1936. This time the primarypurpose was revenue since congress had enacted the Adjusted Compensation

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Payment Act, calling for payments to World War I veterans of $ 2 billion. The billestablished the persisting principle that retained corporate earnings could be taxed.Paid dividends were tax deductible by corporations. The bill was designed to replaceall other corporation taxes. The purpose was to stimulate corporations to distributeearnings and thus put more cash and spending power in the hands of individuals.[87]

In the end, Congress watered down the bill, setting the tax rates at 7 to 27% andlargely exempting small enterprises.[88] Facing widespread and fierce criticism,[89]

the tax deduction of paid dividends was repealed in 1938.[90]

Housing Act of 1937

One of the last New Deal agencies was the United States Housing Authority, createdin 1937 with some Republican support to abolish slums.

Court-packing plan and jurisprudential shiftMain article: Judiciary Reorganization Bill of 1937

When Roosevelt took office a majority of the nine judges of the Supreme Court wereappointed by Republican Party Presidents. Four especially conservative judges(nicknamed the Four Horsemen) often managed to convince the fifth judge OwenRoberts to void down progressive legislation.[91] Roosevelt increasingly saw theissue of the Supreme Court as one of unelected officials stifling the work of ademocratically elected government. Early in the year 1936, he asked Congress topass the Judiciary Reorganization Bill of 1937. That proposal would have given thepresident the power to appoint a new justice whenever an existing judge reached theage of 70 and failed to retire within six months. In that way Roosevelt hoped topreserve the New Deal legislation. But he had stirred up a hornet`s nest since manycongressmen feared he might start to retire them at 70 next. Many congressmenconsidered the proposal unconstitutional. In the end the proposal failed.[92]

In one sense, however, it succeeded: Justice Owen Roberts switched positions andbegan voting to uphold New Deal measures, effectively creating a liberal majority inWest Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish and National Labor Relations Board v. Jones &Laughlin Steel Corporation, thus departing from the Lochner v. New York era and

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giving the government more power in questions of economic policies. Journalistscalled this change "the switch in time that saved nine". Recent scholars have notedthat since the vote in Parrish took place several months before the court-packing planwas announced, other factors, like evolving jurisprudence, must have contributed tothe Court's swing. The opinions handed down in the spring of 1937, favorable to thegovernment, also contributed to the downfall of the plan. In any case, the "courtpacking plan", as it was known, did lasting political damage to Roosevelt.[93]

With the retirement of Justice Willis Van Devanter, the Court's composition began tomove solidly in support of Roosevelt's legislative agenda. In the end Roosevelt hadlost the battle for the Judiciary Reorganization Bill but won the war for control of theSupreme Court in a constitutional way. Since he managed to serve in office for morethan twelve years he got the chance to appoint eight of the nine Justices of the Court.Former Supreme Court Chief Justice William Rehnquist noted that in this way theConstitution provides for ultimate responsibility of the Court to the politicalbranches of government.[94]

Recession of 1937 and recoveryMain article: Recession of 1937

The Roosevelt Administration was under assault during FDR's second term, whichpresided over a new dip in the Great Depression in the fall of 1937 that continueduntil most of 1938. Production and profits declined sharply. Unemployment jumpedfrom 14.3% in 1937 to 19.0% in 1938. The downturn was perhaps due to nothingmore than the familiar rhythms of the business cycle. But until 1937 Roosevelt hadclaimed responsibility for the excellent economic performance. That backfired in therecession and the heated political atmosphere of 1937.[95]

Business-oriented conservatives explained the recession by arguing that the NewDeal had been very hostile to business expansion in 1935–37, had threatened massiveanti-trust legal attacks on big corporations and by the huge strikes caused by theorganizing activities of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) and theAmerican Federation of Labor (AFL). The recovery was explained by theconservatives in terms of the diminishing of those threats sharply after 1938. Forexample, the antitrust efforts fizzled out without major cases. The CIO and AFL

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unions started battling each other more than corporations, and tax policy becamemore favorable to long-term growth.[96]

"When The Gallup Organization's poll in 1939 asked, 'Do you think the attitude ofthe Roosevelt administration toward business is delaying business recovery?' theAmerican people responded 'yes' by a margin of more than two-to-one. The businesscommunity felt even more strongly so."[97] Fortune's Roper poll found in May 1939that 39% of Americans thought the administration had been delaying recovery byundermining business confidence, while 37% thought it had not. But it also foundthat opinions on the issue were highly polarized by economic status and occupation.In addition, AIPO found in the same time that 57% believed that business attitudestoward the administration were delaying recovery, while 26% thought they were not,emphasizing that fairly subtle differences in wording can evoke substantiallydifferent polling responses.[98]

Keynesian economists stated that the recession of 1937 was a result of a prematureeffort to curb government spending and balance the budget.[99]

Roosevelt had been cautious not to run large deficits. In 1937 he actually achieved abalanced budget. Therefore he did not fully utilize deficit spending.[100] Between1933 and 1941 the average federal budget deficit was 3% per year.[101]

In November 1937 Roosevelt decided that big business were trying to ruin the NewDeal by causing another depression that voters would react against by votingRepublican.[102] It was a "capital strike" said Roosevelt, and he ordered the FederalBureau of Investigation to look for a criminal conspiracy (they found none).Roosevelt moved left and unleashed a rhetorical campaign against monopoly power,which was cast as the cause of the new crisis. Ickes attacked automaker Henry Ford,steelmaker Tom Girdler, and the super rich "Sixty Families" who supposedlycomprised "the living center of the modern industrial oligarchy which dominates theUnited States".[103]

Left unchecked, Ickes warned, they would create "big-business Fascist America—anenslaved America". The President appointed Robert Jackson as the aggressive newdirector of the antitrust division of the Justice Department, but this effort lost itseffectiveness once World War II began and big business was urgently needed to

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produce war supplies. But the Administration's other response to the 1937 dip thatstalled recovery from of the Great Depression had more tangible results.[104]

Ignoring the requests of the Treasury Department and responding to the urgings ofthe converts to Keynesian economics and others in his Administration, Rooseveltembarked on an antidote to the depression, reluctantly abandoning his efforts tobalance the budget and launching a $5 billion spending program in the spring of1938, an effort to increase mass purchasing power.[105] Roosevelt explained hisprogram in a fireside chat in which he told the American people that it was up to thegovernment to "create an economic upturn" by making "additions to the purchasingpower of the nation".

World War II and the end of the Great DepressionThe Depression ended when the U.S. entered World War II in December 1941. Underthe special circumstances of war mobilization, massive war spending doubled theGNP (Gross National Product).[106] Military Keynesianism brought fullemployment. Federal contracts were cost-plus. Instead of competitive bidding to getlower prices, the government gave out contracts that promised to pay all the expensesplus a modest profit. Factories hired everyone they could find regardless of their lackof skills; they simplified work tasks and trained the workers, with the federalgovernment paying all the costs. Millions of farmers left marginal operations,students quit school, and housewives joined the labor force.[107]

The emphasis was for war supplies as soon as possible, regardless of cost andinefficiencies. Industry quickly absorbed the slack in the labor force, and the tablesturned such that employers needed to actively and aggressively recruit workers. Asthe military grew, new labor sources were needed to replace the 12 million menserving in the military. Propaganda campaigns pleading for people to work in the warfactories. The barriers for married women, the old, the unskilled—and (in the Northand West) the barriers for racial minorities—were lowered.[108]

In 1929, federal expenditures accounted for only 3% of GNP. Between 1933 and1939, federal expenditure tripled, but the national debt as percent of GNP hardlychanged. However, spending on the New Deal was far smaller than spending on thewar effort, which passed 40% of GNP in 1944. The war economy grew so fast after

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deemphasizing free enterprise and imposing strict controls on prices and wages, as aresult of government/business cooperation, with government subsidizing business,directly and indirectly.[109]

Despite conservative domination of Congress during the early 1940s, a number ofprogressive measures supported by business in the name of efficiency and safetywere legislated. The Coal Mines Inspection and Investigation Act of 1941significantly reduced fatality rates in the coal-mining industry,[110] while theServicemen's Dependents Allowance Act of 1942 provided family allowances fordependents of enlisted men of the Army, Navy, Marine Corps, and the Coast Guard,while emergency grants to States were authorized that same year for programs forday care for children of working mothers. In 1944, pensions were authorized for allphysically or mentally helpless children of deceased veterans regardless of the age ofthe child at the date the claim was filed or at the time of the veteran's death, providedthe child was disabled at the age of sixteen and that the disability continued to thedate of the claim. The Public Health Service Act, which was passed that same year,expanded Federal-State public health programs, and increased the annual amount forgrants for public health services.[111]

The New Dealers wanted benefits for everyone according to need. The conservativeshowever proposed benefits based on national service, and their approach won out.The "G.I. Bill" was a landmark piece of legislation, the Servicemen's ReadjustmentAct of 1944. It provided 16 million returning veterans with benefits such as housing,educational, and unemployment assistance, and played a major role in the postwarexpansion of the American middle class.[112]

A major result of the full employment at high wages was a sharp, long lastingdecrease in the level of income inequality (Great Compression). The gap betweenrich and poor narrowed dramatically in the area of nutrition, because food rationingand price controls provided a reasonably priced diet to everyone. White collarworkers did not typically receive overtime thus the gap between white collar andblue collar income narrowed. Large families that had been poor during the 1930s hadfour or more wage earners, and these families shot to the top one-third incomebracket. Overtime provided large paychecks in war industries,[113] and averageliving standards rose steadily, with real wages rising by 44% in the four years of war,while the percentage of families with an annual income of less than $2,000 fell from

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The New Deal was theinspiration for PresidentLyndon B. Johnson's GreatSociety in 1960s. Johnson(on right) headed the TexasNYA and was elected toCongress in 1938.

75% to 25% of the population.[114]

Legacy and historiographyAnalysts agree the New Deal produced a newpolitical coalition that sustained the DemocraticParty as the majority party in national politics formore than a generation after its own end.[115]

However there is disagreement about whether itmarked a permanent change in values. Cowie andSalvatore in 2008 argued that it was a response todepression and did not mark a commitment to awelfare state because America has always been tooindividualistic.[116] MacLean rejected the idea of adefinitive political culture. She says theyoveremphasized individualism and ignored theenormous power of big capital wields, theConstitutional restraints on radicalism, and the roleof racism, antifeminism, and homophobia. She warnsthat accepting Cowie and Salvatore's argument that conservatism's ascendancy isinevitable would dismay and discourage activists on the left.[117] Klein responds thatthe New Deal did not die a natural death; it was killed off in the 1970s by a businesscoalition mobilized by such groups as the Business Roundtable, the Chamber ofCommerce, trade organizations, conservative think tanks, and decades of sustainedlegal and political attacks.[118]

Historians generally agree that during Roosevelt's 12 years in office, there was adramatic increase in the power of the federal government as a whole. Roosevelt alsoestablished the presidency as the prominent center of authority within the federalgovernment. Roosevelt created a large array of agencies protecting various groups ofcitizens—workers, farmers, and others—who suffered from the crisis, and thusenabled them to challenge the powers of the corporations. In this way, the RooseveltAdministration generated a set of political ideas—known as New Deal liberalism—that remained a source of inspiration and controversy for decades. New Deal

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liberalism lay the foundation of a new consensus. Between 1940 and 1980 there wasthe liberal consensus about the prospects for the widespread distribution ofprosperity within an expanding capitalist economy.[115] Especially Harry S. TrumansFair Deal and in the 1960s, Lyndon B. Johnson's Great Society used the New Deal asinspiration for a dramatic expansion of liberal programs.

The New Deals enduring appeal on voters fostered its acceptance by moderate andliberal Republicans.[119]

As the first Republican president elected after FDR, Dwight D. Eisenhower (1953–61) build on the New Deal in a manner that embodied his thoughts on efficiency andcost-effectiveness. He sanctioned a major expansion of Social Security by a self-financed program.[120] He supported such New Deal programs as the minimum wageand public housing; he greatly expanded federal aid to education and built theInterstate Highway system primarily as defense programs (rather than jobsprogram).[5] In a private letter Eisenhower wrote:

Should any party attempt to abolish social security and eliminate laborlaws and farm programs, you would not hear of that party again in ourpolitical history. There is a tiny splinter group of course, that believes youcan do these things ... Their number is negligible and they are stupid.[121]

In 1964 libertarian Barry Goldwater, an unreconstructed anti-New Dealer, was theRepublican presidential candidate. The Democrats won the election with the largestshare of the popular vote in history but the supporters of Goldwater formed the NewRight which helped to bring Ronald Reagan into the White House in the 1980presidential election.[122] This marked the end of the liberal consensus. Since the1980s there is a political discourse about supply-side economics and a strict rejectionof Keynesian economic policy.

The New Deal in Retrospect

Fiscal conservatism

Julian Zelizer (2000) has argued that fiscal conservatism was a key component of theNew Deal.[123] A fiscally conservative approach was supported by Wall Street andlocal investors and most of the business community; mainstream academic

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local investors and most of the business community; mainstream academiceconomists believed in it, as apparently did the majority of the public. Conservativesouthern Democrats, who favored balanced budgets and opposed new taxes,controlled Congress and its major committees. Even liberal Democrats at the timeregarded balanced budgets as essential to economic stability in the long run, althoughthey were more willing to accept short-term deficits. As Zelizer notes, public opinionpolls consistently showed public opposition to deficits and debt. Throughout histerms, Roosevelt recruited fiscal conservatives to serve in his Administration, mostnotably Lewis Douglas the Director of Budget in 1933–1934, and Henry MorgenthauJr., Secretary of the Treasury from 1934 to 1945. They defined policy in terms ofbudgetary cost and tax burdens rather than needs, rights, obligations, or politicalbenefits. Personally the President embraced their fiscal conservatism. Politically, herealized that fiscal conservatism enjoyed a strong wide base of support among voters,leading Democrats, and businessmen. On the other hand, there was enormouspressure to act – and spending money on high visibility work programs with millionsof paychecks a week.[124]

Douglas proved too inflexible, and he quit in 1934. Morgenthau made it his highestpriority to stay close to Roosevelt, no matter what. Douglas's position, like many ofthe Old Right, was grounded in a basic distrust of politicians and the deeplyingrained fear that government spending always involved a degree of patronage andcorruption that offended his Progressive sense of efficiency. The Economy Act of1933, passed early in the Hundred Days, was Douglas's great achievement. It reducedfederal expenditures by $500 million, to be achieved by reducing veterans’ paymentsand federal salaries. Douglas cut government spending through executive orders thatcut the military budget by $125 million, $75 million from the Post Office, $12million from Commerce, $75 million from government salaries, and $100 millionfrom staff layoffs. As Freidel concludes, "The economy program was not a minoraberration of the spring of 1933, or a hypocritical concession to delightedconservatives. Rather it was an integral part of Roosevelt's overall New Deal."[125]

Revenues were so low that borrowing was necessary (only the richest 3% paid anyincome tax between 1926 and 1940).[126] Douglas therefore hated the reliefprograms, which he said reduced business confidence, threatened the government’sfuture credit, and had the "destructive psychological effects of making mendicants ofself-respecting American citizens".[127] Roosevelt was pulled toward greater

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The New Deal set up numerousagencies to help impoverishedfarmers, but in the long runmoving to the cities was thetrend. This is an FSA photo of aTexas sharecropper's shack.

spending by Hopkins and Ickes, and as the 1936 election approached he decided togain votes by attacking big business.

Morgenthau shifted with FDR, but at all times tried to inject fiscal responsibility; hedeeply believed in balanced budgets, stable currency, reduction of the national debt,and the need for more private investment. The Wagner Act met Morgenthau’srequirement because it strengthened the party’s political base and involved no newspending. In contrast to Douglas, Morgenthau accepted Roosevelt’s double budget aslegitimate – that is a balanced regular budget, and an “emergency” budget foragencies, like the WPA, PWA and CCC, that would be temporary until full recoverywas at hand. He fought against the veterans’ bonus until Congress finally overrodeRoosevelt’s veto and gave out $2.2 billion in 1936. His biggest success was the newSocial Security program; he managed to reverse the proposals to fund it from generalrevenue and insisted it be funded by new taxes on employees. It was Morgenthauwho insisted on excluding farm workers and domestic servants from Social Securitybecause workers outside industry would not be paying their way.[128]

Race and Gender

African Americans

Although many Americans suffered economicallyduring the Great Depression, African Americansalso had to deal with social ills, such as racism,discrimination, and segregation.

Many leading New Dealers, including EleanorRoosevelt, Harold Ickes, Aubrey Williams, andJohn Flores Sr. worked to ensure blacks receivedat least 10% of welfare assistance payments.[129]

There was no attempt whatsoever to endsegregation, or to increase black rights in theSouth. Roosevelt appointed an unprecedentednumber of blacks to second-level positions in hisadministration; these appointees werecollectively called the Black Cabinet. Roosevelt

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and Hopkins worked with several big city mayors to encourage the transition of blackpolitical organizations from the Republican Party to the Democratic Party from 1934to 1936, most notably in Chicago. The black community responded favorably, so thatby 1936 the majority who voted (usually in the North) were voting Democratic. Thiswas a sharp realignment from 1932, when most African Americans voted theRepublican ticket. New Deal policies helped establish a political alliance betweenblacks and the Democratic Party that survives into the 21st century.[130]

The WPA, NYA, and CCC relief programs allocated 10% of their budgets to blacks(who comprised about 10% of the total population, and 20% of the poor). Theyoperated separate all-black units with the same pay and conditions as whiteunits.[129]

However, these benefits were small in comparison to the economic and politicaladvantages that whites received. Most unions excluded blacks from joining.Enforcement of anti-discrimination laws in the South was virtually impossible,especially since most blacks worked in hospitality and agricultural sectors.[131] TheFarm Service Agency (FSA), a government relief agency for tenant farmers, createdin 1937, made efforts to empower African Americans by appointing them to agencycommittees in the South. Senator James F. Byrnes of South Carolina raisedopposition to the appointments because he stood for white farmers who werethreatened by an agency that could organize and empower tenant farmers.

Initially, the FSA stood behind their appointments, but after feeling national pressureFSA was forced to release the African Americans of their positions. The goals of theFSA were notoriously liberal and not cohesive with the southern voting elite.

The wartime FEPC executive orders that forbade job discrimination against AfricanAmericans, women, and ethnic groups was a major breakthrough that brought betterjobs and pay to millions of minority Americans. Historians usually treat FEPC aspart of the war effort and not part of the New Deal itself.

Women and the New Deal

At first the New Deal created programs primarily for men. It was assumed that thehusband was the "breadwinner" (the provider) and if they had jobs, whole families

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FERA camp for unemployedwomen, Maine, 1934.

would benefit. It was the social norm for women to give up jobs when they married;in many states there were laws that prevented both husband and wife holding regularjobs with the government. So too in the reliefworld, it was rare for both husband and wife tohave a relief job on FERA or the WPA.[132] Thisprevailing social norm of the breadwinner failedto take into account the numerous householdsheaded by women, but it soon became clear thatthe government needed to help women aswell.[133]

Many women were employed on FERA projectsrun by the states with federal funds. The first NewDeal program to directly assist women was theWorks Progress Administration (WPA), begun in 1935. It hired single women,widows, or women with disabled or absent husbands. While men were givenunskilled manual labor jobs, usually on construction projects, women were assignedmostly to sewing projects. They made clothing and bedding to be given away tocharities and hospitals. Women also were hired for the WPA's school lunch program.

Both men and women were hired for the arts programs (such as music, theater andwriting). The Social Security program was designed to help retired workers andwidows, but did not include domestic workers, farmers or farm laborers, the jobsmost often held by blacks. Social Security however was not a relief program and itwas not designed for short-term needs, as very few people received benefits before1942.

Charges of radicalism

Charges of communism

For right wing Republicans and Democrats the House Un-American ActivitiesCommittee offered a more effective way to fight the New Deal than opposing theeconomic and social reforms.[134][135] The HUAC eagerly pursued evidence thatCommunists had infiltrated unions and the government. There were some successeslike the Alger Hiss trial,[136][137] but a lot more unsubstantiated accusations and

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demagogic attacks that came to be known as McCarthyism.

Charges of fascism

Further information: The New Deal and corporatism

Enemies of the New Deal sometimes called it "fascist", but meant very differentthings. Communists, for example, meant control of the New Deal by big business.Classical liberals and conservatives meant control of big business by bureaucrats(also labeled with the term of "socialism," as in Ludwig von Mises' book, The Freeand Prosperous Commonwealth). Huey Long once said, "I raise my hand in reverenceto the Supreme Court that saved this nation from fascism."[138] Former PresidentHerbert Hoover called some New Deal programs "fascist":[139]

"Among the early Roosevelt fascist measures was the National IndustryRecovery Act (NRA) of June 16, 1933 .... These ideas were first suggestedby Gerald Swope (of the General Electric Company)... [and] the UnitedStates Chamber of Commerce. During the campaign of 1932, Henry I.Harriman, president of that body, urged that I agree to support theseproposals, informing me that Mr. Roosevelt had agreed to do so. I tried toshow him that this stuff was pure fascism; that it was a remaking ofMussolini's "corporate state" and refused to agree to any of it. He informedme that in view of my attitude, the business world would support Rooseveltwith money and influence. That for the most part proved true."

In 1934, Roosevelt defended himself against his critics, and attacked them in his"fireside chat" radio audiences. Some people, he said:

will try to give you new and strange names for what we are doing.Sometimes they will call it 'Fascism,' sometimes 'Communism,' sometimes'Regimentation,' sometimes 'Socialism.' But, in so doing, they are trying tomake very complex and theoretical something that is really very simpleand very practical.... Plausible self-seekers and theoretical die-hards willtell you of the loss of individual liberty. Answer this question out of thefacts of your own life. Have you lost any of your rights or liberty orconstitutional freedom of action and choice?[140]

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Francis Perkins stated in her book The Roosevelt I Knew that "What Fascistcorporatism and the New Deal had in common was a certain amount of stateintervention in the economy. Beyond that, the only figure who seemed to look onFascist corporatism as a kind of model was Hugh Johnson, head of the NationalRecovery Administration",[141] Johnson had been distributing copies of a Fascisttract called "The Corporate State", including giving one to Labor Secretary FrancesPerkins and asking her give copies to her cabinet.[142] Johnson strenuously deniedany association with Mussolini, saying the NRA "is being organized almost as youwould organize a business. I want to avoid any Mussolini appearance—the Presidentcalls this Act industrial self-government."[143] Historians such as Hawley (1966)have examined the origins of the NRA in detail, showing the main inspiration camefrom Senators Hugo Black and Robert F. Wagner and from American businessleaders such as the Chamber of Commerce. The model for the NRA was WoodrowWilson's War Industries Board, in which Johnson had been involved.[144]

Scholars reject linking the New Deal to fascism. Stanley Payne a leading historian offascism explains that fascism had no influence in the United States. Even "thevarious populist, nativist, and rightist movements in the United States during the1920s and 1930s fell distinctly short of fascism."[145]

New Left critique

For decades the New Deal was generally held in very high regard in the scholarshipand the textbooks. That changed in the 1960s when New Left historians began arevisionist critique that said the New Deal was a bandaid for a patient that neededradical surgery to reform capitalism, put private property in its place, and lift upworkers, women and minorities. The New Left believed in participatory democracyand therefore rejected the autocratic machine politics typical of the big cityDemocratic organizations.[146]

In the 1960s, "New Left" historians have been among the New Deal's harshcritics.[147] Barton J. Bernstein, in a 1968 essay, compiled a chronicle of missedopportunities and inadequate responses to problems. The New Deal may have savedcapitalism from itself, Bernstein charged, but it had failed to help – and in manycases actually harmed – those groups most in need of assistance. Paul K. Conkin inThe New Deal (1967) similarly chastised the government of the 1930s for its weak

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policies toward marginal farmers, for its failure to institute sufficiently progressivetax reform, and its excessive generosity toward select business interests. HowardZinn, in 1966, criticized the New Deal for working actively to actually preserve theworst evils of capitalism.

By the 1970s liberal historians were responding with a defense of the New Dealbased on numerous local and microscopic studies. Praise increasingly focused onEleanor Roosevelt, seen as a more appropriate crusading reformer than herhusband.[148] Since then research on the New Deal has been less interested in thequestion of whether the New Deal was a "conservative", "liberal", or "revolutionary"phenomenon than in the question of constraints within which it was operating.

Political sociologist Theda Skocpol, in a series of articles, has emphasized the issueof "state capacity" as an often-crippling constraint. Ambitious reform ideas oftenfailed, she argued, because of the absence of a government bureaucracy withsignificant strength and expertise to administer them. Other more recent works havestressed the political constraints that the New Deal encountered. Conservativeskepticism about the efficacy of government was strong both in Congress and amongmany citizens. Thus some scholars have stressed that the New Deal was not just aproduct of its liberal backers, but also a product of the pressures of its conservativeopponents.

Political metaphor

Since 1933, politicians and pundits have often called for a "new deal" regarding anobject. That is, they demand a completely new, large-scale approach to a project. AsArthur A. Ekirch Jr. (1971) has shown, the New Deal stimulated utopianism inAmerican political and social thought on a wide range of issues. In Canada,Conservative Prime Minister Richard B. Bennett in 1935 proposed a "new deal" ofregulation, taxation, and social insurance that was a copy of the American program;Bennett's proposals were not enacted, and he was defeated for reelection in October1935. In accordance with the rise of the use of U.S. political phraseology in Britain,the Labour Government of Tony Blair has termed some of its employment programs"new deal", in contrast to the Conservative Party's promise of the 'British Dream'.

Evaluation of New Deal policies

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Anti-relief protest sign, nearDavenport, Iowa, 1940, ArthurRothstein.

Many historians argue that Roosevelt restored hope and self-respect to tens ofmillions of desperate people, built labor unions, upgraded the national infrastructureand saved capitalism in his first term when he could have destroyed it and easilynationalized the banks and the railroads.[149] Some critics from the left, however,have denounced Roosevelt for rescuing capitalism when the opportunity was at handto nationalize banking, railroads and other industries.[150] Still others havecomplained that he enlarged the powers of the federal government,[151] built uplabor unions and weakened the business community.

Historians generally agree that, apart from building up labor unions, the New Dealdid not substantially alter the distribution of power within American capitalism. "TheNew Deal brought about limited change in the nation's power structure."[152] TheNew Deal preserved Democracy in the United States in an historic period ofuncertainty and crises when in many other countries Democracy failed.[153]

Relief

The New Deal expanded the role of the federalgovernment, particularly to help the poor, theunemployed, youth, the elderly, and strandedrural communities. The Hoover adminsitrationstarted the system of funding state reliefprograms, whereby the states hired people onrelief. With the CCC in 1933 and the WPA in1935 the federal government now becameinvolved in directly hiring people on relief. ingranting direct relief or benefits. Total federal,state and local spending on relief rose from 3.9%of GNP in 1929, to 6.4% in 1932, and 9.7% in1934; the return of prosperity in 1944 lowered the rate to 4.1%. In 1935-40, welfarespending accounted for 49% of the federal, state and local government budgets.[154]

In his memoirs, Milton Friedman said that the New Deal relief programs were anappropriate response. He and his wife were not on relief but they were employed bythe WPA as statisticians.[155]

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national debt/ GNP climbs from 20% to 40% underHoover; levels off under FDR; soars during WW2from Historical States US (1976).

Recovery

Keynesian interpretation

At the beginning of the GreatDepression many economiststraditionally argued againstdeficit spending thatgovernment spending would"crowd out" private investmentand spending and thus not haveany effect on the economy, aproposition known as theTreasury view. Keynesianeconomics rejected that view.They argued that by spendingvastly more money—usingfiscal policy—the governmentcould provide the neededstimulus through the multipliereffect. Without that stimulus business simply would not hire more people, especiallythe low skilled and supposedly "untrainable" men who had been unemployed foryears and lost any job skill they once had. Keynes visited the White House in 1934 tourge President Roosevelt to increase deficit spending. Roosevelt afterwardscomplained that, "he left a whole rigmarole of figures – he must be a mathematicianrather than a political economist."[156]

The New Deal tried public works, farm subsidies, and other devices to reduceunemployment, but Roosevelt never completely gave up trying to balance the budget.Between 1933 and 1941 the average federal budget deficit was 3% per year.[101]

Roosevelt did not fully utilize deficit spending. The effects of federal public worksspending were largely offset by Herbert Hoovers large tax increase in 1932, whosefull effects for the first time were felt in 1933, and it was undercut by spending cutsespecially the economy act. According to Keynesians like Paul Krugman the NewDeal therefore was not as successful in the short run as it was in the long run.[157]

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USA GDP annual pattern and long-term trend,1920-40, in billions of constant dollars.

Monetarist interpretation

In recent years more influential among economists has been the monetaristinterpretation of Milton Friedman, which did include a full-scale monetary history ofwhat he calls the "Great Contraction". Friedman concentrated on the failures before1933. He pointed out that between 1929 and 1932, the Federal Reserve allowed themoney supply to fall by a third which is seen as the major cause that turned a normalrecession into a Great Depression. Friedman specially criticised the decisions ofHoover and the Fed not to save banks going bankrupt. Monetarists state that thebanking and monetary reforms were a necessary and sufficient response to the crises.They reject the approach of Keynesian deficit spending.

Economic growth and unemployment (1933-1941)

In the years 1933 to 1941 theeconomy expanded at an average rateof 7.7% per year.[158] Despite higheconomic growth ratesunemployment fell slowly.

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Unemploymentrate[159] 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940 1941

Workers in jobcreationprogramscounted asUNemployed

24.9% 21.7% 20.1% 16.9% 14.3% 19.0% 17.2% 14.6% 9.9%

Workers in jobcreationprogramscounted asemployed

20.6% 16.0% 14.2% 9.9% 9.1% 12.5% 11.3% 9.5% 8.0%

John Maynard Keynes explained that situation as an Underemployment equilibriumwhere skeptic business prospects prevent companies from hiring new employees. Itwas seen as a form of cyclical unemployment.[160]

There are different assumptions as well. According to Richard L. Jensen cyclicalunemployment was a grave matter primarily until 1935. Between 1935 und 1941structural unemployment became the bigger problem. Especially the unionssuccesses in demanding higher wages pushed management into introducing newefficiency-oriented hiring standards. It ended inefficient labor such as child labor,casual unskilled work for subminimum wages, and sweatshop conditions. In the longterm the shift to efficiancy wages led to high productivity, high wages and a highstandard of living. But it necessitated a well-educated, well-trained, hard-workinglabor force. It was not before war time brought full employment that the supply ofunskilled labor (that caused structural unemployment) downsized.[161]

Effect on the Depression

Following the Keynesian consensus (that lasted until the 1970s) the traditional viewwas that federal fiscal policies associated with the war brought full-employmentoutput while monetary policy was just aiding the process. Challenging the traditionalview J. Bradford DeLong, Lawrence Summers and Christina Romer argue thatrecovery was essentially complete prior to 1942 and that monetary policy was the

crucial source of pre-1942 recovery.[162]

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crucial source of pre-1942 recovery.[162]

According to Peter Temin, Barry Wigmore, Gauti B. Eggertsson and Christina Romerthe biggest primary impact of the New Deal on the economy and the key to recoveryand to end the Great Depression was brought about by a successful management ofpublic expectations. Before the first New Deal measures people expected acontractionary economic situation (recession, deflation) to persist. Roosevelt's fiscaland monetary policy regime change helped to make his policy objectives credible.Expectations changed towards an expansionary development (economic growth,inflation). The expectation of higher future income and higher future inflationstimulated demand and investments. The analysis suggests that the elimination of thepolicy dogmas of the gold standard, balanced budget and small government leadedendogenously to a large shift in expectation that accounts for about 70–80 percent ofthe recovery of output and prices from 1933 to 1937. If the regime change would nothave happened and the Hoover policy would have continued, the economy wouldhave continued its free fall in 1933, and output would have been 30 percent lower in1937 than in 1933.[163][164]

Harold L. Cole and Lee E. Ohanian are among those who believe the New Dealcaused the Depression to persist longer than it would otherwise have, concluding in astudy that the "New Deal labor and industrial policies did not lift the economy out ofthe Depression as President Roosevelt and his economic planners had hoped," butthat the "New Deal policies are an important contributing factor to the persistence ofthe Great Depression." They claim that the New Deal "cartelization policies are a keyfactor behind the weak recovery". They say that the "abandonment of these policiescoincided with the strong economic recovery of the 1940s".[165] Cole and Ohanianclaimed that FDR's policies prolonged the Depression by 7 years.[166] However, Coleand Ohanian's argument relies on hypotheticals, including an unprecedented growthrate necessary to end the Depression by 1936,[167][168] and by not counting workersemployed through New Deal programs. Such programs built or renovated 2,500hospitals, 45,000 schools, 13,000 parks and playgrounds, 7,800 bridges, 700,000miles (1,100,000 km) of roads, 1,000 airfields and employed 50,000 teachers throughprograms that rebuilt the country's entire rural school system.[169][170]

Lowell E. Gallaway and Richard K. Vedder argue that the "Great Depression wasvery significantly prolonged in both its duration and its magnitude by the impact of

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New Deal programs." They suggest that without Social Security, work relief,unemployment insurance, mandatory minimum wages, and without specialgovernment-granted privileges for labor unions, business would have hired moreworkers and the unemployment rate during the New Deal years would have been6.7% instead of 17.2%.[171] In reply, economic historian Brad DeLong wrote thatthere is "literally nothing" to the arguments made by Gallaway and Vedder, and theduo made "flawed conclusions" based on "flawed foundations", and the entirefoundation "is made out of mud".[172]

In a survey of economic historians conducted by Robert Whaples, Professor ofEconomics at Wake Forest University, anonymous questionnaires were sent tomembers of the Economic History Association. Members were asked to eitherdisagree, agree, or agree with provisos with the statement that read: "Taken as awhole, government policies of the New Deal served to lengthen and deepen the GreatDepression." While only 6% of economic historians who worked in the historydepartment of their universities agreed with the statement, 27% of those that work inthe economics department agreed. Almost an identical percent of the two groups(21% and 22%) agreed with the statement "with provisos" (a conditional stipulation),while 74% of those who worked in the history department, and 51% in the economicdepartment disagreed with the statement outright.[173]

Reform

The economic reforms were mainly intended to rescue the capitalist system byproviding a more rational framework in which it could operate. The banking systemwas made less vulnerable. The regulation of the stock market and the prevention ofsome corporate abuses relating to the sale of securities and corporate reportingaddressed the worst excesses. Roosevelt allowed trade unions to take their place inlabor relations and created the triangular partnership between employers, employeesand government.[41]

David M. Kennedy wrote that "the achievements of the New Deal years surely playeda role in determining the degree and the duration of the postwar prosperity".[174]

Paul Krugman stated that the institutions built by the New Deal remain the bedrockof the United States economic stability. Against the background of the 2007–2012

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Francis Perkins looks onas Roosevelt signs theNational Labor RelationsAct.

The federal government commissioned a series ofpublic murals from the artists it employed. WilliamGropper's "Construction of a Dam" (1939), ischaracteristic of much of the art of the 1930s, withworkers seen in heroic poses, laboring in unison tocomplete a great public project.

global financial crisis he explained that the financialcrises would have been much worse if the New DealsFederal Deposit Insurance Corporation had not insuredmost bank deposits and older Americans would havefelt much more insecure without Social Security.[157]

Libertarian economist Milton Friedman after 1960attacked Social Security from a free market viewstating that it had created welfare dependency.[175]

The works of art and musicThe Works Progress Administration subsidized artists,musicians, painters and writers on relief with a group ofprojects called Federal One. While the WPA programwas by the most widespread, it was preceded by threeprograms administered by theUS Treasury which hiredcommercial artists at usualcommissions to add murals andsculptures to federal buildings.The first of these efforts wasthe short-lived Public Works ofArt Project, organized byEdward Bruce, an Americanbusinessman and artist. Brucealso led the TreasuryDepartment's Section ofPainting and Sculpture (laterrenamed the Section of Fine Arts) and the Treasury Relief Art Project (TRAP). TheResettlement Administration (RA) and Farm Security Administration (FSA) hadmajor photography programs. The New Deal arts programs emphasized regionalism,social realism, class conflict, proletarian interpretations, and audience participation.The unstoppable collective powers of common man, contrasted to the failure ofindividualism, was a favorite theme.[176][177]

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"Created Equal": Act I Scene 3"Spirit of 1776": Boston (FederalTheater Project, 1935).

Post Office murals and other public art, painted by artists in this time, can still befound at many locations around the U.S.[178] TheNew Deal particularly helped American novelists.For journalists, and the novelists who wrote non-fiction, the agencies and programs that the NewDeal provided, allowed these writers to describeabout what they really saw around thecountry.[179]

Many writers chose to write about the New Deal,and whether they were for or against it, and if itwas helping the country out. Some of thesewriters were Ruth McKenney, Edmund Wilson,and Scott Fitzgerald.[180] Another subject thatwas very popular for novelists was the condition of labor. They ranged from subjectson social protest, to strikes.[181]

Under the WPA, the Federal Theatre project flourished. Countless theatreproductions around the country were staged. This allowed thousands of actors anddirectors to be employed, among them were Orson Welles, and John Huston.[178]

The FSA photography project is most responsible for creating the image of theDepression in the U.S. Many of the images appeared in popular magazines. Thephotographers were under instruction from Washington as to what overall impressionthe New Deal wanted to give out. Director Roy Stryker's agenda focused on his faithin social engineering, the poor conditions among cotton tenant farmers, and the verypoor conditions among migrant farm workers; above all he was committed to socialreform through New Deal intervention in people's lives. Stryker demandedphotographs that "related people to the land and vice versa" because thesephotographs reinforced the RA's position that poverty could be controlled by"changing land practices". Though Stryker did not dictate to his photographers howthey should compose the shots, he did send them lists of desirable themes, such as"church", "court day", "barns".[182]

Films of the late New Deal era such as Citizen Kane (1941) ridiculed so-called "greatmen", while the heroism of the common man appeared in numerous movies, such as

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The Grapes of Wrath (1940). Thus in Frank Capra's famous films, including Mr.Smith Goes to Washington (1939), Meet John Doe (1941) and It's a Wonderful Life(1946), the common people come together to battle and overcome villains who arecorrupt politicians controlled by very rich, greedy capitalists.[183]

By contrast there was also a smaller but influential stream of anti-New Deal art. ThusGutzon Borglum's sculptures on Mount Rushmore emphasized great men in history(his designs had the approval of Calvin Coolidge). Gertrude Stein and ErnestHemingway disliked the New Deal and celebrated the organic autonomy of perfectedwritten work in opposition to the New Deal trope of writing as performative labor.The Southern Agrarians celebrated a premodern regionalism and opposed the TVA asa modernizing, disruptive force. Cass Gilbert, a conservative who believedarchitecture should reflect historic traditions and the established social order,designed the new Supreme Court building (1935). Its classical lines and small sizecontrasted sharply with the gargantuan modernistic federal buildings going up in theWashington Mall that he detested.[184] Hollywood managed to synthesize liberal andconservative streams, as in Busby Berkeley's Gold Digger musicals, where thestorylines exalt individual autonomy while the spectacular musical numbers showabstract populations of interchangeable dancers securely contained within patternsbeyond their control.[185]

New Deal ProgramsThe New Deal had many programs and new agencies, most of which were universallyknown by their initials. Most were abolished during World War II; others remain inoperation today. They included the following:

Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC) a Hoover agency expanded underJesse Holman Jones to make large loans to big business. Ended in 1954.

Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA) a Hoover program to createunskilled jobs for relief; expanded by FDR and Harry Hopkins; replaced byWPA in 1935.United States bank holiday, 1933: closed all banks until they became certifiedby federal reviewersAbandonment of gold standard, 1933: gold reserves no longer backed currency;

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The WPA hired unemployedteachers to provide free adulteducation programs.

still existsCivilian Conservation Corps (CCC), 1933–1942: employed young men toperform unskilled work in rural areas; under United States Army supervision;separate program for Native AmericansHomeowners Loan Corporation (HOLC) helped people keep their homes, thegovernment bought properties from the bank allowing people to pay thegovernment instead of the banks ininstallments they could afford, keepingpeople in their homes and banks afloat.Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), 1933:effort to modernize very poor region (mostof Tennessee), centered on dams thatgenerated electricity on the Tennessee River;still existsAgricultural Adjustment Act (AAA), 1933:raised farm prices by cutting total farmoutput of major crops and livestock;replaced by a new AAA because theSupreme Court ruled it unconstitutional.National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA),1933: industries set up codes to reduceunfair competition, raise wages and prices;ended 1935. The US Supreme Court ruledthe NIRA unconstitutionalPublic Works Administration (PWA), 1933:built large public works projects; usedprivate contractors (did not directly hire unemployed). Ended 1938.Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) insures bank deposits andsupervises state banks; still existsGlass–Steagall Act regulates investment banking; repealed 1999Securities Act of 1933, created the SEC, 1933: codified standards for sale andpurchase of stock, required awareness of investments to be accurately disclosed;still existsCivil Works Administration (CWA), 1933–34: provided temporary jobs tomillions of unemployedIndian Reorganization Act, 1934: moved away from assimilation; policydroppedSocial Security Act (SSA), 1935: provided financial assistance to: elderly,

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FERA camp for unemployedblack women, Atlanta, 1934

handicapped, paid for by employee and employer payroll contributions; required7 years contributions, so first payouts were in 1942; still existsWorks Progress Administration (WPA), 1935: a national labor program formore than 2 million unemployed; created useful construction work for unskilledmen; also sewing projects for women and arts projects for unemployed artists,musicians and writers; ended 1943.National Labor Relations Act (NLRA) /Wagner Act, 1935: set up National LaborRelations Board to supervise labor-management relations; In the 1930s, itstrongly favored labor unions. Modified bythe Taft-Hartley Act (1947); still existsJudicial Reorganization Bill, 1937: gave thePresident power to appoint a new SupremeCourt judge for every judge 70 years orolder; failed to pass CongressFederal Crop Insurance Corporation (FCIC),1938: Insures crops and livestock againstloss of production or revenue. Was restructured during the creation of the RiskManagement Agency in 1996 but continues to exist.Surplus Commodities Program (1936); gives away food to poor; still exists asFood Stamp ProgramFair Labor Standards Act 1938: established a maximum normal work week of44 hours and a minimum wage of 40 cents/hour and outlawed most forms ofchild labor; still exists, hours have been lowered to 40 hours over the years.

Rural Electrification Administration, (REA)one of the federal executivedepartments of the United States government charged with providing publicutilities (electricity, telephone, water, sewer) to rural areas in the U.S. viapublic-private partnerships. still exists.Resettlement Administration (RA), Resettled poor tenant farmers; replaced byFarm Security Administration in 1935.Farm Security Administration (FSA), Helped poor farmers by a variety ofeconomic and educational programs; still exists as Farmers HomeAdministration.

Statistics

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Surplus Commodities Program,1936.

Depression statistics

"Most indexes worsened until the summer of1932, which may be called the low point of thedepression economically andpsychologically."[186] Economic indicators showthe American economy reached nadir in summer1932 to February 1933, then began recoveringuntil the recession of 1937–1938. Thus theFederal Reserve Industrial Production Index hitits low of 52.8 on 1932-07-01 and was practicallyunchanged at 54.3 on 1933-03-01; however by1933-07-01, it reached 85.5 (with 1935–39 = 100, and for comparison 2005 =1,342).[187] In Roosevelt's 12 years in office, the economy had an 8.5% compoundannual growth of GDP,[188] the highest growth rate in the history of any industrialcountry,[189] however, recovery was slow; by 1939, Gross Domestic Product (GDP)per adult was still 27% below trend.[165]

Table 1: Statistics[190]

1929 1931 1933 1937 1938 1940Real Gross National Product (GNP) (1) 101.4 84.3 68.3 103.9 96.7 113.0Consumer Price Index (2) 122.5 108.7 92.4 102.7 99.4 100.2Index of Industrial Production (2) 109 75 69 112 89 126Money Supply M2 ($ billions) 46.6 42.7 32.2 45.7 49.3 55.2Exports ($ billions) 5.24 2.42 1.67 3.35 3.18 4.02Unemployment (% of civilian work force) 3.1 16.1 25.2 13.8 16.5 13.9

(1) in 1929 dollars(2) 1935–39 = 100

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Table 2: Unemployment(% labor force)

Year Lebergott Darby1933 24.9 20.61934 21.7 16.01935 20.1 14.21936 16.9 9.91937 14.3 9.11938 19.0 12.51939 17.2 11.31940 14.6 9.51941 9.9 8.01942 4.7 4.71943 1.9 1.91944 1.2 1.21945 1.9 1.9

Darby counts WPA workers as employed; Lebergott as unemployedSource: Historical Statistics US (1976) series D-86; Smiley 1983[191]

Relief statistics

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Families on Relief 1936–41Relief Cases 1936–1941 (monthly average in 1,000)

1936 1937 1938 1939 1940 1941Workers employed:WPA 1,995 2,227 1,932 2,911 1,971 1,638CCC and NYA 712 801 643 793 877 919Other federal work projects 554 663 452 488 468 681Public assistance cases:Social security programs 602 1,306 1,852 2,132 2,308 2,517General relief 2,946 1,484 1,611 1,647 1,570 1,206Total families helped 5,886 5,660 5,474 6,751 5,860 5,167Unemployed workers (Bur Lab Stat) 9,030 7,700 10,390 9,480 8,120 5,560Coverage (cases/unemployed) 65% 74% 53% 71% 72% 93%

See alsoArthurdale, West Virginia, New Deal planned community.Liberalism in the United StatesModern liberalism in the United StatesThe New Deal and the arts in New MexicoTimeline of the Great DepressionUnited States welfare state

General:

Interest group democracyMixed economySocial liberalismSocial safety netWelfare economics

References

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1. ^ Berkin, Miller, Cherny, Gormly, Making America, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2008,ISBN 9780618980659, p. 737

2. ^ David Edwin Harrell et al. (2005). Unto A Good Land: A History Of The AmericanPeople (http://books.google.com/books?id=ssSHokISMd8C&pg=PA902) . Wm. B.Eerdmans. pp. 902–. http://books.google.com/books?id=ssSHokISMd8C&pg=PA902.

3. ^ Alonzo L. Hamby (2004). For the Survival of Democracy: Franklin Roosevelt and theWorld Crisis of the 1930s (http://books.google.com/books?id=XlxWV5C8saEC&pg=PA418) . Simon and Schuster. p. 418.http://books.google.com/books?id=XlxWV5C8saEC&pg=PA418.

4. ^ Kennedy, Freedom from Fear (1999) ch 125. ^ a b Roderick P. Hart (2001). Politics, Discourse, and American Society: New Agendas

(http://books.google.com/books?id=U44JMDQO8IoC&pg=PA46) . Rowman &Littlefield. p. 46. http://books.google.com/books?id=U44JMDQO8IoC&pg=PA46.

6. ^ Martha Derthick, The Politics of Deregulation (1985), p. 5-87. ^ a b Kennedy, Freedom From Fear (1999) p. 878. ^ Mary Beth Norton et al. (2009). A People and a Nation: A History of the United States.

Since 1865 (http://books.google.com/books?id=129rne8WpyoC&pg=PA656) . Cengage.p. 656. http://books.google.com/books?id=129rne8WpyoC&pg=PA656.

9. ^ March 4 was a Saturday and banks were not open on weekends. On Monday FDRofficially closed all banks. Arthur Schlesinger, Jr. The Coming of the New Deal (1959), p.3; Brands, Traitor to his class (2008) p. 288.

10. ^ Jonathan Alter, The Defining Moment: FDR's Hundred Days and the Triumph of Hope,esp. ch 31. (2007); Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States (1977)series K220, N301.

11. ^ Laurence Leamer (2001). The Kennedy Men: 1901–1963. HarperCollins. p. 86.12. ^ The phrase was perhaps borrowed from the title of Stuart Chase's book A New Deal

published in February 1932 and serialized in the New Republic that summer. Gary DeanBest, Peddling panaceas: popular economists in the New Deal era (2005) p. 117

13. ^ "The Roosevelt Week"(http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,743953,00.html) , Time, New York,July 11, 1932

14. ^ Leuchtenburg pp 33–35.15. ^ Leuchtenburg p. 58.16. ^ Downey, Kirstin (2009). The Woman Behind the New Deal; The Life of Frances

Perkins, FDR's Secretary of Labor and His Moral Conscience. New York: Nan A.Talese, an imprint of The Doubleday Publishing Group, a division of Random House,Inc.,. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-385-51365-4.

17. ^ Leuchtenburg p. 34.18. ^ Leuchtenburg p. 188.19. ^ Bernard Bellush, The Failure of the NRA (1975)

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19. ^ Bernard Bellush, The Failure of the NRA (1975)20. ^ Arthur Crawford, Monetary management under the new deal (1940) p 24021. ^ Kennedy, Freedom From Fear (1999) p 364}}22. ^ "Herbert Hoover: Statement on Efforts to Balance the Budget"

(http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=23478) . Presidency.ucsb.edu. 1932-03-08. http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=23478. Retrieved 2012-12-07.

23. ^ http://www.dartmouth.edu/~dirwin/1937.pdf24. ^ "The Wreckage of Austrian Business Cycle Theory by Victor Aguilar"

(http://axiomaticeconomics.com/Wreckage_Austrian_Business_Cycle_Theory_by_Aguilar.pdf) (PDF).http://axiomaticeconomics.com/Wreckage_Austrian_Business_Cycle_Theory_by_Aguilar.pdf. Retrieved 2012-12-07.

25. ^ Charles KindIeberger Manias, Panics, and Crashes: A History of Financial Crises26. ^ Robert Skidelsky, The Great Depression: Keyne´s Perspective in: Elisabeth Müller-

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27. ^ "Defending Krugman: The Importance of Keynesian Economics"(http://www.nextnewdeal.net/rediscovering-government/defending-krugman-importance-keynesian-economics) . Next New Deal. http://www.nextnewdeal.net/rediscovering-government/defending-krugman-importance-keynesian-economics. Retrieved 2012-12-07.

28. ^ Allen, Ralph (1961), Ordeal by Fire: Canada, 1910–1945, ch 37.29. ^ "History, Economic—Labour Policy—1966 Encyclopaedia of New Zealand"

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30. ^ Arthur M. Schlesinger, The coming of the New Deal, 1933–1935, Houghton Mifflin,2003, ISBN 978-0-618-34086-6, S. 22

31. ^ NPG Historical U.S. Population Growth: 1900–1998.32. ^ Leuchtenburg p. 45–46; Robert Paul Browder and Thomas G. Smith, Independent: A

Biography of Lewis W. Douglass (1986)33. ^ Leuchtenburg p. 171; Raymond Moley, The First New Deal (1966)34. ^ Leuchtenburg p. 171, 245–6; Herbert Stein, Presidential economics: The making of

economic policy from Roosevelt to Reagan and beyond (1984)35. ^ R. W. Hafer, The Federal Reserve System (Greenwood, 2005) p 1836. ^ Ben Bernanke, "Nonmonetary effects of the financial crisis in the propagation of the

Great Depression", (1983) American Economic Review . Am 73#3 257–76.37. ^ "THE PRESIDENCY: Bottom"

(http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,745289,00.html) . Time. March 13, 1933.http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,745289,00.html. Retrieved October 11,2008.(subscription required)

38. ^ Milton Friedman; Anna Jacobson Schwartz (1963). A Monetary History of the United

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38. ^ Milton Friedman; Anna Jacobson Schwartz (1963). A Monetary History of the UnitedStates, 1867–1960 (http://books.google.com/books?id=Q7J_EUM3RfoC&pg=PA427) .Princeton University Press. pp. 438–9. ISBN 978-0-691-00354-2.http://books.google.com/books?id=Q7J_EUM3RfoC&pg=PA427.

39. ^ Susan E. Kennedy, The Banking Crisis of 1933 (1973)40. ^ Kennedy, Freedom From Fear (1999) pp. 65, 36641. ^ a b c Peter Clemens, Prosperity, Depression and the New Deal: The USA 1890–1954,

Hodder Education, 4. Auflage, 2008, ISBN 978-0-340-965887, p. 10942. ^ a b Meltzer, Allan H. (2004). A History of the Federal Reserve: 1913–1951. pp. 442–

44643. ^ Olivier Blanchard und Gerhard Illing, Makroökonomie, Pearson Studium, 5. Auflage,

2009, ISBN 978-3827373632, p. 69644. ^ Kennedy, Freedom From Fear (1999) p. 36745. ^ Leuchtenburg, Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal pp 46–4746. ^ a b c d e Mastering Modern World History by Norman Lowe, second edition, P.11747. ^ Leuchtenburg p. 70, 133–34; Jason Scott Smith, Building New Deal Liberalism: The

Political Economy of Public Works, 1933–1956 (2005)48. ^ Time-Life Books, Library of Nations: United States, Sixth European English language

printing, 198949. ^ Paul S. Boyder, The Oxford Companion to United States History, Oxford University

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Hodder Education, 2008, ISBN 978-0-340-965887, p. 10651. ^ Schlesinger, Coming of the New Deal p p27–8452. ^ Ronald L. Heinemann, Depression and New Deal in Virginia. (1983) p. 10753. ^ a b Paul S. Boyder, The Oxford Companion to United States History, Oxford University

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56. ^ Badger, New Deal pp 89. 153–57. for price data and farm income see StatisticalAbstract 1940 online (http://www.census.gov/prod/www/abs/statab1901-1950.htm)

57. ^ "The Roosevelt Myth"(http://library.mises.org/books/John%20T%20Flynn/The%20Roosevelt%20Myth.pdf)(PDF). p. 48.http://library.mises.org/books/John%20T%20Flynn/The%20Roosevelt%20Myth.pdf.Retrieved 2012-12-07.

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New Deal," Journal of American History, March 2011, Vol. 97 Issue 4, pp 1001–1022online (http://jah.oxfordjournals.org/content/97/4/1001.short)

60. ^ Data was obtained from the U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract(http://www.census.gov/prod/www/abs/statab.html) and converted into SVG format byme. The numbers come from this U.S. Census document(http://www2.census.gov/prod2/statcomp/documents/CT1970p1-05.pdf) , page 17,column 127. Note that the graph only covers factory employment.

61. ^ a b Gene Smiley, The Great Depression(http://www.econlib.org/LIBRARY/Enc/GreatDepression.html) . The ConciseEncyclopedia of Economics.

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(2003), p. 11566. ^ The Handbook of Texas Online: Connally Hot Oil Act of 1935

(http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/CC/mlc3.html)67. ^ David Kennedy, "What the New Deal Did". Political Science Quarterly (1969( 124, no.

2: 251–268.68. ^ Robert Whaples, "Where Is There Consensus Among American Economic Historians?

The Results of a Survey on Forty Propositions", Journal of Economic History, Vol. 55,No. 1 (Mar., 1995), S. 139–154 in JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/stable/2123771)

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70. ^ Hiscox, Michael J. (Autumn). "The Magic Bullet? The RTAA, Institutional Reform,and Trade Liberalization". International Organization 53 (4): 669–698.

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72. ^ David M. Kennedy,Freedom From Fear, The American People in Depression and War1929–1945, (1999) p. 258

73. ^ Sitkoff, ed. Fifty Years Later: The New Deal Evaluated (1984)74. ^ Mary Beth Norton et al. (2009). A People and a Nation: A History of the United States.

Since 1865 (http://books.google.com/books?id=129rne8WpyoC&pg=PA670) . Cengage.p. 670. http://books.google.com/books?id=129rne8WpyoC&pg=PA670.

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77. ^ Kennedy, Freedom From Fear pp 250–25278. ^ Peter Fearon, War, Prosperity, and Depression (1987)79. ^ Mary Beth Norton et al. (2009). A People and a Nation: A History of the United States.

Since 1865 (http://books.google.com/books?id=129rne8WpyoC&pg=PA669) . Cengage.p. 669. http://books.google.com/books?id=129rne8WpyoC&pg=PA669.

80. ^ Kennedy, Freedom From Fear p. 25281. ^ Deward Clayton Brown, Electricity for Rural America: The Fight for the REA (1980)82. ^ a b Lorraine Brown, "Federal Theatre: Melodrama, Social Protest, and Genius," U.S.

Library of Congress Quarterly Journal, 1979, Vol. 36 Issue 1, pp 18–3783. ^ William D. Pederson (2011). A Companion to Franklin D. Roosevelt

(http://books.google.com/books?id=r4-UnSYARiMC&pg=PT224) . Wiley. p. 224.http://books.google.com/books?id=r4-UnSYARiMC&pg=PT224.

84. ^ Hemming, Heidi and Julie Hemming Savage, Women Making America, Clotho Press,2009, pp. 243–44.

85. ^ Sue Bridwell Beckham, Depression Post Office Murals and Southern Culture: A GentleReconstruction (1989)

86. '^ David M. Kennedy, Freedom From Fear, The American People in Depression andWar 1929–1945, Oxford University Press, 1999, ISBN 0-19-503834-7, p. 275, 276

87. ^ John K. McNulty, Unintegrated Corporate and Individual Income Taxes: USA, in: PaulKirchhof et al., International and Comparative Taxation, Kluwer Law International,2002, ISBN 90-411-9841-5, p. 173

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89. ^ Benjamin Graham. Security Analysis: The Classic 1940 Edition. McGraw-HillProfessional, 2002. pp. 386–287

90. ^ John K. McNulty, Unintegrated Corporate and Individual Income Taxes: USA, in: PaulKirchhof et al., International and Comparative Taxation, Kluwer Law International, 2002,ISBN 90-411-9841-5, p. 173

91. ^ R. Alan Lawson, A Commonwealth of Hope: The New Deal Response to Crisis, JohnsHopkins University Press, 2006, ISBN 978-0801884061, S. 165

92. ^ Peter Clemens, Prosperity, Depression and the New Deal: The USA 1890–1954,Hodder Education, 4. Auflage, 2008, ISBN 978-0-340-965887, p. 172

93. ^ Leuchtenburg, William E. (1995). The Supreme Court Reborn: The ConstitutionalRevolution in the Age of Roosevelt. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 156–161.ISBN 978-0-19-511131-6.

94. ^ Rehnquist, William H. (2004). "Judicial Independence Dedicated to Chief Justice HarryL. Carrico: Symposium Remarks" (http://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?collection=journals&handle=hein.journals/urich38&id=591) . University of RichmondLaw Review 38: 579–596. http://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?

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95. ^ Kennedy, Freedom From Fear p. 35296. ^ Leuchtenburg pp. 242-3, 272–7497. ^ Reed, Lawrence W. Great Myths of the Great Depression

(http://www.mackinac.org/archives/1998/sp1998-01.pdf) Mackinac Center for PublicPolicy.

98. ^ Hadley Cantril and Mildred Strunk, Public Opinion, 1935–1946 (Princeton UniversityPress, 1951), pp. 61–64.

99. ^ Leuchtenburg p. 242–3100. ^ Marie Bussing-Burks, Deficit: Why Should I Care?, Apress, ISBN 978-1430236597,

p.46101. ^ a b http://www.usgovernmentdebt.us/spending_chart_1900_2016USp_G0f102. ^ Kennedy, Freedom From Fear p 352103. ^ Kennedy p 352104. ^ Leuchtenburg p. 244–46105. ^ Leuchtenburg p. 256–7106. ^ GNP was $99.7 billion in 1940 and $210.1 billion in 1944.Historical Statistics (1976)

series F1.107. ^ Richard J. Jensen, "The Causes and Cures of Unemployment in the Great Depression",

Journal of Interdisciplinary History (1989) 19#4 pp 553–83. in JSTOR(http://www.jstor.org/stable/203954)

108. ^ D'Ann Campbell (1984). Women at war with America: private lives in a patriotic era(http://books.google.com/books?id=eA0-AAAAMAAJ) . Harvard University Press.pp. 110–15. http://books.google.com/books?id=eA0-AAAAMAAJ.

109. ^ Vatter, The U.S. Economy in World War II110. ^ Curtis E. Harvey, Coal in Appalachia: an economic analysis111. ^ "Social Security Online" (http://www.ssa.gov/history/1940.html) . Ssa.gov.

http://www.ssa.gov/history/1940.html. Retrieved April 5, 2012.112. ^ Michael J. Bennett, When Dreams Came True: The GI Bill and the Making of Modern

America (1999)113. ^ Kennedy, Freedom from Fear ch 18114. ^ America in our time: from World War II to Nixon—what happened and why by

Godfrey Hodgson115. ^ a b Iwan Mc. Morgan, Beyond the Liberal Consensus: Political History of the United

States Since 1965, C Hurst & Co Publishers Ltd, 1994, ISBN 978-1850652045, p. 12116. ^ Jefferson Cowie and Nick Salvatore, "The Long Exception: Rethinking the Place of the

New Deal in American History," International Labor & Working-Class History, (2008)74:3–32

117. ^ Nancy MacLean, "Getting New Deal History Wrong," International Labor & Working-Class History(2008) 74:49–55

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Class History(2008) 74:49–55118. ^ Jennifer Klein, "A New Deal Restoration: Individuals, Communities, and the Long

Struggle for the Collective Good," International Labor & Working-Class History (2008)74:42–48

119. ^ Iwan Mc. Morgan, Beyond the Liberal Consensus: Political History of the UnitedStates Since 1965, C Hurst & Co Publishers Ltd, 1994, ISBN 978-1850652045, p. 14

120. ^ Iwan Mc. Morgan, Beyond the Liberal Consensus: Political History of the UnitedStates Since 1965, C Hurst & Co Publishers Ltd, 1994, ISBN 978-1850652045, p. 17

121. ^ Michael S. Mayer, The Eisenhower Years, 2010, ISBN 978-0-8160-5387-2, p. xii122. ^ Blaine T. Browne,Robert C. Cottrell, Modern American Lives: Individuals and Issues

in American History Since 1945, M.E. Sharp. Inc., 2008, ISBN 978-0-7656-2222-8, Seite164

123. ^ Julian E. Zelizer, "The Forgotten Legacy of the New Deal: Fiscal Conservatism and theRoosevelt Administration, 1933‑1938," 'Presidential Studies Quarterly, (2000) 30#2.(2000). pp 331+ online (http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5001752830)

124. ^ Zelizer, "The Forgotten Legacy of the New Deal: Fiscal Conservatism and theRoosevelt Administration, 1933‑1938"

125. ^ Freidel 1990, p. 96126. ^ U.S. Bureau of the Census. Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1946. p. 321.127. ^ Zelizer128. ^ Zelizer 2000; Savage 1998129. ^ a b Sitkoff (2008)130. ^ Sitkoff (2008); Nancy J. Weiss, Farewell to the Party of Lincoln: Black Politics in the

Age of FDR (1983)131. ^ Ira Katznelson, When Affirmative Action was White (2005).132. ^ Children in the family were allowed to hold CCC or NYA jobs—indeed, CCC jobs

were normally given to young men whose fathers were on relief. Young women wereeligible for NYA jobs which began in 1935.

133. ^ Susan Ware, Beyond Suffrage: Women in the New Deal (1987)134. ^ Ellen Schrecker, The Age of McCarthyism: A Brief History With Documents (2002),

ISBN 0-312-29425-5, p.15135. ^ Susan L. Brinson, The Red Scare, Politics, and the Federal Communications

Commission, 1941-1960, ISBN Praeger Publishers, 2004, ISBN 0-275-97859-1, p. 63136. ^ Ellen Schrecker, The Age of McCarthyism: A Brief History With Documents (2002),

p.15; Sam Tanenhaus. Whittaker Chambers: A Biography (1997)137. ^ Chambers, Whittaker (1952). Witness (http://lccn.loc.gov/52005149) . New York:

Random House. p. 799. ISBN 0-7369-1175-8. LCCN 525149(http://lccn.loc.gov/525149) . http://lccn.loc.gov/52005149.

138. ^ Arthur Meier Schlesinger, Jr. The Politics of Upheaval: 1935–1936, the Age ofRoosevelt, Volume III, Houghton Mifflin Books, page 284

139. ^ Herbert Hoover, Memoirs 3:420

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139. ^ Herbert Hoover, Memoirs 3:420140. ^ Kennedy 1999, p 246.141. ^ Stanley Payne, History of Fascism (1995) p. 230.142. ^ Goldberg, Jonah. Liberal Fascism. Random House, 2008. p. 156.143. ^ Hugh S. Johnson, The Blue Eagle, from Egg to Earth (1935), p. 223.144. ^ Ellis Hawley, The New Deal and the Problem of Monopoly, Princeton University Press,

1966, ISBN 0-8232-1609-8, p. 23145. ^ Stanley Payne, History of Fascism (1995) p. 350.146. ^ Jerold S. Auerbach, "New Deal, Old Deal, or Raw Deal: Some Thoughts on New Left

Historiography," Journal of Southern History (1969) 35#1 pp. 18–30 in JSTOR(http://www.jstor.org/stable/2204748)

147. ^ For a list of relevant works, see the list of suggested readings appearing toward thebottom of the article.

148. ^ Thomas A. Krueger, "New Deal Historiography at Forty," Reviews in American History(1975) 3#4 pp. 483–488 in JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/stable/2701507)

149. ^ Sitkoff (1984)150. ^ Paul K. Conkin151. ^ Ira Katznelson and Mark Kesselman, The Politics of Power, 1975152. ^ Quote from Mary Beth Norton, et al. A People and a Nation: A History of the United

States (1994), 2:783. See also Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr. The Coming of the New Deal,1933–1935 (1958) p. ix; Seymour Martin Lipset and Gary Marks, "How FDR SavedCapitalism", in It Didn’t Happen Here: Why Socialism Failed in the United States (2001);Eric Rauchway, The Great Depression and the New Deal (2007), p. 86, 93–7; Cass R.Sunstein, The Second Bill of Rights: FDR's Unfinished Revolution, (2006) pp 129–30; C.Wright Mills, The Power Elite (1959) 272–74; David Edwin Harrell, Jr. et al. Unto aGood Land: A History of the American People (2005) p. 921; William Leuchtenburg, TheWhite House Looks South (2005) p. 121; Robert S. McElvaine, The Great Depression:America, 1929–1941 (1993) p. 168; Alan Brinkley, Liberalism and Its Discontents (1998)p. 66.

153. ^ Mary Beth Norton, Carol Sheriff und David M. Katzman, A People and a Nation: AHistory of the United States, Volume II: Since 1865, Wadsworth Inc Fulfillment, 2011,ISBN 978-0495915904, p. 681

154. ^ Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States (1975) p. 340 series H1and H2

155. ^ Milton Friedman; Rose D. Friedman (1999). Two Lucky People: Memoirs(http://books.google.com/books?id=Ennh28taSiEC&pg=PA59) . U. of Chicago Press.p. 59. http://books.google.com/books?id=Ennh28taSiEC&pg=PA59.

156. ^ W. Elliot Brownlee, Federal Taxation in America: A Short History (2004) p, 103157. ^ a b New York Times, Paul Krugman, Franklin Delano Obama?

(http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/10/opinion/10krugman.html?_r=1) , November 10,2008

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2008158. ^ Bureau of the Census (1975). Historical statistics of the United States, colonial times to

1970 (http://books.google.com/books?id=6IhUAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA217) . pp. 217–8.http://books.google.com/books?id=6IhUAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA217.

159. ^ Gene Smiley, "Recent Unemployment Rate Estimates for the 1920s and 1930s",Journal of Economic History (1983) 43#2 pp. 487–93. In JSTOR(http://www.jstor.org/pss/2120839)

160. ^ David M. Kennedy, Freedom From Fear, The American People in Depression and War1929–1945, Oxford University Press, 1999, ISBN 0-19-503834-7, p. 249

161. ^ Jensen, Richard J. "The Causes and Cures of Unemployment in the Great Depression",Journal of Interdisciplinary History 19 (1989) 553–83. in JSTOR(http://www.jstor.org/stable/203954)

162. ^ J.R. Vernon: World War II fiscal policies and the end of the Great Depression; Journalof Economic History, Vol. 54, No. 4, 1994, p. 850– 868, JSTOR(http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/2123613?uid=3737864&uid=2&uid=4&sid=47699081879977)

163. ^ Gauti B. Eggertsson, Great Expectations and the End of the Depression(http://www.aeaweb.org/articles.php?doi=10.1257/aer.98.4.1476) , American EconomicReview 2008, 98:4, 1476–1516

164. ^ The New York Times, Christina Romer, The Fiscal Stimulus, Flawed but Valuable(http://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/21/business/how-the-fiscal-stimulus-helped-and-could-have-done-more.html?hp&_r=0) , October 20, 2012

165. ^ a b Cole, Harold L and Ohanian, Lee E. New Deal Policies and the Persistence of theGreat Depression: A General Equilibrium Analysis(http://www.economics.hawaii.edu/research/seminars/02-03/02-21.pdf) , 2004.

166. ^ FDR's Policies Prolonged Depression by 7 Years, UCLA Economists Calculate(http://newsroom.ucla.edu/portal/ucla/FDR-s-Policies-Prolonged-Depression-5409.aspx?RelNum=5409) , ucla.edu, 8/10/2004

167. ^ Rosenberg, Paul. "A Brief Peek At UCLA's Anti-FDR Propaganda"(http://www.openleft.com/showDiary.do?diaryId=10644) . Open Left.http://www.openleft.com/showDiary.do?diaryId=10644. Retrieved September 11, 2010.

168. ^ Rosenberg, Paul. "More Perspective On Great Depression / FDR"(http://www.openleft.com/diary/10664/) . Open Left.http://www.openleft.com/diary/10664/. Retrieved September 11, 2010.

169. ^ "The right-wing New Deal conniption fit SalonRevisionist historians and economistskeep trying to stomp on FDR's legacy. But declaring that WPA workers wereunemployed is just silly"(http://www.salon.com/technology/how_the_world_works/2009/02/02/the_new_deal_worked) . Salon.com. February 2, 2009.http://www.salon.com/technology/how_the_world_works/2009/02/02/the_new_deal_worked. Retrieved September 11, 2010.

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ed. Retrieved September 11, 2010.170. ^ "Darby, Michael R. "Three-And-A-Half Million U.S. Employees Have Been Mislaid:

Or, An Explanation of Unemployment, 1934–1941", Journal of Political Economy (1976)84#1 pp. 1–16" (http://www.nber.org/papers/w0088.pdf) (PDF).http://www.nber.org/papers/w0088.pdf. Retrieved April 5, 2012.

171. ^ Gallaway, Lowell E. and Vedder, Richard K. Out of Work: Unemployment andGovernment in Twentieth-Century America, New York University Press; Updated edition(July 1997).

172. ^ "It Doesn't Work:A Review of Out of Work: Unemployment and Government inTwentieth-Century America"(http://econ161.berkeley.edu/Econ_articles/Reviews/vedder.html) .Econ161.berkeley.edu. http://econ161.berkeley.edu/Econ_articles/Reviews/vedder.html.Retrieved September 11, 2010.

173. ^ Robert Whaples, "Where Is There Consensus Among American Economic Historians?The Results of a Survey on Forty Propositions", Journal of Economic History, Vol. 55,No. 1 (Mar., 1995), pp. 139–154 in JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/stable/2123771)

174. ^ David M. Kennedy, 'Freedom From Fear, The American People in Depression and War1929 - 1945, Oxford University Press, 1999, ISBN 0-19-503834-7, p. 363

175. ^ Milton Friedman; Rose D. Friedman (1962). Capitalism and Freedom: FortiethAnniversary Edition (http://books.google.com/books?id=zHSv4OyuY1EC&pg=PA182) .U. of Chicago Press. pp. 182–87. http://books.google.com/books?id=zHSv4OyuY1EC&pg=PA182.

176. ^ Mathews 1975177. ^ William E. Leuchtenbrg. The FDR Years: On Roosevelt and his Legacy(New York:

Columbia University Press, 1995), 243.178. ^ a b M.J.Heale. Franklin. D. Roosevelt: The New Deal and War (London, 1999)36179. ^ John Braeman, Robert H. Bremner, David Brody. The New Deal: The National Level

(Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1975)310.180. ^ John Braeman, Robert H. Bremner, David Brody. The New Deal: The National Level

(Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1975)312.181. ^ John Braeman, Robert H. Bremner, David Brody. The New Deal: The National Level

(Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1975)314.182. ^ Cara A. Finnegan. Picturing Poverty: Print Culture and FSA Photographs

(Smithsonian Books, 2003) pp 43–44183. ^ Harry M. Benshoff, Sean Griffin, America on film: representing race, class, gender,

and sexuality at the movies (2003) pp 172–4184. ^ Geoffrey Blodgett, "Cass Gilbert, Architect: Conservative at Bay," Journal of American

History, December 1985, Vol. 72 Issue 3, pp 615–636 in JSTOR(http://www.jstor.org/pss/1904306)

185. ^ Szalay 2000186. ^ Mitchell, p. 404.

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186. ^ Mitchell, p. 404.187. ^ "Industrial Production Index" (http://research.stlouisfed.org/fred2/data/INDPRO.txt) .

http://research.stlouisfed.org/fred2/data/INDPRO.txt. Retrieved September 11, 2010.188. ^ Historical Statistics of the United States (1976) series F31189. ^ Angus Maddison, The World Economy: Historical Statistics (OECD 2003); Japan is

close, see p 174190. ^ U.S. Dept of Commerce, National Income and Product Accounts Real GDP and GNP

(http://www.huppi.com/kangaroo/GDPreal.htm) ; Mitchell 446, 449, 451;Consumer PriceIndex AND M2 Money Supply: 1800–2003 (http://www.econdataus.com/cpi_m2.html)

191. ^ Smiley, Gene, "Recent Unemployment Rate Estimates for the 1920s and 1930s",Journal of Economic History, June 1983, 43, 487–93.

Further reading

Surveys

Badger, Anthony J. The New Deal: The Depression Years, 1933–1940. (2002)general survey from British perspectiveChafe, William H. ed. The Achievement of American Liberalism: The New Dealand its Legacies (2003)Conkin, Paul K. The New Deal. (1967), a brief New Left critique.Dubofsky, Melvyn, ed. The New Deal: Conflicting Interpretations and ShiftingPerspectives. (1992), readerEden, Robert, ed. New Deal and Its Legacy: Critique and Reappraisal (1989),essays by scholarsHiltzik, Michael. The New Deal: A Modern History (2011), popular history byjournalist; 512ppLeuchtenburg, William E. Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal, 1932–1940.(1963). A standard interpretive history.Kennedy, David M. "What the New Deal Did," Political Science Quarterly, 124(Summer 2009), 251–68.Kennedy, David M. Freedom From Fear: The American People in Depressionand War, 1929–1945. (1999), survey; Pulitzer PrizeKirkendall, Richard S. "The New Deal As Watershed: The Recent Literature",The Journal of American History, Vol. 54, No. 4. (Mar., 1968), pp. 839–852. inJSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/stable/1918073) , historiographyMcElvaine Robert S. The Great Depression 2nd ed (1993), social history

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Polenberg, Richard. "The Era of Franklin D. Roosevelt 1933–1945 A BriefHistory with Documents" ISBN 0-312-13310-3Schlesinger, Arthur M. Jr., The Age of Roosevelt, 3 vols, (1957–1960), theclassic narrative history.Shlaes, Amity. The Forgotten Man: A New History of the Great Depression(2007)Sitkoff, Harvard. ed. Fifty Years Later: The New Deal Evaluated. (1984). Afriendly liberal evaluation.Wecter, Dixon. The Age of the Great Depression, 1929–1941 (1948), socialhistory

Biographies

Beasley, Maurine H., Holly C. Shulman, Henry R. Beasley. The EleanorRoosevelt Encyclopedia (2001)Brands, H.W. Traitor to His Class: The Privileged Life and Radical Presidencyof Franklin Delano Roosevelt (2008)Charles, Searle F. Minister of Relief: Harry Hopkins and the Depression (1963)Cohen, Adam, Nothing to Fear: FDR's Inner Circle and the Hundred Days thatCreated Modern America (2009)Graham, Otis L. and Meghan Robinson Wander, eds. Franklin D. Roosevelt: HisLife and Times. (1985). An encyclopedic reference.Ingalls, Robert P. Herbert H. Lehman and New York's Little New Deal (1975)Pederson, William D. ed. A Companion to Franklin D. Roosevelt (BlackwellCompanions to American History) (2011); 35 essays by scholars; many dealwith politics

Economics, farms, labor, relief

Bernstein, Irving. Turbulent Years: A History of the American Worker, 1933–1941 (1970), cover labor unionsBest, Gary Dean. Pride, Prejudice, and Politics: Roosevelt Versus Recovery,1933–1938. (1990) ISBN 0-275-93524-8; conservative perspectiveBlumberg Barbara. The New Deal and the Unemployed: The View from NewYork City (1977).Bremer William W. "Along the American Way: The New Deal's Work ReliefPrograms for the Unemployed". Journal of American History 62 (December1975): 636–652. in JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/stable/2936218)

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Brock William R. Welfare, Democracy and the New Deal (1988), a British viewBurns, Helen M. The American Banking Community and New Deal BankingReforms, 1933–1935 (1974)Folsom, Burton. New Deal or Raw Deal? : How FDR's Economic Legacy hasDamaged America (2008) ISBN 1-4165-9222-9, conservative interpretationGordon, Colin. New Deals: Business, Labor, and Politics, 1920–1935 (1994)Grant, Michael Johnston. Down and Out on the Family Farm: RuralRehabilitation in the Great Plains, 1929–1945 (2002)Hawley, Ellis W. The New Deal and the Problem of Monopoly (1966)Howard, Donald S. The WPA and Federal Relief Policy (1943)Huibregtse, Jon R. American Railroad Labor and the Genesis of the New Deal,1919–1935; (University Press of Florida; 2010; 172 pages)Jensen, Richard J. "The Causes and Cures of Unemployment in the GreatDepression", Journal of Interdisciplinary History 19 (1989) 553–83. in JSTOR(http://www.jstor.org/stable/203954)Leff, Mark H. The Limits of Symbolic Reform: The New Deal and Taxation(1984)Lindley, Betty Grimes and Ernest K. Lindley. A New Deal for Youth: The Storyof the National Youth Administration (1938)Mathews, Jane De Hart. "Arts and the People: The New Deal Quest for aCultural Democracy", Journal of American History 62 (1975): 316–39, inJSTORMalamud; Deborah C. "'Who They Are—or Were': Middle-Class Welfare in theEarly New Deal" University of Pennsylvania Law Review v 151 No. 6 2003. pp2019+.McKinzie, Richard. The New Deal for Artists (1984), well illustrated scholarlystudyMeriam; Lewis. Relief and Social Security The Brookings Institution. 1946.Highly detailed analysis and statistical summary of all New Deal reliefprogramsMitchell, Broadus. Depression Decade: From New Era through New Deal,1929–1941 (1947), survey by economic historianParker, Randall E. Reflections on the Great Depression (2002) interviews with11 leading economistsPowell, Jim FDR's Folly: How Roosevelt and His New Deal Prolonged the GreatDepression (2003) ISBN 0-7615-0165-7Rosenof, Theodore. Economics in the Long Run: New Deal Theorists and TheirLegacies, 1933–1993 (1997)

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Rosen, Elliot A. Roosevelt, the Great Depression, and the Economics ofRecovery (2005) ISBN 0-8139-2368-9Rothbard, Murray. America's Great Depression (1963). ibertarian critique(http://www.mises.org/rothbard/agd.pdf)Saloutos, Theodore. The American Farmer and the New Deal (1982).Singleton, Jeff. The American Dole: Unemployment Relief and the Welfare Statein the Great Depression (2000)Skocpol, Theda, and Kenneth Finegold. "State Capacity and EconomicIntervention in the Early New Deal". Political Science Quarterly 97 (1982):255–78. at JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/stable/2149478)Skocpol, Theda, and Kenneth Finegold. "Explaining New Deal Labor Policy"American Political Science Reform (1977) 84:1297–1304 in JSTOR(http://www.jstor.org/pss/1963265)Zelizer; Julian E. "The Forgotten Legacy of the New Deal: Fiscal Conservatismand the Roosevelt Administration, 1933–1938" Presidential Studies Quarterly(2000) 30#2 pp: 331+.

Politics

Alswang, John. The New Deal and American Politics (1978), voting analysisAlter, Jonathan. The Defining Moment: FDR's Hundred Days and the Triumph ofHope (2006), popular accountBadger, Anthony J. FDR: The First Hundred Days (2008)Badger, Anthony J. New Deal / New South: An Anthony J. Badger Reader (2007)Bernstein, Barton J. "The New Deal: The Conservative Achievements of LiberalReform". In Barton J. Bernstein, ed., Towards a New Past: Dissenting Essays inAmerican History, pp. 263–88. (1968), an influential New Left attack on theNew Deal.Best, Gary Dean. The Critical Press and the New Deal: The Press VersusPresidential Power, 1933–1938 (1993) ISBN 0-275-94350-XBest, Gary Dean. Retreat from Liberalism: Collectivists versus Progressives inthe New Deal Years (2002) ISBN 0-275-94656-8Brinkley, Alan. The End of Reform: New Deal Liberalism in Recession and War.(1995) what happened after 1937Cobb, James and Michael Namaroto, eds. The New Deal and the South (1984).Conklin, Paul K. "The Myth of New Deal Radicalism" in Myth America: AHistorical Anthology, Volume II. 1997. Gerster, Patrick, and Cords, Nicholas.(editors.) Brandywine Press, ISBN 1-881089-97-5

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Domhoff, G. William, and Michael J. Webber. Class and Power in the NewDeal: Corporate Moderates, Southern Democrats, and the Liberal-LaborCoalition (Stanford University Press; 2011) 304 pages; uses class dominancetheory to examine the Agricultural Adjustment Act, the National LaborRelations Act, and the Social Security Act.Ekirch Jr., Arthur A. Ideologies and Utopias: The Impact of the New Deal onAmerican Thought (1971)Fraser, Steve and Gary Gerstle, eds., The Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order,(1989), essays focused on the long-term results.Garraty, John A. "The New Deal, National Socialism, and the GreatDepression", American Historical Review, (1973) 78#4 pp. 907–44. in JSTOR(http://www.jstor.org/stable/1858346)Higgs, Robert. Crisis and Leviathan: Critical Episodes in the Growth ofAmerican Government (1987), libertarian critiqueLadd, Everett Carll and Charles D. Hadley. Transformations of the AmericanParty System: Political Coalitions from the New Deal to the 1970s (1975),voting behaviorLowitt, Richard. The New Deal and the West (1984).Manza; Jeff. "Political Sociological Models of the U.S. New Deal" AnnualReview of Sociology: 2000, 26 (2000): 297–322.Milkis, Sidney M. and Jerome M. Mileur, eds. The New Deal and the Triumph ofLiberalism (2002)Patterson, James T. The New Deal and the States: Federalism in Transition(Princeton UP, 1969).Sitkoff, Harvard. A New Deal for Blacks: The Emergence of Civil Rights as aNational Issue: The Depression Decade (2008)Smith, Jason Scott. Building New Deal Liberalism: The Political Economy ofPublic Works, 1933–1956 (2005).Sternsher, Bernard ed., Hitting Home: The Great Depression in Town andCountry (1970), essays by scholars on local historySzalay, Michael. New Deal Modernism: American Literature and the Inventionof the Welfare State (2000)Tindall George B. The Emergence of the New South, 1915–1945 (1967). surveyof entire SouthTrout Charles H. Boston, the Great Depression, and the New Deal (1977)Venn, Fiona (1998). The New Deal. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.ISBN 1-57958-145-5.Ware, Susan. Beyond Suffrage: Women and the New Deal (1981)

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Primary sources

Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1951 (1951) fullof useful data; online(http://www2.census.gov/prod2/statcomp/documents/1951-01.pdf)Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Timesto 1970 (1976) part 1 online(http://www2.census.gov/prod2/statcomp/documents/CT1970p1.zip) ; part 2online (http://www2.census.gov/prod2/statcomp/documents/CT1970p2.zip)Cantril, Hadley and Mildred Strunk, eds. Public Opinion, 1935–1946 (1951),massive compilation of many public opinion pollsCarter, Susan B. et al. eds. The Historical Statistics of the United States (6 vol:Cambridge UP, 2006); huge compilation of statistical data; online at someuniversitiesGallup, George Horace, ed. The Gallup Poll; Public Opinion, 1935–1971 3 vol(1972) summarizes results of each poll.Lowitt, Richard and Beardsley Maurice, eds. One Third of a Nation: LorenaHickock Reports on the Great Depression (1981)Moley, Raymond. After Seven Years (1939), conservative memoir by ex-BrainTrusterNixon, Edgar B. ed. Franklin D. Roosevelt and Foreign Affairs (3 vol 1969),covers 1933–37. 2nd series 1937–39 available on microfiche and in a 14 volprint edition at some academic libraries.Roosevelt, Franklin D.; Rosenman, Samuel Irving, ed. The Public Papers andAddresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt (13 vol, 1938, 1945); public material only(no letters); covers 1928–1945.Zinn, Howard, ed. New Deal Thought (1966), a compilation of primary sources.

External linksThe Smithsonian American Art Museum's Exhibition "1934: A New Deal forArtists" (http://americanart.si.edu/exhibitions/archive/2009/1934/)The New Deal(http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/system/topicRoot/The_new_deal/) Originalreports and pictures from The TimesArt, Culture, and Government: The New Deal at 75(http://www.loc.gov/folklife/newdeal/index.html) Library of Congress,

American Folklife Center Documentation of March 13–14, 2008 Symposium

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American Folklife Center Documentation of March 13–14, 2008 Symposiumincluding webcasts of presentationsHannsgen, Greg E.and Papadimitriou, Dimitri B.Lessons from the New Deal:Did the New Deal Prolong or Worsen the Great Depression? Working Paper No.581, The Levy Economics Institute of Bard College. October 2009(http://www.levy.org/pubs/wp_581.pdf)California's Living New Deal Project (http://livingnewdeal.berkeley.edu/) ,database of the lasting effects of the New Deal in CaliforniaNew Deal (http://www.history.com/topics/new-deal) by Alan Brinkley onHistory.com

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