Chapter 6 Basic Motivation Concepts MULTIPLE CHOICE Defining
Motivation 1. Jim is a student who cannot work at writing a paper
for more than 30 minutes, yet he can spend many hours writing
comments on blogs. What accounts for the change in motivation in
this case? a. his ability b. the situation c. his personality d.
the congruence e. the structure of the task (b; Moderate;
Motivation; p. 175) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 2. Motivation is best
defined as a process that _____. a. results in a level of effort b.
intensifies an individuals efforts c. accounts for an individuals
efforts toward attaining a goal d. meets an individuals needs e.
stabilizes over time (c; Moderate; Motivation; p. 175) 3. What are
the three key elements of motivation? a. reactance, congruence, and
circumstance b. interest, activity, and reward c. awareness,
effort, and outcome d. stimulation, progress, and achievement e.
intensity, direction, and persistence (e; Moderate; Elements of
Motivation; p. 175) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} Early Theories of
Motivation 4. What is the most well-known theory of motivation? a.
theories X and Y b. Maslows hierarchy of needs c. two-factor theory
d. motivator-hygiene theory e. cognitive evaluation theory (b;
Easy; Hierarchy of Needs; p. 176) 5. Maslows hierarchy has five
levels of needs. Which of the following is not one of those levels?
a. safety needs b. social needs c. animal needs d.
self-actualization needs e. physiological needs (c; Moderate;
Hierarchy of Needs; p. 176)
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6.
Maslows hierarchy of needs arranges those needs in which of the
following orders? a. physiological, esteem, safety, social, and
self-actualization b. physiological, safety, social, esteem, and
self-actualization c. safety, physiological, esteem, social, and
self-actualization d. physiological, social, safety, esteem, and
self-actualization e. safety, physiological, social, esteem, and
self-actualization (b; Moderate; Hierarchy of Needs; p. 176) 7.
Which level of Maslows hierarchy of needs deals with satisfying
ones hunger, thirst, and need for sex? a. safety b. physiological
c. social d. esteem e. psychological (b; Moderate; Physiological
Needs; p. 176) 8. Danielle wants to become a surgeon, not only
because achieving this goal will give her selfrespect and autonomy,
but also because she wants a job with high status and recognition
from others. Which of Maslows needs is Danielle trying to fill? a.
self-actualization b. social c. esteem d. psychological e. safety
(c; Moderate; Esteem Needs; p. 176) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 9.
Hans derives a great sense of belongingness, acceptance and
friendship from his relationships with his extended family. Which
of Maslows needs is Hans fulfilling through these relationships? a.
lower-order b. self-actualization c. esteem d. social e.
physiological (d; Moderate; Social Needs; p. 176) {AACSB: Analytic
Skills}
10.
In Maslows hierarchy of needs, what is the term used for the
drive to become what one is capable of becoming? a. perfection b.
self-actualization c. hypo-glorification d. self-esteem e.
attainment (b; Easy; Self-Actualization Needs; p. 176) 11.
According to Maslow, when does a need stop motivating? a. when it
is substantially satisfied b. it never stops motivating c. when one
returns to a lower level need d. when one chooses to move to a
higher level need e. only when it is completely satisfied (a;
Moderate; Hierarchy of Needs; p. 176)
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12.
Which of the following were considered higher-order needs by
Maslow? a. physiological, safety, social b. safety, social, esteem
c. esteem, self-actualization d. social, esteem, self-actualization
e. recognition, pay, admiration (d; Moderate; Higher Order Needs;
p. 176) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 13. Kate says that she plans to do
a graduate degree in art in order to realize her passion for the
subject, even though this will mean she has to adjust to a much
more frugal lifestyle while she is at school. Kates case
illustrates which point about Maslows hierarchy of needs theory? a.
Higher-order needs tend to dominate lower order needs. b.
Physiological needs can be controlled by the individual more than
higher-order needs. c. Lower-order needs do not have to be fully
satisfied before higher-order needs become dominant. d.
Self-actualization is the need that requires the most resources to
fill. e. Self actualization is the highest order of need. (c;
Challenging; Hierarchy of Needs; p. 176) {AACSB: Analytic Skills}
14. What is the primary organizational factor that satisfies
peoples physiological needs? a. their relationships with co-workers
b. recognition c. pay d. admiration e. their position within the
organization (c; Moderate; Physiological Needs; p. 176) {AACSB:
Analytic Skills} 15. Who developed ERG theory? a. McClelland b.
Maslow c. Alderfer d. Ouchi e. Dieckmann (c; Moderate; ERG Theory;
p. 177) 16. Hunger, thirst, sex, pay, and physical work environment
are examples of which of Alderfers needs? a. existence b. safety c.
growth d. physiological e. subsistence (a; Moderate; Existence
Needs; p. 177) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 17. Desires for
associations with those who are significant to us, such as family
members, supervisors, and friends, are examples of Alderfers _____
needs. a. existence b. relatedness c. association d. esteem e.
subsistence (b; Moderate; Relatedness Needs; p. 177) {AACSB:
Analytic Skills}
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18.
Our intrinsic desire for personal development is included in
Alderfers _____ needs. a. existence b. relatedness c. subsistence
d. esteem e. growth (e; Moderate; Growth Needs; p. 177) {AACSB:
Analytic Skills} 19. ERGs ______ needs include the intrinsic
component from Maslows esteem category and the characteristics
included under self-actualization. a. existence b. relatedness c.
growth d. physiological e. psychophysical (c; Moderate; Growth
Needs; p. 177) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 20. Which one of the
following is not a characteristic of ERG theory? a. It proposes
three levels of needs: existence, relatedness, and growth. b. More
than one level of needs may serve as motivators at the same time.
c. It involves a frustration-regression process. d. The existence
needs must be satisfied before the relatedness needs become
important. e. It is an extension and improvement of Maslows theory.
(d; Moderate; ERG Theory; p. 177) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 21.
Which of the following is not one of the ways in which ERG theory
differs from Maslows hierarchy of needs? a. There are only three
groups of core needs. b. The needs are not hierarchical. c. It
assumes that an individual can focus on more than one need at a
time. d. It posits that an unsatisfied higher-order need can lead
to regression to a lower need. e. It is supported by a great deal
more empirical research. (e; Moderate; ERG Theory; p. 177) 22. What
is the major problem with Maslows hierarchy of needs in
organizational behavior? a. It is difficult to apply to the
workplace. b. It is vague as to how a workplace can satisfy
higher-order needs. c. Its terminology tends to alienate those to
whom it is applied. d. It is almost impossible to assess how well
an individual has a particular need filled. e. There is little
evidence that needs are structured or operate in the way it
describes. (e; Moderate; Hierarchy of Needs; p. 177-178) 23. Which
of the following theories was proposed by Douglas McGregor? a.
hierarchy of needs theory b. Theories X and Y c. two-factor theory
d. ERG theory e. expectancy theory (b; Moderate; Theory X and
Theory Y; p. 178)
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24.
How would a Theory X manager view employees? a. seeking
responsibility b. needing to be coerced to achieve goals c. viewing
work as a normal daily activity d. exercising self control e. not
motivated by rewards (b; Easy; Theory X; p. 177) 25. A Theory Y
manager would assume that employees would _____. a. dislike work b.
need to be controlled c. avoid responsibility d. exercise self
direction e. attempt to avoid work (d; Easy; Theory Y; p. 177) 26.
Which of the following is a behavior that would most likely be
exhibited by a Theory X manager? a. She lets her employees choose
their own goals. b. She trusts her employees to use discretion in
most matters. c. She strictly controls the details of any project
she is managing. d. She delegates authority extensively to junior
managers. e. She honestly informs her employees of the likelihood
that they will lose their jobs. (c; Moderate; Theory X; p. 177)
{AACSB: Analytic Skills} 27. Two managers are talking about how
they get the best out of their employees: Jo: I tell my employees
that times are tough and there is no way of telling when the guys
in head office might try to downsize. Let me tell you, a bit of
fear keeps them focused on the task at hand. Chris I tell them that
head office is making them more responsible for deciding how to do
their work. The increased sense of ownership they have makes
productivity go way up How would these managers be best
characterized by Douglas McGregor? a. Both hold Theory X
assumptions. b. Both hold Theory Y assumptions. c. Chris holds
Theory X assumptions; Jo holds Theory Y assumptions. d. Jo holds
Theory X assumptions; Chris holds Theory Y assumptions. e. The
statements would not indicate that either manager is predisposed to
either Theory X or Theory Y assumptions. (d; Moderate; Theory X and
Theory Y; p. 177) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 28. Someone subscribing
to theory X would agree with which of the following statements? a.
Individuals are dominated by Maslows lower level needs. b.
Individuals are dominated by Maslows higher level needs. c.
Individuals are not clearly dominated by any particular level of
Maslows hierarchy of needs. d. Individuals are in reality
independent of Maslows hierarchy of needs. e. Individuals are
dominated by their needs in a situational context rather than in a
strict hierarchy. (a; Moderate; Theory X; p. 177)
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29.
What other name is the two-factor theory known by? a. theories X
and Y b. motivator-hygiene theory c. hierarchy of needs theory d.
satisfaction/dissatisfaction theory e. minimal justification theory
(b; Moderate; Two-Factor Theory; p. 178) 30. Who proposed a
two-factor theory? a. Maslow b. McClelland c. Surber d. Alderfer e.
Herzberg (e; Moderate; Two-Factor Theory; p. 178) 31. Two-factor
theory suggests that dissatisfaction is caused by extrinsic
factors. Which of the following is an example of such a factor? a.
advancement b. working conditions c. achievement d. recognition e.
nature of the work itself (b; Moderate; Extrinsic Factors; p. 178)
32. Which of the following is not true about the two-factor theory?
a. Working conditions are characterized as hygiene factors. b.
Intrinsic factors are motivators. c. A job becomes satisfying when
the dissatisfying characteristics are removed. d. Responsibility is
a satisfier. e. Hygiene factors are demotivators. (c; Moderate;
Two-Factor Theory; p. 178) 33. Gerry has a job which pays an
excellent salary. She has a good relationship with her peers and
her supervisors. She also likes the fact that the company policy
fits well with what she personally believes, and that she has
received considerable recognition for her achievements at the
company. Which of these factors is most likely responsible for the
fact that Gerry loves her job? a. high compensation b. good nature
of peer relationships c. good nature of supervisor relationships d.
good fit between personal beliefs and company policy e. recognition
for her achievements (e; Challenging; Two-Factor Theory; p. 178)
34. Which of the following would be considered a motivator in the
two-factor theory? a. salary b. supervision c. working conditions
d. bonuses e. responsibility (e; Moderate; Motivators; p. 178)
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35.
What continuum in the two-factor theory is made up of the
hygiene factors? a. no dissatisfaction to dissatisfaction b. no
dissatisfaction to satisfaction c. satisfaction to no satisfaction
d. satisfaction to dissatisfaction e. dissatisfaction to exit
behavior (a; Challenging; Hygiene Factors; p. 179) 36. Which of the
following is a not a criticism of the two-factor theory? a. No
overall measure of satisfaction is utilized. b. The research
methodology does not examine productivity. c. The theory is
inconsistent with previous research. d. The system used by raters
is too rigid and not open to interpretation. e. He assumed a strong
relationship between satisfaction and productivity. (d; moderate;
Two-Factor Theory; p. 180) 37. McClellands theory of needs
concentrates on which three needs? a. achievement, realization, and
acceptance b. achievement, power, and affiliation c. power,
acceptance, and confirmation d. affiliation, control, and
realization e. control, status, and relationships (b; Moderate;
McClellands Theory of Needs; p. 180) 38. Jasmine is trying to gain
control of her department. Although she will be greatly compensated
if she achieves this aim and will gain control over many
subordinates, the main reason she is pursuing this position is that
she thinks she can do the job better than her predecessors and
wants people to know that this is so. What need would McClelland
say primarily drives Jasmine in this case? a. the need for control
b. the need for achievement c. the need for attainment d. the need
for influence e. the need for power (b; Challenging; Achievement
Needs; p. 180) 39. According to McClelland, individuals who have a
desire to excel and to succeed are high in _____. a. nPow b. nAch
c. nMot d. nAff e. nSync (b; Moderate; Achievement Needs; p.
180)
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40.
According to McClelland, what is the need to make others behave
in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise? a. the need
for power b. the need for achievement c. the need for affiliation
d. the need for control e. the need for social validation (a; Easy;
Power Needs; p. 180) 41. How does McClelland define the need for
affiliation? a. drive to excel, to strive to succeed. b. need to
make others behave in a novel way c. desire for friendly and close
interpersonal relationships d. same as Maslows social need e. all
of the above (c; Moderate; Affiliation Needs; p. 180) 42. An
individual who joins the armed services out of a desire to be
involved in an enterprise that requires a high degree of
cooperation for success probably would have high _____. a. nAch b.
nAff c. nPow d. nEst e. nLov (b; Easy; Affiliation Needs; p. 180)
43. A manager wishes to motivate a sales employee who is a high
achiever. According to McClelland, which of the following sales
territories should be assigned to such a salesperson? a. one where
he is loosely controlled and he is certain to meet his sales
targets b. one where he is closely controlled and there is a
moderate chance he will exceed his sales targets c. one where he is
loosely controlled and there is a moderate chance he will exceed
his sales targets d. one where he is closely controlled and there
is a small chance he will greatly exceed his sales targets e. one
where he is loosely controlled and there is a small chance he will
greatly exceed his sales targets (b; Challenging; McClellands
Theory of Needs; p. 181) 44. You are supervising a team leader in
charge of training employees to use a new phone system. According
to McClelland, which of the following courses of action will best
ensure this employee stays motivated in his task? a. Trust him to
do the job independently, and do not give feedback until the
project is completed. b. Trust him to do the job independently, and
do not give any feedback unless it is asked for. c. Trust him to do
the job independently, but do not fail to provide plenty of
feedback. d. Closely supervise him, and provide moderate amounts of
feedback. e. Closely supervise him, and provide a great deal of
feedback. (c; Easy; McClellands Theory of Needs; p. 181) {AACSB:
Analytic Skills}
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45.
Individuals with a high need to achieve prefer all of the
following except _____. a. job situations with personal
responsibility b. a high degree of risk c. overcoming obstacles d.
feedback e. personal empowerment (b; Moderate; Achievement Needs;
p. 181) Cognitive Evaluation Theory 46. The issue of whether or not
intrinsic and extrinsic motivators are independent is considered in
which theory? a. expectancy b. reinforcement c. equity d. cognitive
evaluation e. two-factor (d; Moderate; Cognitive Evaluation Theory;
p. 182) 47. Cognitive evaluation theory suggests that which of the
following would not serve to increase an employees motivation? a.
base pay on performance b. praise good performance c. make the work
interesting d. support employee development e. make pay not
contingent on performance (a; Moderate; Cognitive Evaluation
Theory; p. 182) Goal-Setting Theory 48. Who proposed that
intentions to work toward a goal are a major source of work
motivation? a. Abraham Maslow b. Jake Herzberg c. Stephen
McClelland d. Edwin Locke e. Douglas Surber (d; Easy; Goal-Setting
Theory; p. 185) 49. According to the goal-setting theory of
motivation, highest performance is reached when goals are set to
which level? a. impossible but inspirational b. difficult but
attainable c. slightly beyond a persons actual potential d. only
marginally challenging e. easily attained (b; Moderate;
Goal-Setting Theory; p. 185)
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50.
Which of the following is not an important issue relating to
goal-setting theory? a. goal difficulty b. goal specificity c.
equity among co-workers d. feedback e. defining the goal (c;
Moderate; Goal-Setting Theory; pp. 185-186) 51. Deborah works for a
U.S. based firm with extensive business interests in Latin America.
Deborah has successfully used goal-setting theory in her efforts to
motivate her US employees. When she tries to use it on her Chilean
employees, she has much poorer results. Why is this probably so? a.
Language difference makes it very difficult to translate the
necessary concepts into Spanish. b. Chilean employees tend to have
higher scores on power distance and uncertainty avoidance. c.
Chilean employees tend to score high on measures of the need for
achievement. d. The goals the workers in Chile must reach are
substantially simpler than those her U.S. employees must reach. e.
She publicly announced the goals she wanted her Chilean workers to
reach. (b; Challenging; Goal-Setting Theory; p. 186) {AACSB:
Analytic Skills} {AACSB: Multicultural and Diversity} 52. What is
generally considered to be the single best thing that managers can
do to improve performance? a. allocate tasks depending on
personality b. restrict the use of punishment as a means of
motivating workers c. give abundant opportunities for employee
growth d. set specific, challenging goals e. concentrate on
intrinsic rewards rather than extrinsic rewards (d; Moderate;
Goal-Setting Theory; p. 186) 53. What sort of goals does Management
by Objectives (MBO) emphasize? a. tangible, verifiable, and
measurable b. achievable, controllable, and profitable c.
inspirational, teachable, and creative d. challenging, emotional,
and constructive e. hierarchical, attainable, and effective (a;
Moderate; Management by Objectives; p. 187) {AACSB: Analytic
Skills} 54. Management by Objectives (MBO) emphasizes translating
overall organizational objectives into _____. a. capital gains b.
specific objectives for organizational units and individual members
c. operational units d. terms that the individual worker can
understand and accept e. personal gain (b; Easy; Management by
Objectives; p. 187) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 55. Who sets MBO
objectives? a. the boss b. the boss and immediate subordinates c.
they are set jointly by superior and subordinate d. the employees
performing the task in question e. each working division in
cooperation with management (c; Easy; Management by Objectives; p.
187)
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56.
What does MBO provide for the individual employee? a. specific
personal performance objectives b. precise job descriptions c.
explicit task objectives. d. clear direction and purpose e. higher
salaries (a; Moderate; Management by Objectives; p. 188) 57. Which
of the following is not an ingredient common to all MBO programs?
a. an explicit time period b. participative decision making c.
consistent monetary rewards d. performance feedback e. a known
timeline (c; Easy; Management by Objectives; p. 188) {AACSB:
Analytic Skills} 58. Which of the following is an example of an MBO
objective? a. Decrease payroll costs by 6%. b. Modernize outdated
equipment. c. Train employees to use new invoicing software. d.
Improve customer service. e. Increase employee satisfaction. (a;
Moderate; Management by Objectives; p. 188) {AACSB: Analytic
Skills} 59. Some MBO programs fail to live up to expectations.
Which of the following is not a common reason that MBO programs
fail? a. They allow lower-unit managers to participate in setting
their own goals. b. There are cultural incompatibilities. c. There
are unrealistic expectations regarding results. d. There is a lack
of commitment by top management. e. There is an unwillingness or
inability by management to reward goal accomplishment. (a;
Moderate; Management by Objectives; p. 188) Self-Efficacy Theory
60. What is the term used for an individuals personal evaluation of
their ability to perform? a. expectancy b. autonomy c.
self-efficacy d. task identity e. auto-discrimination (c; Easy;
Self-Efficacy; p. 188) 61. According to Bandura, what is the most
important source of increasing self-efficacy? a. arousal b. verbal
modeling c. verbal persuasion d. enactive mastery e. focused
training (d; Moderate; Ways to Increase Self-Efficacy; p. 189)
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Reinforcement Theory 62. How do proponents of reinforcement
theory view behavior? a. as the result of a cognitive process b. as
environmentally caused c. as a reflection of the inner state of the
individual d. as a function of ones power need e. as a product of
heredity (b; Moderate; Reinforcement Theory; p. 191) 63. Which
theory is, strictly speaking, not a theory of motivation since it
does not concern itself with what initiates behavior? a. equity
theory b. expectancy theory c. ERG theory d. reinforcement theory
e. Theory X and Theory Y (d; Moderate; Reinforcement Theory; p.
191) 64. What is the major failure of reinforcement theory in
explaining changes in behavior? a. It cannot adequately describe
the original behavior. b. It originated in the studies of the
responses of animals. c. Most behavior is in fact environmentally
caused. d. It ignores the effect of rewards and punishments upon
behavior. e. It does not recognize the effect of feelings,
attitudes, and other cognitive variables. (e; Moderate;
Reinforcement Theory; p. 191) Equity Theory 65. In equity theory,
individuals assess the _____. a. cost-benefit ratio b.
efficiency-effectiveness trade-off c. quantity-quality trade-off d.
outcome-input ratio e. pareto efficient outcome (d; Moderate;
Outcome-Input Ratio; 192) 66. When individuals compare their
outcomes and inputs against those of others, the framework is
_____. a. equity b. expectancy c. JCM d. SIC e. JAV (a; Easy;
Equity; p. 192)
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67.
When people perceive an imbalance in their outcome-input ratio
relative to others, _____. a. reinforcement theory is imbalanced b.
expectancy theory is violated c. equity tension is created d.
distributive justice is questioned e. they seek to move to another
position of authority (c; Moderate; Outcome-Input Ratio; 192) 68.
Which of the following is not a comparison an employee can use in
equity theory? a. self-inside b. self-goal c. other-outside d.
self-outside e. other-inside (b; Moderate; Referent Comparisons; p.
193) 69. Which of the following is not true about referent
comparisons in equity theory? a. Both men and women prefer same-sex
comparisons. b. Employees in sex-segregated jobs use more cross-sex
comparisons. c. Employees with long tenure rely more heavily on
co-workers for comparisons. d. Upper-level employees make more
other-outside comparisons. e. Those with higher amounts of
education tend to have better information about people in other
organizations. (b; Moderate; Referent Comparisons; p. 193) {AACSB:
Multicultural and Diversity} 70. Which of the following is not a
predictable choice when employees perceive an inequity? a. change
their inputs b. change their outcomes c. choose a different
referent d. acquire more tenure e. leave the field (d; Moderate;
Inequity; p. 194) 71. James is a salaried employee whose job it is
to proofread legal documents. He discovers that he is paid
substantially more than his colleagues, even though their jobs and
performances are very similar. What is likely to be his reaction to
this discovery according to equity theory? a. The quantity of
documents he proofreads will decrease. b. The quality of documents
he proofreads will decrease. c. The quantity and/or the quality of
documents he proofreads will increase. d. He will seek a position
within the company commensurate with his pay. e. There will be no
effect. (c; Challenging; Inequity; p. 194) {AACSB: Analytic Skills}
72. What would be the predicted result of overpaying a piece-rate
worker, according to equity theory? a. Quality will increase. b.
Quantity will increase. c. Quality will decrease. d. There will be
no effect. e. The employee will seek a higher wage. (a; Moderate;
Inequity; p. 194)
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73.
Equity theory historically focused on _____ justice. a.
procedural b. distributive c. interpersonal d. organizational e.
interactional (b; Moderate; Distributive Justice; p. 195) 74.
Contemporary research on equity theory focuses on_____ justice. a.
interpersonal b. distributive c. organizational d. procedural e.
interactional (c; Moderate; Organizational Justice; p. 195) 75.
Gloria thinks that she is paid less than other workers in her
division and feels extremely resentful. She starts taking long
breaks and generally wasting time. Her actions were a result of her
perceiving what kind of injustice? a. interactive b. interpersonal
c. procedural d. distributive e. interactional (d; Easy;
Distributive Justice; p. 195) 76. Jessica believes that she
received an appropriate salary increase this year but she does not
believe that the companys methods for determining salary increases
were fair. She believes that there is a problem with the firms
_____ justice. a. interpersonal b. distributive c. equity d.
procedural e. outcome (d; Moderate; Procedural Injustice; p. 195)
{AACSB: Analytic Skills} 77. People who perceive that they are
victims of interactional injustice tend to blame their immediate
supervisor rather than the organization at large. Why is this? a.
Interactional justice or injustice is intimately tied to the
conveyer of the information. b. Interactional injustice can only
occur during face-to-face encounters. c. When people are not
treated with respect they tend to retaliate against those closest
to hand. d. Interactional injustice is in the eyes of those who
perceive they are disrespected. e. Interactional injustice is most
often the result of impersonal policies of the organization. (b;
Moderate; Interactional Injustice; p. 196)
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Expectancy Theory 78. Who developed expectancy theory? a.
McClelland b. Maslow c. House d. Vroom e. Sondak (d; Moderate;
Expectancy Theory; p. 197) 79. What theory attempts to measure the
strength of ones expectations and predict motivation? a. expectancy
theory b. equity theory c. goal setting theory d. ERG theory e.
Surberist theory (a; Moderate; Expectancy Theory; p. 197) 80. The
theory that asserts that motivation depends upon an employees
goals, and the belief that productive behavior will get these goals
accomplished, is called _____. a. Herzbergs dual-factor theory b.
McClellands three needs theory c. Vrooms expectancy theory d.
Maslows hierarchy of needs e. Alderfers ERG theory (c; Easy;
Expectancy Theory; p. 197) 81. Helen is an office worker who
processes health insurance forms. She has worked at her present job
for three years. Initially she was criticized by her supervisor for
sloppy work, but in the months after that improved considerably.
Now she consistently processes her forms without errors and above
quota. However she has found her supervisor has not responded to
the extra effort she puts in, giving her no praise and no financial
reward. Helen will most likely perceive that there is a problem in
which of the following relationships? a. rewards-personal goals b.
performance-reward c. effort-performance d. rewards-effort e.
performance-achievement (c; Moderate; Effort-Performance
Relationship; p. 197) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 82. The degree to
which an individual believes that performing at a particular level
will generate a desired outcome is defined by expectancy theory as
what kind of relationship? a. performance-reward b.
effort-performance c. reward-personal goal d. effort-satisfaction
e. agent-actor (a; Moderate; Performance-Reward Relationship; p.
197)
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83.
Which of the following is one of the relationships proposed in
expectancy theory? a. reward-satisfaction relationship b.
satisfaction-performance relationship c. rewards-personal goals
relationship d. effort-satisfaction relationship e.
performance-achievement relationship (c; Moderate; Rewards-Personal
Goals Relationship; p. 197) 84. According to expectancy theory, the
degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an individuals
personal goals or needs and the attractiveness of those potential
rewards for the individual is known as what sort of relationship?
a. performance-reward b. effort-performance c. rewards-personal
goals d. effort-satisfaction e. performance-achievement (c;
Moderate; Rewards-Personal Goals Relationship; p. 197) Global
Implications 85. Most current motivation theories have a strong
emphasis on individualism and quantity of life. Why is this? a.
They were developed in the United States by Americans. b. These are
the traits needed to successfully motivate people. c. Researchers
tend to concentrate on those traits that are easiest to quantify.
d. Motivation theory relies on the study of personality traits to
understand what drives people. e. These are the two traits that are
most distinct in most people worldwide. (a; Moderate; Motivation
Theories; p. 201) {AACSB: Multicultural and Diversity} 86. Which of
the following motivation concepts clearly has an American bias? a.
need for power b. need for affiliation c. need for achievement d.
social needs e. need for association (c; Moderate; Achievement
Need; p. 201) 87. Which of the following desires would most likely
be common to a worker in China, Australia, Kenya, Canada, and
Kuwait? a. interesting work b. higher pay c. more flexibility d.
telecommuting options e. advancement (a; Moderate; Cross-Cultural
Motivational Consistencies; p. 202) {AACSB: Multicultural and
Diversity}
119
Summary and Implications for Managers 88. A theory based on
needs is the premise for theories by all of the following except
_____. a. McClelland b. Alderfer c. McGregor d. Maslow e. Vroom (c;
Moderate; Need Theories; p. 202) TRUE/FALSE Defining Motivation 89.
Motivation is a personality trait. (False; Moderate; Motivation; p.
175) 90. Motivation is the result of the interaction of the
individual and the situation. (True; Easy; Motivation; p. 175) 91.
Leadership is the processes that accounts for an individuals
intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a
goal. (False; Moderate; Motivation; p. 175) 92. High intensity is
unlikely to lead to favorable job-performance outcomes unless the
effort is channeled in a direction that benefits the individual.
(False; Moderate; Motivation; p. 175) Early Theories of Motivation
93. Research shows that contemporary theories of motivation are
generally more valid than the early theories of motivation. (True;
Moderate; Early Theories of Motivation; p. 176) 94. The early
theories of motivation are the best known explanations of employee
motivation. (True; Moderate; Early Theories of Motivation; p. 176)
95. According to Maslow, a need that is essentially satisfied no
longer motivates. (True; Moderate; Hierarchy of Needs; p. 176) 96.
Esteem is considered a lower order need. (False; Moderate; Lower
Order Needs; p. 176) 97. Higher-order needs are satisfied
externally, whereas lower-order needs are predominantly satisfied
internally. (False; Moderate; Higher Order Needs; p. 176) 98. The
core needs in ERG theory are reconcilable with Maslows five need
categories. (True; Moderate; ERG Theory; p. 177)
120
99.
According to Alderfer, existence needs include the items Maslow
considered to be physical and safety needs. (True; Moderate;
Existence Needs; p. 177) 100. According to Alderfer, once an
employees existence needs are substantially satisfied, the employee
moves on to his or her relatedness needs. (False; Moderate; ERG
Theory; p. 177) 101. Research actively validates Maslows hierarchy
of needs theory. (False; Easy; Hierarchy of Needs; pp. 176-177)
102. Theory X assumes that human beings are inherently good.
(False; Moderate; Theory X; p. 177) 103. McGregor referred to the
positive assumptions about human beings as Theory Y. (True;
Moderate; Theory Y; p. 177) 104. Maslow proposed a two-factor
theory, suggesting that intrinsic job factors motivate, whereas
extrinsic factors only maintain and placate employees. (False;
Moderate; Two-Factor Theory; p. 178) 105. According to Herzberg,
the opposite of satisfaction is dissatisfaction. (False; Moderate;
Two-Factor Theory; p. 178) 106. According to Herzberg, some factors
lead to satisfaction, and if you remove these factors you create
dissatisfaction. (False; Moderate; Two-Factor Theory; p. 178) 107.
According to Herzberg, pay strongly motivates. (False; Moderate;
Two-Factor Theory; p. 180) 108. McClellands theory of needs
contains a frustration-regression dimension. (False; Moderate;
McClellands Theory of Needs; p. 180) 109. A drive to succeed would
be described by McClelland as a need for achievement. (True;
Moderate; McClellands Theory of Needs; p. 180) 110. High achievers
attempt the most difficult goals because once achieved, they gain
more recognition. (False; Moderate; McClellands Theory of Needs; p.
181) 111. Individuals with a high need to achieve prefer job
situations with personal responsibility, feedback, and an
intermediate degree of risk (True; Moderate; McClellands Theory of
Needs; p. 181) 112. Evidence indicates that high achievers make
good managers. (False; Moderate; McClellands Theory of Needs; p.
181) 113. Evidence indicates that the best managers are high in
nPow and low in nAff. (True; Moderate; McClellands Theory of Needs;
p. 181)
121
114. The achievement need can be stimulated through training.
(True; Moderate; McClellands Theory of Needs; p. 181) Cognitive
Evaluation Theory 115. When extrinsic rewards are given to someone
for performing an interesting task, it causes intrinsic interest in
the task itself to decline. (True; Challenging; Cognitive
Evaluation Theory; p. 182) 116. Cognitive evaluation theory is
concerned with whether individuals perceive that rewards are
distributed fairly. (False; Moderate; Cognitive Evaluation Theory;
p. 182) 117. According to the cognitive evaluation theory, pay
should not be directly related to job performance. (True;
Challenging; Cognitive Evaluation Theory; p. 184) 118. Evidence
gathered about the cognitive evaluation theory leads us to believe
that extrinsic and intrinsic rewards are independent. (False;
Challenging; Cognitive Evaluation Theory; p. 184) Goal-Setting
Theory 119. According to goal-setting theory, a generalized goal
will produce a high level of output. (False; Moderate; Goal-Setting
Theory; p. 185) 120. External feedback has been shown to be a more
powerful motivator than self-generated feedback. (False; Moderate;
Goal-Setting Theory; p. 186) 121. Participatively set goals have
been clearly shown to elicit improved performance. (False;
Challenging; Participative goals; p. 186) Self-Efficacy Theory 122.
Self-efficacy refers to an individuals belief that he or she is
capable of performing a task. (True; Moderate; Self-Efficacy; p.
188) Reinforcement Theory 123. The basic concepts underlying
goal-setting theory and reinforcement theory are at odds. (True;
Challenging; Reinforcement Theory; p. 191) 124. According to
reinforcement theory, behavior is environmentally determined.
(True; Moderate; Reinforcement Theory; p. 191) 125. The statement
that behavior is a function of its consequences is consistent with
reinforcement theory. (True; Moderate; Reinforcement Theory; p.
191) 126. Changes in behavior attributed to reinforcement may also
be explained in terms of goals, inequity, and expectancies. (True,
Moderate, Reinforcement Theory; p. 191)
122
Equity Theory 127. Equity theory proposes that equity tension is
the negative tension state which provides the motivation to do
something to correct it. (True; Moderate; Equity Theory; 192) 128.
In equity theory, if perceived outcomes and inputs are not
balanced, an individual will make certain adjustments to correct
imbalance. (True; Moderate; Outcome-Input Ratio; 192) 129. Research
shows that in equity theory men prefer same-sex comparisons but
women do not. (False; Moderate; Referent Comparisons; p. 193)
{AACSB: Multicultural and Diversity} 130. If you pay an individual
an hourly rate, according to the equity theory, overpaying this
individual will result in more output. (True; Moderate; Inequity;
p. 194) 131. Underpayment and overpayment, according to equity
theory, tend to produce similar reactions to correct the
inequities. (False; Moderate; Inequity; p. 194) 132. It is possible
for an employee to perceive injustice even if the amount and
allocation of rewards among individuals is perceived as fair.
(True; Moderate; Inequity; p. 194) 133. Distributive justice refers
to the perceived fairness of the process used to determine the
distribution of rewards. (False; Moderate; Distributive Justice; p.
195) 134. Interactional justice is the individuals perception of
the degree to which he or she is treated with dignity, concern, and
respect. (True; Moderate; Interactional Injustice; p. 196)
Expectancy Theory 135. In expectancy theory, the strength of a
persons motivation to perform depends in part on how strongly he
believes he can achieve what he attempts. (True; Moderate;
Expectancy Theory; p. 197)
123
SCENARIO-BASED QUESTIONS Application of Maslows Hierarchy Your
church is made up of people who are very different in their
lifestyles and their stages of life. Mary is a 23-year-old single
parent who is working for minimum wage. Jonathan is 60 years old,
extremely wealthy and works because he enjoys it. Jane is single,
45 years old and has few interests outside of the office. You have
decided to attempt to apply Maslows hierarchy of needs to determine
what motivates each of these individuals. 136. What is the need
that you would expect that Mary is trying to satisfy? a. social b.
esteem c. physiological d. self-actualization e.
alter-actualization (c; Easy; Hierarchy of Needs; p. 176) {AACSB:
Analytic Skills} 137. You would expect that Jane is trying to
satisfy her ______ needs. a. social b. esteem c. physiological d.
self-actualization e. psychophysical (a; Moderate; Hierarchy of
Needs; p. 176) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 138. Which of the following
do you think would motivate Jonathan the most? a. more vacation
time b. more responsibility c. greater discretion over his job d.
more money e. a greater sense of inner peace (e; Moderate;
Hierarchy of Needs; p. 176) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} Application of
McGregors Theory X and Theory Y You are a new employee with Acme,
Inc. Your supervisor has explained your job to you and has
indicated that you will have a great deal of control over your job
once you become proficient at it. He compliments your history of
accepting responsibility and suggests that you are to feel free to
offer constructive criticism about the way that your job is
structured. 139. Your supervisor seems to possess _____
assumptions. a. Theory T b. Theory V c. Theory W d. Theory X e.
Theory Y (e; Easy; Theory Y; p. 177) {AACSB: Analytic Skills}
124
140.
Which of the following is something you would not expect your
supervisor to believe? a. Employees view work as natural. b. The
average person will seek responsibility. c. Workers place security
above most other factors. d. The ability to make innovative
decisions is not necessarily the sole province of managers. e.
Workers are generally reliable. (c; Moderate; Theory X and Theory
Y; p. 177) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 141. Which of the following is
something you would not expect your supervisor to do? a. assume
that you will be internally motivated b. assume that you want to do
your job c. allow you freedom to do your job as you believe it
should be done d. monitor your work closely for an opportunity to
praise you for work well done e. empower you to take responsibility
(d; Challenging; Theory X and Theory Y; p. 177) {AACSB: Analytic
Skills} Application of Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory Your fellow
employees have a terrible work situation. They work in an old,
run-down building with an antiquated heating system. The work
itself is tedious and the supervisor is rarely available and only
shows up to give reprimands for production shortfalls. Nobody has
received a promotion in two years. The work is boring, repetitious,
and unrewarding. You have decided to try to apply Herzbergs
two-factor theory. 142. You decide that your first job should be to
remedy the hygiene factors. Which are they? a. working conditions
b. intrinsic rewards c. recognition d. advancement e. reprimands
(a; Moderate; Two-Factor Theory; p. 180) {AACSB: Analytic Skills}
143. Which of the following statements would likely be true? a.
When the working conditions are improved, employees will be
satisfied. b. The relationship with the supervisor is a motivation
factor. c. Fixing the conditions that make the employees
dissatisfied will not make them satisfied. d. Employees are
dissatisfied due to lack of recognition. e. The major reason for
dissatisfaction is probably the nature of the work itself. (c;
Challenging; Two-Factor Theory; pp. 179-180) {AACSB: Analytic
Skills} 144. What action would probably most motivate the
employees? a. improving in working conditions b. fixing the heating
system c. receiving recognition for a job well done d. having the
supervisor hang around more e. relying more on punishment for poor
performance (c; Moderate; Two-Factor Theory; p. 180) {AACSB:
Analytic Skills}
125
Application of McClellands Theory of Needs You manage a
department of five employees. You have identified that Joe scores
high in the need for achievement, Mary scores high in the need for
power, and Tim scores high in the need for affiliation. Sarah
scored high in the need for power and low in the need for
affiliation. Doug scores low in both need for power and need for
affiliation. 145. Which employee would be best suited to a
challenging new assignment where they would receive rapid feedback?
a. Joe b. Mary c. Tim d. Sarah e. Doug (a; Challenging; McClellands
Theory of Needs; p. 181) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 146. Which
employee would be best suited as a mentor to new employees with a
chance to develop friendships? a. Joe b. Mary c. Tim d. Sarah e.
Doug (c; Easy; McClellands Theory of Needs; p. 181) {AACSB:
Analytic Skills} 147. Which employee would probably be best to
leave in charge while you are on vacation? a. Joe b. Mary c. Tim d.
Sarah e. Doug (d; Challenging; McClellands Theory of Needs; p. 181)
{AACSB: Analytic Skills} Application of Equity Theory You graduated
from college two years ago and began working at Hampstead
Electronics. You have received good performance evaluations and a
raise. You just found out that a recent college graduate with no
experience has been hired at a higher salary than you are now
making. 148. Which of the following will you probably use to
evaluate this situation? a. equity b. expectancy c. goal setting d.
reinforcement e. self-enhancement (a; Moderate; Equity Theory; p.
192) {AACSB: Analytic Skills}
126
149.
Your referent comparison for equity theory is termed _____. a.
self-inside b. self-outside c. other-inside d. other-outside e.
inside-outside (c; Challenging; Equity Theory; p. 193) {AACSB:
Analytic Skills} 150. How can your behavior at work be predicted to
change? a. You will work harder. b. You will call in sick more
often. c. You will acknowledge that the new person hired is worth
more. d. You will not work so hard. e. You will act to undermine
the new employee. (d; Moderate; Equity Theory; p. 193) {AACSB:
Analytic Skills} SHORT DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 151. List and explain
the three groups of core needs in ERG Theory. Alderfer argues that
there are three groups of core needs existence, relatedness, and
growth. a) The existence group is concerned with providing our
basic material existence requirements. b) The second group of needs
is relatedness the desire we have for maintaining important
interpersonal relationships. c) Growth needs reflect an intrinsic
desire for personal development. (Easy; ERG Theory; p. 177) {AACSB:
Analytic Skills} 152. What assumptions are held by a Theory Y
manager? Theory Y managers assume that employees can view work as
being as natural as rest or play, and therefore the average person
can learn to accept, even seek, responsibility. Theory Y assumes
that higher-order needs dominate individuals. Theory Y managers
would contend that ideas as participative decision making,
responsible and challenging jobs, and good group relations are
approaches that would maximize an employees job motivation. (Easy;
Theory Y; p. 177) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 153. Differentiate
motivators from hygiene factors. Conditions surrounding the job
such as quality of supervision, pay, company policies, physical
working conditions, relations with others, and job security were
characterized by Herzberg as hygiene factors. When theyre adequate,
people will not be dissatisfied; neither will these factors cause
them to become satisfied when they are filled. Herzberg suggested
that factors associated with the work itself or outcomes directly
derived from it, such as promotional opportunities, opportunities
for personal growth, recognition, responsibility, and achievement
are motivators. These are the characteristics that people find
intrinsically rewarding. (Moderate; Two-Factor Theory; p. 180)
{AACSB: Analytic Skills}
127
154.
Briefly discuss McClellands Theory of Needs. McClellands theory
of needs focuses on three needs: achievement, power, and
affiliation. The need for achievement is the drive to excel; to
achieve in relation to a set of standards and to strive to succeed.
The need for power is the need to make others behave in a way that
they would not have behaved otherwise. The need for affiliation is
the desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships.
(Easy; McClellands Theory of Needs; p. 180)
155.
Briefly explain cognitive evaluation theory. Cognitive
evaluation theory proposes that the introduction of extrinsic
rewards, such as pay, for work effort that had been previously
intrinsically rewarding due to the pleasure associated with the
content of the work itself would tend to decrease the overall level
of motivation. (Easy; Cognitive Evaluation Theory; p. 182) {AACSB:
Analytic Skills}
156.
What is self-efficacy? Self-efficacy refers to an individuals
belief that he or she is capable of performing a task. The higher
your self-efficacy, the more confidence you have in your ability to
succeed in a task. Individuals high in self-efficacy seem to
respond to negative feedback with increased effort and motivation,
while those low in self-efficacy are likely to lessen their effort
when given negative feedback. (Easy; Self-Efficacy; p. 188) {AACSB:
Analytic Skills}
157.
What are the three relationships in Vrooms expectancy theory?
Expectancy theory argues that the strength of a tendency to act in
a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the
act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness
of that outcome to the individual. The theory focuses on three
relationships. a) The effort-performance relationship is the
probability perceived by the individual that exerting a given
amount of effort will lead to performance. b) The
performance-reward relationship is the degree to which the
individual believes that performing at a particular level will lead
to the attainment of a desired outcome. c) The rewards-personal
goals relationship is the degree to which organizational rewards
satisfy an individuals personal goals or needs and the
attractiveness of those potential rewards for the individual.
(Moderate; Expectancy Theory; p. 197) {AACSB: Analytic Skills}
128
MEDIUM LENGTH DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 158. Describe Maslows
hierarchy of needs. Maslows hierarchy of needs hypothesized that
within every human being there exists a hierarchy of five needs. a)
The physiological needs include hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and
other bodily needs. b) Safety includes security and protection from
physical and emotional harm. c) Social includes affection,
belongingness, acceptance, and friendship. d) Esteem includes
internal esteem factors such as self-respect, autonomy, and
achievement; and external esteem factors such as status,
recognition, and attention. e) Self-actualization is the drive to
become what one is capable of becoming; includes growth, achieving
ones potential, and self-fulfillment. As each of these needs
becomes substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant. So
if you want to motivate someone, according to Maslow, you need to
understand what level of the hierarchy that person is currently on
and focus on satisfying those needs at or above that level.
(Moderate; Hierarchy of Needs; p. 175) {AACSB: Analytic Skills}
159. According to Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory, how might a manager
motivate employees? According to Herzberg, the factors leading to
job satisfaction are separate and distinct from those that lead to
job dissatisfaction. Therefore, managers who seek to eliminate
factors that can create job dissatisfaction may bring about peace
but not necessarily result in motivation, conditions surrounding
the job such as quality of supervision, pay, company policies,
physical working conditions, relations with others, and job
security were characterized by Herzberg as hygiene factors. When
they are adequate, people will not be dissatisfied; neither will
they be satisfied. If we want to motivate people on their jobs,
Herzberg suggested emphasizing factors associated with the work
itself or to outcomes directly derived from it, such as promotional
opportunities, opportunities for personal growth, recognition,
responsibility, and achievement. These are the characteristics that
people find intrinsically rewarding. (Moderate; Two-Factor Theory;
p. 178) {AACSB: Analytic Skills} 160. What predictions can be made
based on the relationship between the achievement need and job
performance? Individuals with a high need to achieve prefer job
situations with personal responsibility, feedback, and an
intermediate degree of risk. When these characteristics are
prevalent, high achievers will be strongly motivated. The evidence
consistently demonstrates, for instance, that high achievers are
successful in entrepreneurial activities such as running their own
businesses and managing a self-contained unit within a large
organization. A high need to achieve does not necessarily lead to
being a good manager, especially in large organizations. People
with a high achievement need are interested in how well they do
personally and not in influencing others to do well. Employees have
been successfully trained to stimulate their achievement need. So
if a job calls for a high achiever, management can select a person
with a high need for achievement or develop its own candidate
through achievement training. (Moderate; McClellands Theory of
Needs; p. 181) {AACSB: Analytic Skills}
129
161.
Discuss distributive justice and procedural justice and how
managers can use these concepts. Historically, equity theory
focused on distributive justice or the perceived fairness of the
amount and allocation of rewards among individuals. But equity
should also consider procedural justice the perceived fairness of
the process used to determine the distribution of rewards. The
evidence indicates that distributive justice has a greater
influence on employee satisfaction than procedural justice, while
procedural justice tends to affect an employees organizational
commitment, trust in his or her boss, and intention to quit. As a
result, managers should consider openly sharing information on how
allocation decisions are made, following consistent and unbiased
procedures, and engaging in similar practices to increase the
perception of procedural justice. By increasing the perception of
procedural fairness, employees are likely to view their bosses and
the organization as positive even if theyre dissatisfied with pay,
promotions, and other personal outcomes. (Moderate; Distributive
Justice and Procedural Justice; p. 194) {AACSB: Analytic
Skills}
162.
Clarify the key relationships in expectancy theory. Expectancy
theory predicts that an employee will exert a high level of effort
if he or she perceives that there is a strong relationship between
effort and performance, performance and rewards, and rewards and
satisfaction of personal goals. Each of these relationships, in
turn, is influenced by certain factors. For effort to lead to good
performance, the individual must have the requisite ability to
perform, and the performance appraisal system that measures the
individuals performance must be perceived as being fair and
objective. The performancereward relationship will be strong if the
individual perceives that it is performance (rather than seniority,
personal favorites, or other criteria) that is rewarded. The
strength of the reward-satisfaction will be highest if the
individual actually places a high value on the rewards that they
receive. (Moderate; Key Relationships in Expectancy Theory; p. 197)
{AACSB: Analytic Skills}
130
COMPREHENSIVE ESSAYS 163. How does ERG theory differ from
Maslows hierarchy of needs? Maslows hierarchy of needs hypothesized
that within every human being there exists a hierarchy of five
needs. The physiological needs include hunger, thirst, shelter,
sex, and other bodily needs. Safety includes security and
protection from physical and emotional harm. Social includes
affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship. Esteem
includes internal esteem factors such as self-respect, autonomy,
and achievement; and external esteem factors such as status,
recognition, and attention. Self-actualization is the drive to
become what one is capable of becoming; includes growth, achieving
ones potential, and self-fulfillment. As each of these needs
becomes substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant. So
if you want to motivate someone, according to Maslow, you need to
understand what level of the hierarchy that person is currently on
and focus on satisfying those needs at or above that level.
Alderfer argues that there are three groups of core needs
existence, relatedness, and growth. The existence group is
concerned with providing our basic material existence requirements.
They include the items that Maslow considered to be physiological
and safety needs. The second group of needs are those of
relatedness the desire we have for maintaining important
interpersonal relationships. These social and status desires
require interaction with others if they are to be satisfied, and
they align with Maslows social need and the external component of
Maslows esteem classification. Growth needs reflect an intrinsic
desire for personal development. These include the intrinsic
component from Maslows esteem category and the characteristics
included under selfactualization. The major difference between the
theories is that ERG theory posits that more than one need may be
operative at the same time and if the gratification of a
higher-level need is stifled, the desire to satisfy a lower-level
need increases. ERG theory contains a frustration-regression
dimension. ERG theory is also more consistent with our knowledge of
individual differences among people. Overall, ERG theory represents
a more valid version of the need hierarchy. (Challenging; Hierarchy
of Needs and ERG Theory; p. 177) {AACSB: Analytic Skills}
131
164.
Discuss goal-setting theory and its implications for managers.
Edwin Locke proposed that intentions to work toward a goal are a
major source of work motivation. Goals tell an employee what needs
to be done and how much effort will need to be expended. The
evidence strongly supports the value of goals. It shows that
specific goals increase performance; that difficult goals, when
accepted, result in higher performance than do easy goals; and that
feedback leads to higher performance than does nonfeedback.
Specific hard goals produce a higher level of output than does the
generalized goal of do your best. The specificity of the goal
itself acts as an internal stimulus. The more difficult the goals,
the higher the level of performance. However, its logical to assume
that easier goals are more likely to be accepted. But once an
employee accepts a hard task, he or she will exert a high level of
effort until it is achieved, lowered, or abandoned. People will do
better when they get feedback on how well they are progressing
toward their goals because feedback helps to identify discrepancies
between what they have done and what they want to do; that is,
feedback acts to guide behavior. Goal-setting theory presupposes
that an individual is committed to the goals, that is, is
determined not to lower or abandon the goal when the goal is made
public, when the individual has an internal locus of control, and
when the goal is self-set rather than assigned. Goal-setting has
also been found to be culture bound. It is well adapted to
countries like the United States and Canada. (Challenging;
Goal-setting Theory; pp. 185186) {AACSB: Analytic Skills}
165.
Discuss equity theory. Include the concepts of equity tension,
referent comparisons, and how employees might reduce perceived
inequity. Employees make comparisons of their job inputs and
outcomes relative to those of others. We perceive what we get from
a job situation in relation to what we put into it, and then we
compare out outcome-input ratio with the outcome-input ratio of
relevant others. If we perceive our ratio to be equal to that of
the relevant others with whom we compare ourselves, a state of
equity is said to exist. We perceive our situation as fair. Equity
tension arises when we perceive that this is not the case. When we
see ourselves as under-rewarded, the tension creates anger; when
over-rewarded, the tension creates guilt. This negative state
provides the motivation to do something to correct it. The referent
that an employee selects adds to the complexity of equity theory.
The four referent comparisons that an employee can use are
comparisons to how that employee has been treated in the past in
both the company he or she currently works for and in similar
situations outside the company(the self-inside and the
self-outside) and comparisons to others both within the company he
or she currently works for and outside the company (the
other-inside and the other-outside). When employees perceive an
inequity, they can be predicted to make one of six choices. They
may change their inputs. They may change their outcomes. They may
distort perceptions of self. They may distort perceptions of
others. They may choose a different referent, or they may leave the
field. (Challenging; Equity Theory; pp. 192-194) {AACSB: Analytic
Skills}
132