MotivationMotivation Initiation / Arousal Arousal Effort / Persistence PersistenceDirectionDirection.

MotivationMotivationMotivationMotivation

Initiation /Initiation /ArousalArousal

Initiation /Initiation /ArousalArousal

Effort / Effort / PersistencePersistence

Effort / Effort / PersistencePersistence

DirectionDirectionDirectionDirection

CATEGORIES OF CATEGORIES OF MOTIVATION THEORIESMOTIVATION THEORIESCATEGORIES OF CATEGORIES OF MOTIVATION THEORIESMOTIVATION THEORIES Content (Need) Theories Content (Need) Theories Reinforcement TheoryReinforcement Theory Process TheoriesProcess Theories

Alderfer’sERG Theory

Maslow’sNeed Hierarchy

Content Theories of Content Theories of MotivationMotivationContent Theories of Content Theories of MotivationMotivation

Self-Actualization

EsteemEsteem

BelongingnessBelongingness

SafetySafety

PhysiologicalPhysiological

Growth

RelatednessRelatedness

ExistenceExistence

Herzberg’sTheory

Motivators

HygieneHygieneFactorsFactors

Need forAchievement

Need forNeed forPowerPower

Need forNeed forAffiliationAffiliation

McClelland’sLearned Needs

Extrinsic and Intrinsic RewardsExtrinsic and Intrinsic Rewards Extrinsic and Intrinsic RewardsExtrinsic and Intrinsic Rewards Extrinsic RewardsExtrinsic Rewards

Tangible and visible to othersTangible and visible to others Have limitationsHave limitations

Intrinsic RewardsIntrinsic Rewards Natural rewards from performing Natural rewards from performing

the taskthe task

Self Self ActualizatioActualizatio

nnNeedsNeeds

Esteem Esteem NeedsNeeds

Belongingness NeedsBelongingness Needs

Safety NeedsSafety Needs

Physiological Physiological NeedsNeeds

Maslow’s Needs Maslow’s Needs HierarchyHierarchy

Challenging projects, opportunitiesChallenging projects, opportunitiesfor innovation and creativity, trainingfor innovation and creativity, training

Important projects, recognition,Important projects, recognition,prestigious office locationprestigious office location

Good coworkers, peers, superiors,Good coworkers, peers, superiors,customerscustomers

Job security; benefits, like life insurance;Job security; benefits, like life insurance;safety regulationssafety regulations

Basic pay, work space, heat, water,Basic pay, work space, heat, water,company cafeteriacompany cafeteria

Potential Means of Potential Means of Fulfillment at workFulfillment at work

MASLOW’S HIERARCHY MASLOW’S HIERARCHY Country DifferencesCountry DifferencesMASLOW’S HIERARCHY MASLOW’S HIERARCHY Country DifferencesCountry Differences Self-ActualizationSelf-Actualization

Highest in U.S., Hong Kong, IndiaHighest in U.S., Hong Kong, India SecuritySecurity

Highest in Germany, Mexico, JapanHighest in Germany, Mexico, Japan SocialSocial

Highest in Sweden, SingaporeHighest in Sweden, Singapore Security and SocialSecurity and Social

Tied for highest in France, ChileTied for highest in France, Chile

GROWTHGROWTHNEEDSNEEDS

RELATEDNESSRELATEDNESSNEEDSNEEDS

EXISTENCEEXISTENCENEEDSNEEDS

Satisfaction-Satisfaction-ProgressionProgressionPrinciplePrinciple

ALDERFER’S ERG THEORYALDERFER’S ERG THEORY

Frustration-Frustration-RegressionRegressionPrinciplePrinciple

HERZBERG’S TWO FACTOR THEORYHERZBERG’S TWO FACTOR THEORY

Resolve DissatisfactionResolve Dissatisfaction Promote SatisfactionPromote Satisfaction

Hygiene FactorsHygiene Factors MotivatorsMotivators

PayPayWorking ConditionsWorking Conditions

SupervisorsSupervisorsCompany PoliciesCompany Policies

BenefitsBenefits

AchievementAchievementResponsibilityResponsibility

Work itselfWork itselfRecognitionRecognition

Growth & AchievementGrowth & Achievement

NeutralNeutral(neither dissatisfied nor satisfied)(neither dissatisfied nor satisfied)

Herzberg’s FindingsHerzberg’s FindingsHerzberg’s FindingsHerzberg’s Findings010 1020 20 30304050 40 50

AchievementAchievement

RecognitionRecognitionWork itselfWork itself

ResponsibilityResponsibilityAdvancementAdvancementGrowthGrowth

Motivators

Hygiene Factors

Company Policy & AdministrationCompany Policy & Administration

SupervisionSupervisionRelationship with supervisorRelationship with supervisor

Work conditionsWork conditionsPayPay

Why Workers QuitWhy Workers QuitWhy Workers QuitWhy Workers Quit

Limited Advancement Potential - 41%Limited Advancement Potential - 41% Lack of Recognition - 25%Lack of Recognition - 25% Low Salary / Benefits - 15%Low Salary / Benefits - 15%

(USA Today - 12-16-98)(USA Today - 12-16-98)

McCLELLAND’S McCLELLAND’S ACQUIRED NEEDS - ACQUIRED NEEDS - Successful Top Executives:Successful Top Executives:

McCLELLAND’S McCLELLAND’S ACQUIRED NEEDS - ACQUIRED NEEDS - Successful Top Executives:Successful Top Executives:

NEED LEVEL NEED LEVEL

Achievement ModerateAchievement Moderate

Affiliation LowAffiliation Low

Power HighPower High

McCLELLAND’S McCLELLAND’S ACQUIRED NEEDSACQUIRED NEEDSMcCLELLAND’S McCLELLAND’S ACQUIRED NEEDSACQUIRED NEEDS HighHigh AchieversAchievers Prefer: Prefer:

Personal ResponsibilityPersonal Responsibility High FeedbackHigh Feedback Moderate RisksModerate Risks

Those Those HighHigh in in PowerPower Motive: Motive: Take High RisksTake High Risks

MAJOR ELEMENTS OF MAJOR ELEMENTS OF REINFORCEMENT REINFORCEMENT THEORYTHEORY

MAJOR ELEMENTS OF MAJOR ELEMENTS OF REINFORCEMENT REINFORCEMENT THEORYTHEORY StimulusStimulus

Supervisor requests faster workSupervisor requests faster work ResponseResponse

Employee increases or decreases speed or Employee increases or decreases speed or does nothingdoes nothing

ConsequenceConsequence Positive Reinforcement, Negative Reinf. Positive Reinforcement, Negative Reinf.

(Avoidance), Extinction, Punishment(Avoidance), Extinction, Punishment

BEHAVIORAL CONSEQUENCESBEHAVIORAL CONSEQUENCES

To Motivate To Motivate Employees to Employees to

ContinueContinue Desired Desired BehaviorsBehaviors

To Motivate To Motivate Employees to Employees to CeaseCease

Undesirable Undesirable BehaviorsBehaviors

Positive ReinforcementPositive Reinforcement (Good outcome if you (Good outcome if you

continue)continue)

Negative ReinforcementNegative Reinforcement (Bad outcome if you don’t (Bad outcome if you don’t

continue)continue)

ExtinctionExtinction (No outcome whether you (No outcome whether you

continue or not)continue or not)

Punishment Punishment (Bad outcome if you don’t (Bad outcome if you don’t

stop) stop)

PositivePositiveReinforcementReinforcement

NegativeNegativeReinforcementReinforcement

PunishmentPunishmentEncouragesEncouragesImmaturityImmaturity

Effect onEffect onMaturity/Maturity/DevelopmentDevelopment

IncreasesIncreasesBehaviorBehavior

Effect on BehaviorEffect on Behavior

CONSEQUENCES OF BEHAVIORCONSEQUENCES OF BEHAVIOR

ExtinctionExtinctionEncourages Encourages

MaturityMaturity

Decreases Decreases BehaviorBehavior

APPLICATIONS OF APPLICATIONS OF REINFORCEMENT REINFORCEMENT THEORYTHEORY

APPLICATIONS OF APPLICATIONS OF REINFORCEMENT REINFORCEMENT THEORYTHEORY

Pay for Performance (Merit Pay)Pay for Performance (Merit Pay) Gain SharingGain Sharing Employee Stock Ownership Plans (ESOPs)Employee Stock Ownership Plans (ESOPs) Pay for Knowledge Pay for Knowledge Organizational Behavior Modification (OB Organizational Behavior Modification (OB

MOD)MOD)

STEPS IN OB MODSTEPS IN OB MODSTEPS IN OB MODSTEPS IN OB MOD Before Intervention:Before Intervention:

Measure Base RateMeasure Base Rate Identify Stimuli and ConsequencesIdentify Stimuli and Consequences

Intervention:Intervention: Set New GoalSet New Goal Modify Stimuli and/or ConsequencesModify Stimuli and/or Consequences Reward Progress toward GoalReward Progress toward Goal Extinguish or Punish Competing BehaviorsExtinguish or Punish Competing Behaviors

Some Rewards Lower-Level Some Rewards Lower-Level Managers May ControlManagers May ControlSome Rewards Lower-Level Some Rewards Lower-Level Managers May ControlManagers May Control Recognition, such as letters of Recognition, such as letters of

appreciationappreciation Invitations to coffee or lunchInvitations to coffee or lunch Recommendations for pay increases Recommendations for pay increases

or promotionsor promotions Time offTime off Desirable work assignmentsDesirable work assignments

How to Effectively Shape How to Effectively Shape Behavior with ReinforcementBehavior with ReinforcementHow to Effectively Shape How to Effectively Shape Behavior with ReinforcementBehavior with Reinforcement

Define desired behavior patterns Define desired behavior patterns specifically.specifically.

Measure performance accurately.Measure performance accurately. Reinforce behavior as quickly as possible.Reinforce behavior as quickly as possible. Use valued reinforcement.Use valued reinforcement. Give individual rewards for inGive individual rewards for independent jobs.dependent jobs. Give tGive team rewards for eam rewards for interinterdependent jobs.dependent jobs. Beware of unintended consequences (rewarding Beware of unintended consequences (rewarding

the wrong thing).the wrong thing).

PROCESS THEORIESPROCESS THEORIESPROCESS THEORIESPROCESS THEORIES

Goal-Setting TheoryGoal-Setting Theory Equity TheoryEquity Theory Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory

GOAL-SETTING THEORYGOAL-SETTING THEORYGOAL-SETTING THEORYGOAL-SETTING THEORY Assumes goals are motivatingAssumes goals are motivating

Criteria for Effective GoalsCriteria for Effective Goals SSpecificpecific MMeasurableeasurable AAttainable, but challengingttainable, but challenging RRelevantelevant TTime-basedime-based RRewards (for achievement)ewards (for achievement)

Motivating with Goal-Setting Motivating with Goal-Setting TheoryTheoryMotivating with Goal-Setting Motivating with Goal-Setting TheoryTheory

Make sure workers truly accept Make sure workers truly accept organizational goalsorganizational goals

Provide frequent, specific performance-Provide frequent, specific performance-related feedbackrelated feedback

Applying Goal-Setting TheoryApplying Goal-Setting TheoryApplying Goal-Setting TheoryApplying Goal-Setting Theory

Management by Objectives (MBO)Management by Objectives (MBO)

Setting goalsSetting goals

Developing action plansDeveloping action plans

Reviewing progressReviewing progress

Appraising overall performanceAppraising overall performance

Benefits of MBOBenefits of MBO

ClarityClarity (people know what to do) (people know what to do) Commitment Commitment (are motivated to do it)(are motivated to do it) CoordinationCoordination (people work toward (people work toward

same things)same things) Fairness Fairness (objective evaluations) (objective evaluations)

Limitations of MBOLimitations of MBO Difficulty choosing relevant, Difficulty choosing relevant,

measurable goalsmeasurable goals Rigidity (sometimes need to change Rigidity (sometimes need to change

goals)goals) People skills required People skills required Time requiredTime required PaperworkPaperwork Frequently “sold” as a cure-allFrequently “sold” as a cure-all

EXPECTANCY THEORYEXPECTANCY THEORYEXPECTANCY THEORYEXPECTANCY THEORY

AnalyzesAnalyzes the parts of the the parts of the Motivation Motivation ProcessProcess that the Leader must attend that the Leader must attend to (cf., Path-Goal Theory of to (cf., Path-Goal Theory of Leadership)Leadership)

Has the greatest Has the greatest BreadthBreadth of popular of popular motivation theoriesmotivation theories

EXPECTANCY THEORY

E P (Expectancy)

What is the probability that I can perform at the

required level if I try?

P O (Intrumentality)

What is the probability that my good performance

will lead to desiredoutcomes?

Valence

What value do I placeon the potential

outcome?

Effort Performance Outcomes

MULTIPLICATIVE MULTIPLICATIVE RELATIONSHIPRELATIONSHIPMULTIPLICATIVE MULTIPLICATIVE RELATIONSHIPRELATIONSHIPIf anyIf any of the three (Expectancy, of the three (Expectancy,

Instrumentality, or Valence) equal Instrumentality, or Valence) equal ZeroZero, then there is , then there is No MotivationNo Motivation..

Applying Expectancy TheoryApplying Expectancy Theory Applying Expectancy TheoryApplying Expectancy Theory

Increase Increase ExpectancyExpectancy:: Enhance employees’ skillsEnhance employees’ skills Build up employees’ confidenceBuild up employees’ confidence

Increase Increase InstrumentalityInstrumentality Clearly link rewards to performanceClearly link rewards to performance

Increase Increase ValencesValences Find out what employees want from their Find out what employees want from their

jobsjobs

EQUITY THEORYEQUITY THEORYEQUITY THEORYEQUITY THEORY

Unique in viewing motivation as Unique in viewing motivation as affected by affected by ComparisonsComparisons to other to other people.people.

We expect the We expect the RatioRatio of our of our Outcome Outcome to Inputto Input to be equivalent to that of to be equivalent to that of others.others.

We are We are MotivatedMotivated to correct inequity. to correct inequity.

Equity Theory ConceptsEquity Theory ConceptsEquity Theory ConceptsEquity Theory Concepts InputsInputs

employee contributions to the organizationemployee contributions to the organization

OutcomesOutcomes

rewards employees receive from the organizationrewards employees receive from the organization

ReferentsReferents

comparison otherscomparison others

Outcome/input (O/I) ratioOutcome/input (O/I) ratio

Outcomesself

Inputsself

Outcomesother

Inputsother

=

Consequences Of InequityConsequences Of Inequity

PerceivedPerceivedInequityInequity DissatisfactionDissatisfaction

Under-rewardUnder-reward

Motivation Motivation to Changeto Change

TensionTensionAngerAnger

Over-rewardOver-reward

TensionTensionGuiltGuiltMotivation Motivation to Changeto Change

How People React to Perceived How People React to Perceived InequityInequityHow People React to Perceived How People React to Perceived InequityInequity

Reduce inputsReduce inputs Increase outcomesIncrease outcomes Rationalize inputs or outcomesRationalize inputs or outcomes Change the referent personChange the referent person LeaveLeave

Applying Equity TheoryApplying Equity TheoryApplying Equity TheoryApplying Equity Theory Look for and correct major inequitiesLook for and correct major inequities

Change outcomes given Change outcomes given Have employees change inputHave employees change input

Make sure processes are fair:Make sure processes are fair: Distributive JusticeDistributive Justice

The perceived fairness of how resources and The perceived fairness of how resources and rewards are distributedrewards are distributed. (Do people get what they . (Do people get what they deserve?)deserve?)

Procedural JusticeProcedural Justice The perceived fairness of the process and The perceived fairness of the process and

procedures used to make allocation decisionsprocedures used to make allocation decisions. (Are . (Are the rules fair? Are they followed? Are decisions the rules fair? Are they followed? Are decisions unbiased? Are they made without errors?)unbiased? Are they made without errors?)

Possible Sources of Dissatisfaction with Assembly Line Jobs in an

Auto Plant

Repetitiveness

Involvement with only a

Portion of the Total Production

Cycle

Limited Social Interaction with

Others in the Workplace

Lack of Control over the Job

Physical Discomfort

Approaches to Job DesignApproaches to Job DesignApproaches to Job DesignApproaches to Job Design BiologicalBiological

Make work safe, comfortableMake work safe, comfortable Perceptual/MotorPerceptual/Motor

Design equipment, layout, etc. to fit humansDesign equipment, layout, etc. to fit humans MechanisticMechanistic

Job SimplificationJob Simplification MotivationalMotivational

Make work more satisfying (Intrinsic motiv.)Make work more satisfying (Intrinsic motiv.) Rotation, Enlargement Rotation, Enlargement Enrichment - incorporates high-level motivators Enrichment - incorporates high-level motivators

into work.into work.

WorkWorkmotivationmotivation

GrowthGrowthsatisfactionsatisfaction

GeneralGeneralsatisfactionsatisfaction

WorkWorkeffectivenesseffectiveness

Job Characteristics ModelJob Characteristics ModelJob Characteristics ModelJob Characteristics Model

FeedbackFeedbackfrom jobfrom job

KnowledgeKnowledgeof resultsof results

Skill varietySkill variety

Task identityTask identity

Task significanceTask significanceMeaningfulnessMeaningfulness

AutonomyAutonomy ResponsibilityResponsibility

IndividualIndividualdifferencesdifferences

CriticalCriticalPsychologicalPsychological

StatesStatesCore JobCore Job

CharacteristicsCharacteristics OutcomesOutcomes

Job Enrichment TechniquesJob Enrichment TechniquesJob Enrichment TechniquesJob Enrichment Techniques Increase Job DemandsIncrease Job Demands Provide New Learning ExperiencesProvide New Learning Experiences Assign Responsibility for Clients or Assign Responsibility for Clients or

Customers rather than specialized tasksCustomers rather than specialized tasks Provide Work Scheduling FreedomProvide Work Scheduling Freedom Provide Feedback, including opportunity Provide Feedback, including opportunity

to check one’s own workto check one’s own work

Implementing Job EnrichmentImplementing Job EnrichmentImplementing Job EnrichmentImplementing Job Enrichment Training is typically neededTraining is typically needed Short-term performance declines are Short-term performance declines are

normalnormal

Dangers in Job EnrichmentDangers in Job Enrichment Some people have low “Growth Need Some people have low “Growth Need

Strength”Strength” Employees may expect higher payEmployees may expect higher pay

Comparing Techniques is DifficultComparing Techniques is DifficultComparing Techniques is DifficultComparing Techniques is Difficult

MBO, Job Design, OB Mod all can MBO, Job Design, OB Mod all can increase:increase: Clarity of GoalsClarity of Goals FeedbackFeedback RewardsRewards

MAJOR IMPLICATIONS OF MAJOR IMPLICATIONS OF MOTIVATION THEORIESMOTIVATION THEORIESMAJOR IMPLICATIONS OF MAJOR IMPLICATIONS OF MOTIVATION THEORIESMOTIVATION THEORIES Set Challenging, but Attainable Goals Set Challenging, but Attainable Goals Train and Encourage PeopleTrain and Encourage People Provide Valued Provide Valued ExtrinsicExtrinsic and and Intrinsic Intrinsic

RewardsRewards Recognize Individual DifferencesRecognize Individual Differences Watch for Changes in an Individual’s Watch for Changes in an Individual’s

MotivesMotives Use Mainly Positive ReinforcementUse Mainly Positive Reinforcement Distribute Rewards Equitably.Distribute Rewards Equitably.