MOTIVATION. WHAT IS MOTIVATION? “The arousal, direction, and persistence of behavior” “A process that starts with a physiological or psychological deficiency.

MOTIVATION

WHAT IS MOTIVATION?

“The arousal, direction, and persistence of behavior”

“A process that starts with a physiological or psychological deficiency or need or motive

that activates behavior or drive that is aimed at a goal or incentive or reward.”

JOB PERFORMANCE

Job PerformanceJob Performance Ability + Knowledge

Ability + Knowledge

Motivational Feelings

Motivational Feelings= X

Patrick Forsyth“How to Motivate People”

(Kogan Page, 2000)

JOB PERFORMANCE

=X

Aptitude is a person’s capacityto learn or acquire skills

Arthur Sherman, George Bohlander,& Scott Snell

“Managing Human Resources”(South-Western College Publishing, 1996)

“Will-Do” Factors

•Motivation•Interests•Personality Characteristics

Job Performance

“Can-Do” Factors

•Knowledge•Skills•Aptitudes

TEST OF MOTIVATION

Do they have a goal or purpose that is so important for them to attain

for which they are willing

to work harder?

to take risks?

to accept some inconvenience or discomfort?

Saul W.Gellerman“Motivating manager Performance”

(Productivity Press Inc.,1994)

FLOW AND MOTIVATION

• Flow or Optimal Experience:A period of intrinsically motivated behavior in which people’s performance seems to be effortless; people want to continue forever in their task and learn additional skills to master more demanding challenges.

• The experiences:– Fun and enjoyment of an activity– The sense of control generated by being able to

handle a particular challenge– The growth of self from a specific accomplishment

• Tough management control and overbearing structures and hierarchies interfere with people’s motivation and do not allow for flow

Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi“Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience”(Harper & Row, 1990)

Two Major Groups of

MOTIVATIONAL THEORIES

• Individual DifferencesNeeds Theory and Intrinsic Motivation Theory ask “What is there within humans that affects behavior and performance?”

• Situational DifferencesEquity, Expectancy, and Goal-Setting Theories, among others, attempt to determine the key situational or extrinsic factors that stimulate the will to work, and ways such factors can be manipulated

Robert B.Burns“Psychology for Effective Managers”

(Business and Professional Publishing, 1997)


Theory Source of Motivation Considerations

Need Theory(Maslow)

Workers are motivated by a drive towards self-

actualization but must fulfill needs at lower levels

first.

Has great intuitive appeal but little

empirical support. Limited applicability to

work situations.

AchievementMotivation

Theory(McClelland)

Workers are motivated by needs for achievement, affiliation and power.

Motivation established in childhood, but

training courses can modify needs.

Managers may have difficulty manipulating

drives that originated in childhood




Equity Theory

(Adams)

Worker motivation is based on employee perceptions about

fairness in the workplace

Managers need to understand how workers perceive their situations, which is difficult to do.

Workers can reduce feelings of inequity by

means other than motivation

Expectancy Theory(Vroom)

Motivation is based on the amount of efforts needed to accomplish a task, the possibility of success and

the value the worker places on the outcome

Expectancy Theory is well researched /supported, but

its application to the workplace is too complex

for most managers





Intrinsic Motivation

Theory

(Deci)

Workers are more motivated towards tasks that increase

feelings of competence,personal

satisfaction and autonomy

The manager must provide tasks that offer employees

opportunities for satisfaction, competence and autonomy—a difficult

objective to achieve in some employment contexts

Goal-SettingTheory

(Locke, Latham)

Workers work best when they are given progressive feedback

on specific time-limited goals to which they

have made a personal commitment

Goal-Setting is the motivation theory of

greatest interest currently-it appears to create strong

levels of motivation




Theory Source of Motivation

Considerations

BehavioralApproaches

(Watson, Skinner)

Managers motivate workers by

manipulating the environment and by

providing appropriate reinforcements

according to carefully designed schedules

Behavioral Theories focus on observable

behavior rather on what a manager assumes an employee thinks about

the work environment; to be effective, the system needs careful planning and maintenance over time. Ethical problems

may arise.




Motivation

Adolf Haasen and Gordon F.Shea“A Better Place to Work:A New Sense of Motivation Leading to High Productivity”

(AMA Management Briefing, 1997)

APPROACHES TO WORK MOTIVATION

CsikszentmihalyiBanduraDweckTrope

HackmanAmabile

Self-PerceptionLearning new Skills

Self-EsteemMastery Orientation

HeartEmotional Choice

Emotional PreferencesEnjoyment

Freedom and ControlPart of Team

IntrinsicMotivation

MaslowHerzberg

McClellandAdamLawler

Luthanset.al

Motives Needs

PhysiologicalPsychological:--Achievement

--Power--Affiliation

MindCognitive

ChoiceIncentives

ExpectationsStatus

SituationWorking Conditions

EnvironmentCulture

Job CharacteristicsExtrinsic

Motivation

• Company policy & administration• Supervision• Working conditions• Job security• Salary• Interpersonal relations

Their absence causes job dissatisfaction. Their presence does not generate job

satisfaction, but merely no dissatisfaction

Must be present for job satisfaction.Their absence does not generate job

dissatisfaction, but merely no satisfaction

Motivational Factors(Job’s Intrinsic

Content)

Hygiene Factors(Job’s Extrinsic

Context)

•Achievement•Recognition•The nature of the work itself•Responsibility•Advancement•A feeling of personal growth

HERZBERG’SHYGIENE

Motivational Theory

Achievement Recognition*The work itself Responsibility*Advancement Growth

Motivational Factors

*Company policy & administration*Supervision*Pay Interpersonal relations Working condition

Hygiene Factors

Job ContentJob Content

Job ContextJob Context

Dissatisfied

Neutral

SatisfiedHERZBERG’S HYGIENE

Motivational Theory

THEORY AND PRACTICE

In theorythere is no difference between theory and practice.

In practicethere is

-- Yogi Berra --

Motivation

A FRAMEWORK

The Individual

InterestNeeds/Desires/

Goals

Self-Efficacy

“Want to Do”Attitude

Signs ofMotivation

JobPerformanceKnowledge, Skills,

Aptitude

The Work/JobThe Work

Environment

FACTORS INFLUENCING MOTIVATION

• Early Environment

• Education

• Understanding

• Aesthetics

• Self-Esteem

• Heredity

• Experience

Tony Simmonds“Managing People and Activities”(Blackwell Publishers Ltd., 1995)

NEEDS GOVERNING HUMAN BEHAVIOR

• Need for achievement• Need for power• Need for affiliation• Need for autonomy• Need for esteem• Need for safety or security• Need for equity• Need for self actualization

Cynthia Berryman-Fink“The Manager’s Desk Reference”

(AMACOM, 1989)

Self-esteem is about your values and how you live up to them. Low self-esteem is a prejudice

against yourself.

SELF -EFFICACY

SELF -EFFICACY

SELF -ESTEEM

SELF -ESTEEM

Self-efficacy is concerned with how you feel about your abilities.

Even if you’re good at something, you may still not feel worthwhile.

Gillian Butler and Tony Hope“Managing Your Mind”

(Oxford University Press, 1995)

IF YOU THINK …

“If you think you can, you can and if you think you can’t,

you’re right.”-- Mary Kay Ash --

MAKING JOBS MOTIVATING

Build a new learning requirement into the job:

• Add tasks that previously preceded/followed the job in question

• Add tasks that were previously assigned to more skilled workers, or to professionals, or even to managers.

• Assign performance targets

• Give workers freedom to pursue those targets as they deem fit.

Saul W.Gellerman“Motivating manager Performance”

(Productivity Press, Inc.,1994)

INTRINSIC MOTIVATORS

• Enjoyment of the work itself for its own sake.• Desire to have a “piece of the action”, such as

sharing visions, missions,authority, and responsibility

• Pride in performing excellently• Need to provide some secret point to oneself• Achievement of a deep-seated value (such as

helping another person)• Having a deep and abiding belief in the

importance of the work one is doing• The excitement and pleasure of a challenge• Desire to exceed one’s previous level of job

performance (being self-competitive) Gerald Kushei“Reaching the Peak Performance Zone”

(Amacom, 1994)

INTRINSIC REWARDS

“Leaders make tremendous use of intrinsic rewards

--rewards that are built into the work itself--a sense of accomplishment,

a chance to be creative,and the challenge of the work”

James M.Kouzes and Barry Z.Posner“The Leadership Challenge”

(Jossey Bass Inc., 1987)

VERTICAL JOB

LOADING

Principle Motivators

Removing some controls while retaining accountability

ResponsibilityAchievement

Increasing the accountability of individuals for own work

ResponsibilityRecognition

Giving a person a complete unit of work (module, division, area, and so on)

ResponsibilityAchievementRecognition

Granting additional authority to employees in their activity; job freedom

ResponsibilityAchievementRecognition

Making periodic reports directly available to the workers themselves rather than to managers

Internal Recognition

Introducing new and more difficult tasks not previously handled

Growth Learning

Assigning individuals specific or specialized tasks,enabling them to become experts

ResponsibilityGrowthAdvancement

Frederick Herzberg“One More Time:

How Do You Motivate Employees?”(Harvard Business Review,Sep-Oct.,1987)

JOB DESIGN THEORIES

If jobs are well designed, containing all elements that workers require from their job

to satisfy physical and psychological needs, employees will be motivated.

The design of a job determines what kind of rewards are available and what the individual has to do to get the

rewards.

Employees value jobs that have achievable goals and provide rewards such as feeling of satisfaction and accomplishment

within the control of the employee.

Jobs need to be designed or redesign to produce these outcomes. Robert B.Burns

“Psychology for Effective Managers”(Business & Professional Publishing, 1997)

JOB DESIGN

Job EnrichmentMaking jobs meaningful,

interesting, and challenging

Socio-technical ApproachMaking teams responsible

for the job; balancing technical aspects of the job

Goal SettingBuilding goals, feedbackand incentives into the

structure of the job

Job EngineeringJob efficiency;time and

motion analysis,person-machine interfaces

Job EnlargementAdding more tasks to

the job for variety

Job RotationDoing different jobs

for variety

Links Between

JOB ENRICHMENT AND MOTIVATION


(Business & Professional Publishing, 1997)

Core Job Dimensions

Critical Psychological State

Personal & Work Outcomes

•Skill Variety•Task Identity•Task Significance

•Experienced meaningfulness of work

•High internal work motivation

•Autonomy •Experienced responsibility for outcomes of work

•High quality work performance•High satisfaction with work

•Feedback •Knowledge of the actual results of work activities

•Low absenteeism and turnover

REWARD vs. PERFORMANCE

Reward can improve performance when:• The employee values the reward

• The employee believes that extra effort will result in the desired performance level

• The employee trusts that the manager can deliver the reward

• The employee has the ability to achieve the performance that has been requested

• The employee believes that the performance is part of the job

• The employee perceives the reward as being fair for the effort needed Ken Matejka

“Why This Horse Won’t Drink”(AMACOM, 1991)

EXTRINSIC REWARDS That Motivate

• Employees must perceive the rewards as valuable

• The reward must be tied clearly to performance

• There must be objective criteria for evaluating performance

• Information about the allocation of rewards should be shared openly.

Cynthia Berryman-Fink“The Manager’s Desk Reference”

(AMACOM, 1989)

Guidelines for

SUCCESSFUL RECOGNITION & REWARD

1. Emphasize success rather than failure2. Deliver recognition & reward in an open and publicized

way3. Deliver recognition in a personal and honest manner4. Tailor your recognition & reward to the unique needs of the

people involved 5. Timing is crucial. Reward contribution close to the time an

achievement is realized6. Strive for a clear, unambiguous and well-communicated

connection between accomplishments and rewards7. Recognize reward. Recognize people who reward others for

doing what is best for the company. Bob Nelson“1001 Ways to Reward Employees”

(Workman Publishing, 1994)

RECOGNITION & REWARDS

• Praise• Public Recognition• Job Security• Money• Fringe Benefits• Employee Development Programs• Involvement in Decision Making• More Leisure Time• Opportunity for Achievement and

Advancement• Greater Freedom at Work• Feedback Itself is a Reward

Mark Karlins“The Human Use of Resources”

Job Worthwhile;challenging;contributes to organization

Work Conditions Safe;humane

Pay and Benefits Adequate; decent

Job Security Reasonable assurance that job will continue

Supervision Positive,supportive,competent treatment

Feedback Contributions recognized and appreciated

Growth Opportunities

Chances to develop work skills; increasing responsibilities

Advancement Opportunities

Chances for promotion based on merit performance;access to training;visibility to management

Social Climate Positive,stable,humane values and human interactions in the workplace

Justice managers treat everyone fairly and reasonably;no racist,sexist,or classiest treatment

Karl Albrecht “Organization Development” (Prentice Hall, 1983)

DESIRED CONDITIONDESIRED CONDITIONFACTORSFACTORS

DEMOTIVATORS• Office politics

• Unclear expectations

• Unnecessary rules

• Poorly designed work processes

• Unproductive meetings

• Lack of follow-up

• Constant change

• Internal competition

• Dishonesty

• Hypocrisy

• Withholding information

• Discouraging response

• Criticism

• Underutilization

• Tolerating poor performance

• Being taken for granted

• Over control

• Unfairness

• Being forced to do poor quality work

Dean R.Spitzer“Super Motivation”

(AMACOM Books, 1995)

DEMOTIVATORS

MOTIVATION. WHAT IS MOTIVATION? “The arousal, direction, and persistence of behavior” “A process that starts with a physiological or psychological deficiency.

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