Motivation

Motivation

M.L.Khabir

Why an earth you

are here at 8 am or 6.30

pm ??

Motivation

• Motivation can be explored from three distinct but related perspectives:– What are the main motives for our behaviour?

Wealth, status, power. This perspective views motivation in terms of desired goals. (content theories)

– why do we choose to pursue certain goals ? (process theory)

– How can we motivate you to work harder? This perspective views motivation as a social influence process (job enrichment theories)

Drive

• Drives are innate, biological determinants of behaviour, activated by deprivation.

• We appear to have an innate need for survival, we need oxygen, water, food etc.

• We do not learn how to be cold, it comes from our bodies.

Drive Curiosity The need to explore, to play, to learn

more

Sense making The need to impose meaning and order on the world around us

Oder and meaning The need for certainty, equity, consistency, predictability

Effectance or competence The need to exert mastery and control over the world around us

Self-understanding The need to know who and what we are

Motive

• Motives are socially acquired needs activated by a desire for their fulfilment.

Drive Motive

Are innate Are learned

Have a psychological basis Have a social basis

Area activated by deprivation Area activated by environment

Are aimed at satiation Are aimed at stimulation

What is Motivation

• Motivation is the cognitive decision process through which goal-directed behaviour is initiated, energized and directed, and maintained.

Content theories of motivation

• Theories of motivation that focus on the goals to which we aspire are known as content theories, as they reveal the contents of the ‘motives’ compartment in our mental luggage

• Maslow (1971), Alderfer (1972), Ritchie and Martin (1999) worked on content theory of motivation

Freedom of enquiry and expression

Self actualization

Maslow’s hierarchy

• A need is not an effective motivator until those lower in the hierarchy are more or less satisfied.

• A satisfied need is not a motivator.• Lack of need satisfaction can affect mental

health. Consider the frustration, anxiety and depression that can arise from lack of self esteem etc.

Maslow’s hierarchy

• We have an innate desire to ‘work our way up’ the hierarchy, pursuing the satisfaction of our ‘higher-order’ needs once our basic or lower-order needs are more or less satisfied.

• The experience of self- actualization stimulates desire for more. Maslow claims that self actualization have ‘peak experience’.

• Self actualization is the desire for personal fulfilment, to develop one’s potential, to become everything that one is capable of becoming.

Cultural side of Maslow’s workMaslow’s hierarchy The hierarchy of needs in China

Self-actualization Safety and security

Esteem Sense of belongingness and love

Love and affiliation Esteem, family and tradition

Safety & security Self-actualization

Physiological Physiological

Criticism of Maslow

• It is vague and cannot readily predict behaviour.

• It is perhaps a social philosophy reflecting American middle class.

Alderfer’s ERG

• Existence needs: physiological and safety needs;

• Relatedness needs: affiliation and esteem needs;

• Growth needs: self-actualization needsERG theory states that all the three needs can be

present at the same time in contrast to progression theory of Maslow.

Ritchie and Martin

• 12 motivational drivers:Interest Power and influence

Achievement Social contact

Recognition Money and tangible rewards

Self development Structure

Variety and change Relationships

Creativity Physical conditions

Equity theory (Process theory)

• Equity theory is a process theory of motivation which argues that the perception of unfairness in a social or organizational setting leads to tension, which in turn motivates the individual to act to resolve that unfairness.

Equity theory

• Strategies for reducing inequity1. Alter your outcomes I will pursue the manager to

increase my payment

2. Adjust your input I won’t work as hard as Anna

3. Alter the comparison person’s outcome

I will pursue the manager to cut Anna’s pay

4. Alter the comparison person’s input

I will leave difficult tasks to Anna

5. Compare with someone else Li gets the same as I get

6. Rationalize the inequity Anna has worked much here for much longer

7. Leave I will get another job

Expectancy theory

• Expectancy theory is a process theory of motivation which argues that the strength or force of an individual’s motivation to perform well is expressed as the product of the valence of the outcome from that behaviour, the expectancy that the effort would lead to good performance and the Instrumentality of good performance in leading to valued outcomes.

Simplified Expectancy Theory

• Bottom Line: All three links between the boxes must be intact or motivation will not occur. Thus, – Individuals must feel that if they try, they can perform and– If they perform, they will be rewarded and– When they are rewarded, the reward will be something they care

about.

Expectancy theory

• F = V X I X E

Expectancy theory

• Valence concerns the perceived value or degree of preference that an individual has for a particular outcome. As one either seek or avoid certain outcomes, or be ambivalent about them, valence can be positive, negative or neutral.

Expectancy theory

• Expectancy concerns the individual’s perceived likelihood that effort will result in good performance. As a subjective probability, expectancy can be measured on a scale of 0 (no chance) to 1 (certainty)

Expectancy theory

• Instrumentality concerns the individual’s perceived likelihood that good performance will lead to valued rewards. As a subjective probability instrumentality can be measured on a scale of 0 (no chance) to 1 (certainty)

Expectancy theory• Expectancy theory states that behaviour results from a

conscious decision-making process based on the individual’s subjective probability

• It helps to explain individual differences in motivation and behaviour, unlike Maslow’s universal theory of motivation.

• It provides a basis for measuring the strength or force of the individual’s motivation to behave in particular ways.

• It assumes that behaviour is rational

Goal setting theory

• It is both a process theory of motivation as well as a motivational technique based on the argument that work performance can be explained with reference to characteristics of the objectives being pursued, such as goal difficulty, goal specificity and knowledge of results.

Goal setting theory (contd.)• Goal difficulty: set goals for work performance at

levels which will stretch employees, but which are not beyond their ability levels.

• Goal specificity : express goals in clear and precise language, if possible in quantifiable terms and avoid setting vague and ambiguous goals.

• Participation: allow employees to take part in the goal setting process to increase the acceptability of and their commitment to goals.

Goal setting theory (contd.)

• Acceptance: if goals are set by management, ensure that they are adequately explained and justified so that those concerned understand and accept them.

• Feedback: provide information on the results of past performance to allow employees to adjust their behaviour, if necessary, to improve future performance.

Job enrichment

• Job enrichment is a technique for broadening the experience of work to enhance employee need satisfaction and to improve work motivation and performance.

• Fredrick Herzberg’s work on job enrichment theory is probably the most significant in the field of motivation.

Two factor theory

• Motivator factor:– Those aspects of work which lead to high levels of

job satisfaction, motivation and performance.• Hygiene factor– those aspects of work which remove job

dissatisfaction but which do not contribute to performance and motivation.

Motivator factors (content) Hygiene factors (context)

Achievement Pay

Advancement Company policy

Growth Supervisor style

Recognition Status

Responsibility Security

The work itself Working conditions

Two factor theory

• Is it also culture bound ?

Rewards

• Intrinsic rewards are valued outcomes of benefits which come from within the individual, such as feeling of satisfaction, competence, self-esteem and accomplishments.

• Extrinsic rewards are valued outcomes or benefits provided by others, such as promotion, pay increases, a bigger office desk, praise and recognition.

The Job Characteristics Model

Job Design Theory

• Job Characteristics Model– Identifies five job

characteristics and their relationship to personal and work outcomes

• Characteristics1. Skill variety: The degree to

which a job requires a variety of different activities

2. Task identity: The degree to which the job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work

3. Task significance: The degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the lives or work of other people

4. Autonomy: The degree to which the job provides substantial freedom and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and in determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out

5. Feedback: The degree to which carrying out the work activities required by a job results in the individual obtaining direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her performance

Job Design Theory (cont.)

• Job Characteristics Model– Jobs with skill variety, task identity, task significance,

autonomy, and for which feedback of results is given, directly affect three psychological states of employees:• Knowledge of results• Meaningfulness of work• Personal feelings of responsibility for results

– Increases in these psychological states result in increased motivation, performance, and job satisfaction.

Examples of High and Low Job Characteristics

Characteristics ExamplesHigh variety .Low variety

The owner-operator of a garage who does electrical repair, rebuilds engines, does body work, and interacts with customersA bodyshop worker who sprays paint eight hours a day

High identity .Low identity

A cabinetmaker who designs a piece of furniture, selects the wood, builds the object, and finishes it to perfection.A worker in a furniture factory who operates a lathe to make table legs

High significanceLow significance

Nursing the sick in a hospital intensive care unit.Sweeping hospital floors

High autonomy .Low autonomy

A telephone installer who schedules his or her own work for the day, and decides on the best techniques for a particular installation.A telephone operator who must handle calls as they come according to a routine, highly specified procedure

High feedback .Low feedback

An electronics factory worker who assembles a radio and then tests it to determine if it operates properlyAn electronics factory worker who assembles a radio and then routes it to a quality control inspector who tests and adjusts it

Performance = f(A x M x O)