Motivation

Motivation

Dr Manas Ranjan Tripathy Jaipuria Institute of Management,Jaipur

Motivation

What is motivation? What are the different types of individual

needs? What are the process theories of motivation? What role does reinforcement play in

motivation? What are the challenges of motivation in the

new workplace?

What is Motivation?

Basic motivational concepts Motivation—the forces within the individual

that account for the level, direction, and persistence of effort expended at work.

Reward—a work outcome of positive value to the individual

Extrinsic rewards—valued outcomes given to someone by another person.

Intrinsic rewards—valued outcomes that occur naturally as a person works on a task.

What is Motivation?

Types of Motivation Theories Content theories

Human needs and how people with different needs may respond to different work situations.

Process theories How people give meaning to rewards and make

decisions on various work-related behaviors. Reinforcement theory

How people’s behavior is influenced by environmental consequences.

What are the different Types of Individual Needs?

Needs Unfulfilled physiological and psychological

desires of an individual. Explain workplace behavior and attitudes. Create tensions that influence attitudes and

behavior. Good managers and leaders facilitate employee

need satisfaction.

What are the different types of Individual Needs?

Types of content theories: Hierarchy of needs theory ERG theory Two-factor theory Acquired needs theory


Hierarchy of needs theory Developed by Abraham Maslow. Lower-order and higher-order needs affect

workplace behavior and attitudes. Lower-order needs:

Physiological, safety, and social needs. Desires for physical and social well being.

Higher-order needs: Esteem and self-actualization needs. Desire for psychological growth and

development.

Hierarchy of needs(Abraham Maslow)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needs.png


Hierarchy of needs theory Deficit principle

A satisfied need is not a motivator of behavior.

Progression principle A need at one level does not become

activated until the next lower-level need is satisfied.

Opportunities for satisfaction in Maslow’s Hierarchy of Human Needs.


ERG theory Developed by Clayton Alderfer. Three need levels:

Existence needs — desires for physiological and material well-being.

Relatedness needs — desires for satisfying interpersonal relationships.

Growth needs — desires for continued psychological growth and development.


ERG theory Any/all needs can influence behavior at

one time. Frustration-regression principle.

An already satisfied lower-level need becomes reactivated when a higher-level need is frustrated.


Two-factor theory Developed by Frederick Herzberg. Hygiene factors:

Elements of the job context. Sources of job dissatisfaction.

Satisfier factors: Elements of the job content. Sources of job satisfaction and motivation.

Herzberg’s Two-factor Theory.


Acquired needs theory Developed by David McClelland. People acquire needs through their life

experiences. Needs that are acquired:

Need for Achievement (nAch) Need for Power (nPower) Need for Affiliation (nAff)


Acquired needs theory Need for Achievement (nAch)

Desire to do something better or more efficiently, to solve problems, or to master complex tasks.

People high in (nAch) prefer work that: Involves individual responsibility for results. Involves achievable but challenging goals. Provides feedback on performance.


Acquired Needs Theory Need for Power (nPower)

Desire to control other persons, to influence their behavior, or to be responsible for other people.

Personal power versus social power. People high in (nPower) prefer work

that: Involves control over other persons. Has an impact on people and events. Brings public recognition and attention.


Acquired needs theory Need for Affiliation (nAff)

Desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relations with other persons.

People high in (nAff) prefer work that: Involves interpersonal relationships. Provides for companionship Brings social approval.


Questions for summarizing the content Theories of Motivation: How many different individual needs are

there? Can a work outcome or reward satisfy

more than one need? Is there a hierarchy of needs? How important are the various needs?

Comparison of Maslow’s, Alderfer’s, Herzberg’s, and McClelland’s motivation theories.

What are the process theories of motivation?

Process theories of motivation … How people make choices to work hard or not. Choices are based on:

Individual preferences. Available rewards. Possible work outcomes.

Types of process theories: Equity theory. Expectancy theory. Goal-setting theory.

What are the process Theories of Motivation?

Equity theory Developed by J. Stacy Adams. When people believe that they have been

treated unfairly in comparison to others, they try to eliminate the discomfort and restore a perceived sense of equity to the situation. Perceived inequity. Perceived equity.

Equity theory and the role of social comparison.


Equity theory People respond to perceived negative

inequity by changing … Work inputs. Rewards received. Comparison points. Situation.


Managerial implications of Equity Theory— Underpaid people experience anger. Overpaid people experience guilt. Perceptions of rewards determine motivational

outcomes. Negative consequences of equity comparisons

should be minimized, if not eliminated. Do not underestimate the impact of pay as a

source of equity controversies in the workplace. Gender equity. Comparable worth.


Expectancy theory Developed by Victor Vroom. Key expectancy theory variables:

Expectancy — belief that working hard will result in desired level of performance.

Instrumentality — belief that successful performance will be followed by rewards.

Valence — value a person assigns to rewards and other work related outcomes.

Elements in the Expectancy Theory of Motivation.


Expectancy theory Motivation (M), expectancy (E),

instrumentality (I), and valence (V) are related to one another in a multiplicative fashion:

M = E x I x V If either E, I, or V is low, motivation

will be low.


Managerial implications of expectancy Theory— To maximize expectancy, managers should:

Select workers with ability. Train workers to use ability. Support work efforts. Clarify performance goals.


Managerial implications of expectancy Theory— To maximize instrumentality, managers

should: Clarify psychological contracts. Communicate performance-outcome possibilities. Identify rewards that are contingent on

performance.


Managerial implications of Expectancy Theory— To maximize valence in a positive direction,

managers should: Identify individual needs. Adjust rewards to match individual needs.

Managerial implications of Expectancy Theory.


Goal-setting theory Developed by Edwin Locke. Properly set and well-managed task goals can be

highly motivating. Motivational effects of task goals:

Provide direction to people in their work. Clarify performance expectations. Establish a frame of reference for feedback. Provide a foundation for behavioral self-

management.


Key issues and principles in the goal-setting process: Set specific goals. Set challenging goals. Build goal acceptance and commitment. Clarify goal priorities. Provide feedback on goal

accomplishment. Reward goal accomplishment.


Goal-setting Theory

Participation in goal setting … Unlocks the motivational potential of goal

setting. Management by objectives (MBO) promotes

participation. When participation is not possible, workers

will respond positively if supervisory trust and support exist.

What role does reinforcement play in Motivation?

Fundamentals of reinforcement theory … Reinforcement theory focuses on the impact of

external environmental consequences on behavior. Law of effect — impact of type of consequence on

future behavior. Operant conditioning:

Developed by B.F. Skinner. Applies law of effect to control behavior by

manipulating its consequences.

What Role does Reinforcement play in Motivation?

Operant conditioning strategies: Positive reinforcement

Increases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent presentation of a pleasant consequence.

Negative reinforcement Increases the frequency of a behavior

through the contingent removal of an unpleasant consequence.


Operant conditioning strategies: Punishment

Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent presentation of an unpleasant consequence.

Extinction Decreases the frequency of a behavior

through the contingent removal of an pleasant consequence.


Successful implementation of positive reinforcement is based on … Law of contingent reinforcement —

Reward delivered only if desired behavior is exhibited.

Law of immediate reinforcement — More immediate the delivery of a reward,

the more reinforcement value it has.


Guidelines for using positive reinforcement: Clearly identify desired work behaviors. Maintain a diverse inventory of rewards. Inform everyone about what must be done

to get rewards. Recognize individual differences when

allocating rewards. Follow the laws of immediate and contingent

reinforcement.

Applying Reinforcement strategies: case of Total Quality Management.

What role does Reinforcement play in Motivation?

Schedules of Reinforcement: Continuous reinforcement administers a reward

each time a desired behavior occurs. Intermittent reinforcement rewards behavior

only periodically. Acquisition of behavior is quicker with

continuous reinforcement. Behavior acquired under an intermittent

schedule is more permanent.

What role does Reinforcement play in Motivation?

Guidelines for using punishment: Tell the person what is being done

wrong. Tell the person what is being done right. Match the punishment to the behavior. Administer punishment in private. Follow laws of immediate and contingent

reinforcement.


Ethical issues in reinforcement: Ignores individuality. Restricts freedom of choice. Ignores the possibility of other types of

motivation. Key concern is whether it is ethical to not control

behavior well enough to serve both individual and organizational goals.

What are the challenges of motivation in the New Workplace?

Integrated model of motivation Motivation leads to work effort that, when combined

with appropriate individual abilities and organizational support, leads to performance accomplishment.

The motivational impact of any rewards received for this performance accomplishment depends on equity and reinforcement considerations.

Ultimately, satisfaction with rewards should lead to increased motivation to work hard in the future.

An integrated approach to Motivational Dynamics.

What are the challenges of Motivation

in the New Workplace? Pay for performance

Paying people for performance is consistent with: Equity theory. Expectancy theory. Reinforcement theory.

Merit pay Awards a pay increase in proportion to individual

performance contributions. Provides performance contingent reinforcement. May not succeed due to weakness in

performance appraisal system or lack of consistency in application.

What are the challenges of Motivation in the New workplace?

Incentive compensation systems: Skill-based pay.

Links pay to the number of job-relevant skills an employee masters.

Bonus pay plans. One-time or lump-sum payments based

on the accomplishment of specific performance targets or some extraordinary contribution.

What are the challenges of motivation in the New Workplace? Incentive compensation systems:

Profit-sharing plans. Some or all employees receive a proportion of net

profits earned by the organization. Gain-sharing plans.

Groups of employees share in any savings realized through their efforts to reduce costs and increase productivity.

Employee stock ownership plans. Employees own stock in the company that employs

them.

Thank you

Motivation

Documents

different needs

different individual

needs theory need

social needs

various needs

selfactualization needs

lowerorder needs

growth needs desires