IMPACT OF SALINITY INTRUSION ON PUBLIC HEALTH ACTION: A CASE OF PATHARGHATA UPAZILA UNDER BARGUNA DISTRICT OF BANGLADESH MS Thesis MOHAMMED MAHMUD KHAN Department of Emergency Management Patuakhali Science and Technology University Dumki, Patuakhali-8602 December 2015 Page 1
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IMPACT OF SALINITY INTRUSION ON PUBLIC HEALTH ACTION:
A CASE OF PATHARGHATA UPAZILA UNDER BARGUNA
DISTRICT OF BANGLADESH
MS Thesis
MOHAMMED MAHMUD KHAN
Department of Emergency Management
Patuakhali Science and Technology University
Dumki, Patuakhali-8602
December 2015
Page 1
IMPACT OF SALINITY INTRUSION ON PUBLIC HEALTH ACTION: A
CASE OF PATHARGHATA UPAZILA UNDER BARGUNA DISTRICT OF
BANGLADESH
A Thesis
Patuakhali Science and Technology University, Dumki, Patuakhali-8602 In
Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
Master of Science
in
Disaster Management (Major in Emergency Management)
By
Mohammed Mahmud Khan
Examination Roll No: ERMJD002/2014
Registration No: 04162
Session: 2014-2015
Department of Emergency Management Patuakhali Science and
Technology University Dumki, Patuakhali-8602
December 2015
Page 2
IMPACT OF SALINITY INTRUSION ON PUBLIC HEALTH ACTION: A
CASE OF PATHARGHATA UPAZILA UNDER BARGUNA DISTRICT OF
BANGLADESH
A Thesis
Submitted to
Patuakhali Science and Technology University, Dumki, Patuakhali-8602
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
Master of Science
in
Disaster Management (Major in Emergency Management) By
Mohammed Mahmud Khan
Approved as to the style and contents by
Dr. Shaibur Rahman Molla
Supervisor
Md. Shamsuzzoha
Chairman Defense Committee
&
Department of Emergency Management
December 2015
Page 3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
All praise and gratitude are due to the Almighty Allah who gives the author strength,
patience and who has enabled him to complete the research work successfully and to
submit the thesis for awarding the Master of Science (M.S.) degree in Disaster
Management (Major in Emergency Management).
The author earnestly wishes to convey his heartfelt respect and insightful thanks to his
cleric Supervisor Dr. Shaibur Rahman Molla, Chairman, Department of Environmental
Science and Technology and Dean, Faculty of Applied Science and Technology, Jessore
University of Science and Technology, Jessore-7408, Bangladesh for his continuous
supervision, valuable guidance, constructive analysis and essential corrections during
the entire period of the study. His direction and precious suggestions helped me to
overcome many errors and showed the right path during this study.
The author wishes to articulate his deep sense of thanks to his respected teacher
Professor A.K.M Mustafa Zaman, Dean, Faculty of Disaster Management, Patuakhali
Science and Technology University, Dumki, Patuakhali-8602, Bangladesh for his
scholastic guidance and initial inputs to take the study forward.
I would like to extend deep appreciation for the special efforts made by respected
teacher Md. Shamsuzzoha, Assistant Professor and Chairman, Department of
Emergency Management, Faculty of Disaster Management, Patuakhali Science and
Technology University, Dumki, Patuakhali-8602, Bangladesh for his continuous
guidance and initial inputs to take the study forward.
My special thanks go to all teachers under the Faculty specially Md Nurul Amin
Assistant Professor & Chairman and Ahmed Parvez, Assistant Professor, Department of
Environmental Science for their assistance and support in conducting the study.
Page i
Last of all, I would like to express my gratitude and intense reverence to my beloved
parents for their blessings, great sacrifice, encouragement and moral support and I also
thankful to my wife for her cordial support and encouragement to complete this
research.
Page ii
ABSTRACT
Salinity is one of the major problems in the coastal regions of Bangladesh from the last
couple of decades. Due to see level rise, frequent natural disasters, change of climate
patterns and man-made alteration of natural settings, the situation is becoming more
vulnerable day by day. This study was an attempt to attain the salinity related problems
on different uses of water and try to get its impact on Public Health, Agricultural crops,
Fisheries and Livestock etc. The applied methodology was questionnaire survey within
the study area and authentic surface and ground water salinity data were collected
from the respective government departments. Moreover, the surface water as well as
the ground water was collected to determine the salinity level of the study area. From
the previous consecutive year’s data, it was found that from the March to May, the
degree of salinity in the Bishkhali river is considerably higher than the drinking water
standards as well as the standards for irrigation water. The salinity in ground water at
shallow depth (30-50 ft.) was comparatively low, whereas the quantity of salinity at
deep layer (850-950 ft.) was very high (7000-8000 mg/l). Most of the people of the study
area put away pond water directly for drinking purpose. As a result, a number of
health’s related diseases have been identified in the research area due to salinity such as
diarrhea, dysentery, high blood pressure, gastric, skin problems etc. It also impacts to
agricultural crops, fisheries and biodiversity. The study focuses to identify the overall
impacts of those sectors. The possible measures is selection of salt-tolerant crops,
harvesting rain water, regular support from NGOs as well as government to maintain
PSF, construction of BSF, provide RO plants, exploring suitable layers for tube-wells.
Key words: Salinity, Public health, Drinking water, Bangladesh.
Page iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS......................................................................................................... i
ABSTRACT................................................................................................................................ iii
LIST OF ACRONYMS............................................................................................................ vii
Climate variables, such as precipitation, surface runoff, and temperature can play
a big role in affecting saltwater intrusion. With lower precipitation amount and warmer
temperature, the recharge rate will be much less due to lack of groundwater present
and increase evaporation (Ranjan, 2007).
2.5 Political Systems
The political systems include weak water governance systems at local level, cross-
boundary river policy, construction of barrages by the neighboring countries etc. are
responsible for managing the salinity into the soil.
2.5.1 Weak Water Governance Systems at Local Level
Weak water governance systems at local level are another cause of salinity
increase. Because salinity intrusion is not only natural phenomenon; it's also a human
one. Numerous human activities such as untimely water use, unplanned shrimp
culture, insufficient or poorly maintained infrastructure, and inadequate management
systems can result in salinity intrusion.
2.5.2 Cross Boundary River Policy
A total of 57 major rivers of Bangladesh have entered the country, of which 54
rivers are from India and 3 rivers are from Myanmar (Afroz and Rahman, 2013). But
among the 54 rivers coming from India more than twenty five rivers face one or more
upstream diversion basically in dry months. For this reason, water scarcity during non-
monsoon month’s cause of salinity increase in soil and water of coastal belt of
Bangladesh. During the post-Farakka period, salinity in the south-west region of
Bangladesh increased significantly. For example, at the Khulna station, the average
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monthly maximum salinity for April in the pre-Farakka period was 1626 ìmho/cm.
During 1976, when the Gorai discharge dropped to 0.5 m3/sec from its pre-Farakka
average of 190 m3/sec, maximum salinity in April increased to 13,000 ìmho/cm. Recall
that the Farakka Barrage was commissioned in April 1975. In recent years, extreme low
flow in the Gorai River in the dry months has appeared to exacerbate the intrusion of
saline water to the most inland parts of the southwest part of Bangladesh (Khan, 1993).
2.5.3 Lack of Capacity of Local Government
Local government reforms in Bangladesh evolved very distinctly according to
the needs of the ruling elites (Westergaard, 2000). With the change of government, the
policy of local government also kept changing. As a consequence, LGIs have not had
any opportunity to act as effective tiers of governments with mandates and funds to
carry out their roles and responsibilities. Independent reviews observed that
Bangladesh has not been successful in establishing a decentralized system of
governance and accountability. A World Bank review of the decentralization process in
19 countries ranks Bangladesh lowest in the decentralization scale (McLean et al., 1998).
Due to lack of capacity of LGIs, cannot take initiative to protect coastal polder,
embankment, road and any kind of infrastructure as well as unplanned shrimp culture.
2.5.4 Structural Intervention in Upstream Neighboring Country
The magnitude of salinity intrusion in coastal areas depends on a sensible balance
between upstream freshwater flow and salt water from the sea. The water withdrawal
system of human intervention in terms of the barrage and dam in the upstream
neighboring country, have already affected upstream fresh water flow. The interface
between freshwater and saline water is influenced by the geology, hydrogeology,
ground water heads and groundwater well pumping rates. But fresh water is important
issue to counterbalance salinity intrusion at the upstream water intake. Due to
geographical situation Bangladesh is most vulnerable to water withdrawal system by
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the upstream neighboring country. Farakka barrage is one of the worst factors for the
decreasing water flow condition for internal river system of Bangladesh.
Different types of anthropogenic interventions in the form of dam, barrage,
and water diversion channel were undertaken in this river basin during the last century.
This kind of intervention withdraws or diverts a substantial amount of river water from
the upstream catchments of the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna (GMB) river basin and
creates a low flow condition in the downstream rivers during the dry season. The water
flow of the Ganges River in Bangladesh is largely influenced by the Farakka barrage.
The water flow in the Ganges River in Bangladesh has been dropped a minimum 150
m3/s at Hardinge bridge in 1995 from 20,000 m3/s, which was the average minimum
flow of the Ganges during post Farakka period. It observed a notable change in the
hydrology of the Ganges River at post Farakka period. He argued that the discharge
during monsoon (July-October) increased during the dry season, (November-May) the
discharge decreased significantly. Increased flow in the monsoon exacerbated the
flooding condition and decreased flow aggravated salinity intrusion in the interior coast
considerably (Mirza, 1998).
2.6 Relation between Salinity Intrusion and Agricultural Production
Salinity intrusion is a growing problem in the coastal areas around the globe, especially
in the low-lying developing countries. The problem becomes exacerbated particularly in
the dry season when rainfall is inadequate and incapable of lowering the concentration
of salinity on surface water and leaching out salt from soil. Coastal agriculture
experiences a yield reduction or in some cases devastation due to salinity intrusion
(Nichols et al., 2007). Salinity affected irrigation water has profound impact on crop
production. The impact of irrigation water on crop production depends upon the
presence of salient factors: salinity or concentration of total dissolved salts;
disproportion of Na+ with other cations like Ca++ and Mg++; alkalinity or presence of
excessive 3 CO− or 3 HCO− more than the desired level; pH; excessive presence of toxic
Page 22
ions like Na+ and Cl− (Baudar et al., 2007). It was argued by (Bauder et al., 2007) that
yield of a crop is directly linked to the quantity of water passed through it by water
transpiration.When EC gets higher, less water is likely available to plants. Yield
potential of plants, therefore, gets deteriorated with the increase of EC in irrigation
water that yield of a crop is directly linked to the quantity of water passed through it by
water transpiration. When EC gets higher, less water is likely available to plants. Yield
potential of plants, therefore, gets deteriorated with the increase of EC in irrigation
water.
Figure 3: Impact of salinity on agriculture crop (Baten et al., 2015)
2.7 Relation Between salinity intrusion and public health action
Bangladesh stands at the forefront of climate change, with its coastal region witnessing
dramatic sea-level rise over the last three decades. Salinity along the Bangladesh coast
has already encroached over 100 km inland into domestic ponds, groundwater supplies
and agricultural land, through the various estuaries and water inlets intertwined with
major rivers The resultant sea-water intrusion is increasing salinity in coastal drinking
water with severe health consequences to surrounding populations. As we all know,
coastal populations rely heavily on tube wells, rivers and ponds for their drinking water
Page 23
and cooking. Seawater, which is extremely harmful for humans, contains 35 grams per
kilogram of water. Approximately 20 million of the 37 million people living on these
coasts (over 57%) are adversely affected by such salinity in their drinking water. The
causal relationship between excessive dietary salt intake and high blood pressure in
adults and children is well established in public health. Over a decade ago, the World Health Organization‟ s (WHO) Public Health Initiative identified the health impacts of long-term consumption of highly saline waters as a priority for investigation. The
government of Bangladesh and Caritas Development Institute (CDI) has identified a
range of health problems with potential links to increased salinity exposure, including
hypertension and miscarriage among pregnant women, skin diseases, acute respiratory
infection and diarrheal diseases (Ministry of Environment & Forest 2006).
2.8 Salinity Intrusion and Biodiversity Loss
Bangladesh has got a wide diversity of ecosystems including mangrove forests
at the extreme south of the country. A total of 425 species have been identified there, the
most significant is the famous Royal Bengal Tiger. Therefore, salinity intrusion the
results of climate change will have negative effects on the Ecosystem of the Forest
recourses in Bangladesh. Salinity Intrusion from the Bay of Bengal already penetrates
100 kilometers inside the country during the dry season and the climate change in its
gradual process is likely to deteriorate the existing scenario to a great extent. Salinity is
posing a major threat to the freshwater river systems, as organisms thriving in such
rivers can tolerate only certain ranges of water salinity. Salinization is impacting at the
individual, population, community and ecosystem levels, thus ultimately leading to
biodiversity losses and apparently allowing alien species to thrive in these ecosystems.
Due to continuous raising of salinity many costal species becomes endangered day by
day.
Page 24
2.9 Salinity Intrusion and Fisheries Sector
Almost one fourth of the total populations of the country live in the coastal areas of
Bangladesh, where a significant number of the population are being affected (directly or
indirectly) by salinity problem. Majority of the population have managed their
livelihood through catching fish. But, the fisheries sector has also experienced an
adverse effect because of the impacts of salinity intrusion and climate change. The
fisheries sector contributes about 3.5% of the GDP in Bangladesh and people depend on
fish products in order to meet up majority of their daily protein requirements. There are
around 260 species of fish in the country and almost all the varieties are sensitive to
specific salt and freshwater conditions.
Page 25
CHAPTER THREE
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Page 26
CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Study Area
The Upazila occupies an area of 387.36 sq. km. with 37.29 sq. km. forest area. It is
located in between 22°14' and 22°58 north latitudes and in between 89°53' and 90°05'
east longitudes. Patharghata Upazila is about 30 km road distance from Barguna
District. Total population of the Upazila is 162025; male 82687, female 79338; Muslim
143466, Hindu 18464, Buddhist 18, Christian 21 and others 56It is bounded by
Mathbaria and Bamna Upazilas on the north, Bay of Bengal on the south, Barguna
Sadar Upazila on the east, Sarankhola Upazila on the west (BBS, 2012).
The main rivers of the upazila are Bishkhali, Haringhata, and Baleshwari. The
study area is mainly bounded by the Bay of Bengal on the southern side, the Baleswar
rivers on the eastern and western sides of the Charduani Union. The main Sources of
drinking water are Tube-well 81.34%, tap 15.76%, pond 1.75% and others 1.15% (BBS,
2012). The project site lies within a cyclone zone and is predisposed to crop damage
almost every year. Most soils are coarse textured and nitrogen is the main limiting
nutrient for rice production. Rain-fed lowland rice (Transplanted Aman rice) is the
main crop for wet season followed by grass pea (Lathyrussativus) and chili in some
areas. Other main crops are Paddy, potato, khesari, mug, vegetables. However, a vast
area remains fallow during dry season due to the problem of accumulated salinity.
The incidence of temperature rise and erratic rainfall seems more from last 3 years and water logging occurs after heavy rainfall. Around 30% respondents told that river water was rising (nearly 2 ft.) from a decade but 20% answered that the land was degrading gradually. Nearly 40% respondents said that every year at least 3 (medium and small scale) cyclones were hitting in this area in the month of March to Jun and as a result of these cyclone, a few fisherman died in every year in the sea. One man told that “We losed more than 10 people due to cyclone KOMEN “. Besides, Earthquake is occurring in the area. Nearly 25% respondents told that owing to Earthquake our pond water spilled over and a lot of fish left the pond. Most of the informer answered about the trend and severity of extreme events like cyclone and tidal surge were acute problem in this locality.
According to BMD, the climatic system of Barguna shows variations in the trend of a 20 years period (1991-2010). Annual average maximum temperature and rainfall shows a slightly increasing trend. But the trend of monsoon rainfall shows an increasing pattern while winter rainfall is slightly decreasing during the period of 1991-2010. Moreover, the days about without rainfall were increasing over the mentioned period.
Page 39
The disastrous events, cyclone SIDR and cyclone AILA devastatingly affected many of
the coastal districts of the country. The cyclone SIDR affected 30 out of 64 Districts
while cyclone AILA hit 11 Districts. Both of these events affected the rice crops and
drinking water facilities in the coastal Districts. But, due to cyclone AILA huge saline
water from Baleshar river entered into agricultural land in coastal area specially
Patharghata Upazila. As a result of this saline water, salts are visible on the agricultural
land. The study indicates that all standing crops and vegetables were damaged as
confirmed by the local communities in FGD consultation. Most of the ponds were also
submerged by the badly effect of cyclone AILA. Moreover, many of the PSFs were also
fully or partially damaged.
4.4 Trend of Salinity Intrusion
This study shows that salinity is increasing day by day in the southern coastal
surface water especially Bishkhali water way which affects the Patharghata Upazila in
different ways. The ground water aquifers of the study area were so much salty and
most of the areas do not have tube wells. The local DPHE (the lead agency of water
Supply and sanitation of the country) personnel told that tube well hadn‟ t installed
from the long time in this area due to higher percentage of chloride than the standard
value of the Bangladesh as well as the world. They also added that the range of chloride
in the area had found from 4000 ppm to 9000 ppm. The GoB and NGOs constructed lot
of PSF for supplying safe drinking water but almost 100% were out of order due to
proper management. The household survey found that almost all study area people had
collected drinking water directly from pond which tends to affecting water borne
diseases.
Page 40
Table 8: The Range of EC and Chloride Concentration in the Bishkhali River
of Patharghata, Barguna from 2001 to 2015
River Date EC-High EC-Low Chloride-High Chloride-Low
Raintree (Albizia Saman). Raintree, Bamboo, Coconut tree, Mango tree, jackfruit tree and
Kankra are fresh water-loving species with lower ecological amplitude. Gewa, and
Keora are moderately salt tolerant with wider ecological amplitude. Among these,
Raintree, Supari, and Bamboo are the single most dominant and important species of
the study area, with the highest market value. The diameter of the trunk of the Coconut
Page 54
tree, Tal, Supar, Khejur and Bamboo decrease steadily with salinity and shows a
dramatic decline when salinity is more than 25 ppt.
25%
Tree growth less
Coconut and Supari tree
35%
decreasing
Sea level is Rising 10%
Change in seasonal pattern 5%
5% 20% Deceasing fruit tree
Birds are decresing
Figure 16: People perceptions about changing biodiversity in the study area
From the respondent’s perceptions, it was found that tree growth less, sea level rising, changes in seasonal pattern, decreasing fruit trees and also birds are declining after
super cyclone SIDR. About 35% people said that the growth of the trees are lessening
specially, Coconut, Superi and Bamboo tree are diminishing day-by day. On the other
hand, about 25% respondents told that birds are decreasing recently, even if they are
not seen a few months of the year in this area. Besides, 10% people told that fruit trees
are lessening due increased soil salinity of the study area. About 5% people said that sea
level rising and the other 5% people told that seasonal pattern are changing.
4.5.5 Impact of Salinity on Drinking Water
The study shows about the access of drinking water, nearly 90% households
(overall) collect water for drinking directly from ponds while 5% drink water from
Pond Sand Filter (PSF) and other 5% collect from shallow Tube well. Usually 6 months
Page 55
Is Rain falling in the study location and households are collected rain water into their
pot and drink it during the rainy season. Among the total respondents, 80% told that
due to cyclone SIDR and cyclone AILA their drinking water sources were affected and
of them 87% informed that the affected drinking water sources was inundated during
the mentioned period. Besides, out of the total respondents, 74% told that the pond or
PSF which they use for drinking water was no salinity.
Figure 17: Collection of Rain Water at Household level
Figure 18: Collection of Drinking Water from Pond
Page 56
In the last two extreme events such as SIDR and AILA, respondents are facing
problem in drinking water because of major drinking water sources are inundated or
permanently damaged and many water resources are not usable for long time.
The number of respondents was 80 within the study area and majority of them told
that their drinking water sources were damaged for extreme event like SIDR or AILA.
Finally found 56% water sources were not usable for more than 30 days, 11% not usable
for 21-30 days, 4% not usable for 11-20 days, 5% not usable for 1-10 days and 24% water
sources were not damaged at a time of extreme event. At the time of extreme events like
SIDR or AILA respondents are needed another drinking water source. Because normal
drinking water sources were destroyed due to these extreme events. Figure 16 shows
the source of drinking water at a time of extreme event.
35
31
30
25
20
16
15
9
10
8
5
6 5
5
0
Collected Collected Collected Collected Collected Collected NGO aid
water from water from water from water from water from water from water &
far far & GoB far & NGO far, GoB far, NGO aid far & Others others
supply water aid water supply water water &
& NGO aid Others
water
Figure 19: Source of drinking water at a time of extreme event
Page 57
The Figure 16 shows that the source of drinking water at the time of extreme
event likes SIDR and AILA. According to the respondents, due to the bad effect of
Cyclone AILA, lot of Ponds were inundated and it was taken long time to be removed
of saline water. Among the 80 respondents, most of them collected water from the far
area and a few people had to depend on GoB water supply and NGO aid water. The
sources of water including ponds, tube-wells, Pond Sand Filter (PSF) were also affected.
All of the affected ponds had to adopt a cleaning process for further domestic use.
Figure 20: Women and children are collecting water from pond
Major respondents are collected water from far at a time of extreme event. Some
other types of alternative sources are found GoB supply water, NGO aid water, and
others. At a time of extreme events major respondents are use two or more sources to
collect the drinking water.
Page 58
Research area people are using pond water and PSF for drinking purpose and these people said this water is not saline water and they use the pond for their main water source. A few people said that they had found saline water in the pond and few respondents answered about very high salinity in the pond water. But 97% pond water user said they are found fresh water from the pond.
Table 12: The pH and TDS in the pond water of the study area
Village Name Pond Name pH TDS (mg/l )
South Charduani Hashem Khan Bari 8.1 125
South Charduani Sital khan bari 7.9 35
Ekarbunia Kudduce Member Bari 7.2 123
Gang para Belayet Member 7.8 39
Gang para Munsi Bari 7.4 100
Gang para BalarKhal 7.8 63
Gabbaria Khan Bari 7.9 155
ModhoCharduani Charduani Clinic 7.99 225 NB: The data were collected on 15.11.2015 in the study area
The Table 12 shows that the pH value was slightly larger than the neutral value of 7.00. This value indicated that the pond water had a bit of alkalinity. Besides, the range of TDS value were lower than standard (i.e. 1000 mg/l).
4.6 Adaptation in facing salinity intrusion
During last 20 years, salinity is increasing in our research area and respondents face different kinds of problems from the salinity intrusion. Some respondents are taking some initiative to minimize the effects of salinity intrusion but major respondents don’t know how to minimize the effect of salinity intrusion. As a result,
some respondents take some adaptation measures in their rice production sector. Figure
21 shows the research area where rice production has been modified as a result of
salinity intrusion.
Page 59
6% 18%
Yes
No 16%
Shift to other crops
60%
Figure 21: Modify rice cultivation for salinity intrusion
Respondents told that some people had migrated as a result of salinity intrusion. Figure 22 show the migration status of the research area.
19%
36%
No
Yes, I migrate
Other household members
migrate
45%
Figure 22: Migration status of the people in the study area
Page 60
Within the research area, 45% of respondents said that they had migrated from
these places because of salinity intrusion but these migrations for short time. 36%
respondents said that they were not leaving finally but 19% respondents told that they
were seeing migration to other household members for months. So, majority people of
the research area were trying to cope with salinity intrusion caused by climate change
but some respondents migrates for earning money. Maximum people of the research
area cannot do anything to deal with salinity intrusion caused by climate change.
The current coping mechanisms were not enough to adapt to increased levels of
salinity especially caused by extreme events. The poverty, low level of resilience and
lack of alternative livelihoods together with such climate induced hazards cause huge
losses for not only study communities but also the people of the whole coast.
There is the issue of increasing sea level rise as well which would be bringing the
water line further inwards, hence affecting the coastal area in terms of agricultural
productivity, drinking water facilities and also risking other livelihood options and
other social securities. The impact of a cyclone will be penetrating deeper into the land
mass, thus affecting the whole coastal region and it‟ s over 33 million people in a risky
position in the near future. One third of the population living in the coast will be
severely affected as there is lack of access due to scarcity of safe water sources and
proper sanitation facilities.
Household members of affected area do not do anything for minimizing the
impact of salinity intrusion in soil and water. A few household members take some
initiative for managing the effects of salinity intrusion. Those people who are taken to
minimizing the effects they said that these measures were not enough for minimize the
salinity intrusion. About 95% household members had not taken initiative for
minimizing the effects of salinity intrusion. Figure 20 Shown the how household
members not taken any initiative for minimizing the effects.
Page 61
21%
Don't know what to do
17%
Lack of financial resources
62%
Lack of skills and
knowledge
Figure 23: How respondents not taken initiatives
Majority percentage of household members are not know what to do to
minimize the effect of salinity intrusion and 17% household members not take initiative
because of lack of financial resources. Finally 21% household members are not take
initiative because of lack of skills and knowledge.
Page 62
CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Page 63
CHATER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusion
Salinity intrusion is a great threat for the population of Patharghata Upazila.
Patharghata Upazila has already crossed the threshold value of tidal fluctuation and the
threshold limit of salinity intrusion has also crossed. Through the overall observations
of this study it is reveals that the salinity levels both in soil and surface water in the
study area show an increasing trend. Through the water quality testing it is clear that
the range of salinity in the river and canal in the Patharghata Upazila was higher than
before. The range of salinity level becomes higher during dry season. Due to this
continuous rising of salinity peoples of Patharghata Upazila facing so many problems.
The study traces out that the agriculture sectors seriously hampered by this salinity
intrusion. Present salinity concentration has already put a threat to the crop production
and a significant yield loss has already been observed in the dry season. In the
increasing scenario of the salinity, it has been predicted that increasing concentration of
salinity will create more pressure to the farmer by reducing yield which will ultimately
affect livelihood, income generation and food security. Sweet water fish production has
also hampered due to this salinity intrusion. People cannot access to safe drinking
during dry season and they face many health disorders. Water borne diseases has been
increasing day by day due to drinking of saline water. The range of salinity in the river
and canal in the study area was higher than before. The GoB and NGOs gave little
attention about the salinity problems. Besides, symptoms of land degradation with
salinity were becoming more in recent years to be ignored. Growing population
pressure is increasing the demand of more food. It has become imperative to improve
the saline affected lands for increasing production of food crops.
Page 64
5.2 Recommendations
Socio-economic conditions of coastal communities are different from mainland of
Bangladesh. The extreme event due to climate change is increasing day by day. Holistic
initiatives should be taken rather than scattered courses of action. Major
recommendations are:
1) Special budget allocation should be kept and fund for coastal communities
especially for food security, public Health and Agriculture.
2) Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan (2009-2018) should be
implemented through proper consultation with coastal people and respective
stakeholders.
3) Awareness program should be taken due to over increasing salinity intrusion.
4) Research innovation like BR-47 (saline tolerant) and other saline resilient crops
should be introduced for the coastal population.
5) There must have integrated and long-term development plan for coastal areas of
Bangladesh in the light of its prospects and problems. It should be mainstreamed
in the national planning documents.
6) Washing and irrigating the rice fields to reduce salinity.
7) Preservation of rainwater in above mentioned ponds and canals for the use of
irrigation in lean period.
8) Some farmers put gypsum and sugar solution (or solid form of sugar) to reduce
salinity in the rice seedbed.
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Drinking water (sources availability, quality and access)
Human Health
a) Food and Nutrition b) Social Security c) Disaster Preparedness
d) Ecosystems (Mangrove and Biodiversity)
Section C: Salinity and Water Supply (state trend and loss)
1. What are the sources of water for different purposes in different period for your
household?
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Purpose Normal period Disaster Period
DTW Pond PSF RWH Others Aid DTW Pond PSF Others
/STW S Water /STW
Drinking
Cooking
Washing/cle
aning
Sanitation
Irrigation
2. Did any extreme events (Cyclone SIDR, Cyclone AILA) affect sources of drinking
water? a) Yes b) No
3. If yes, how the sources of drinking water was affected by extreme event ?
a) Inundated b) Permanently damaged/broken c) Partially damaged
e) Salinity Intruded f) Other
4. How long the source was not usable because of damaged caused by extreme event?
a) 1 - 10 days b) 11 - 20 days c) 21 - 30 days e) More than 30 days
F) Don’t know
5. What was the source of drinking water during the mentioned period?
a) Collected water from far b) GoB supply water c) NGO aid water
d) Purchased Water e) others (specify) …………………………
6. If you use the pond or PSF for drinking water, do you think that the water of this
source is saline? a) Yes b) No c) Don’t know
7. If yes, what is your opinion about the current state of salinity of water of the
pond? a) High b) Medium c) Low d) Fresh water
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Section D: Impact of Salinity on living beings with Special Reference to Human
Beings.
1. What changes have you experienced in soil and water resources in relation to salinity
intrusion in your village over the last twenty years? 2. Does the salinity intrusion in water resources and soil affect your crop production?
If yes, explain how--
3. Does the salinity intrusion in surface and ground water resources affect in drinking
water
Supply in your household? If yes, explain how
4. Has your household done anything to deal with impacts of salinity intrusion in soil
and water? a) Yes b) No (if no skip next two question) 5. If yes, what did you do? 6. If yes, do you feel that despite these measures your household still experiences
negative effects from salinity intrusion (multiple option)? a) Yes b) No measure not
enough c) Yes. Measures have cost/ negative effects d) yes other reason (specify) ……………
Please Explain
7. If no why not (multiple options)? a) Don‟ t know what to do b) Lack of financial resources (to do what) c) Lack of skills /Knowledge (to do what) d) Lack of other
resources
(to do what) e) It‟ s not a priority/not very important to us f) Not my task/ responsibility
g) Other (specify) Please explain
8. Does the salinity intrusion in surface and ground water resources affect in Fish
Production? If yes (explain how)--- 9. In your opinion, what are the diseases that affect your health due to drinking of saline
water from the pond or PSF?
a) Diarrhea b) Dysentery c) Fever d) Pneumonia
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e. Others (specify)……………………………………………… 10. What is the most common disease that affected you or your family members in the
mentioned seasons in last 5 years? a) Diarrhea b) Dysentery c) Skin diseases
d) Fever e) Other (specify) …………………. 11. What changes have you experienced in Biodiversity due to salinity intrusion in your
village over the last twenty years? Section E: Adaptation in facing salinity intrusion (in soil and water resources) caused
by climate change
1. Did you modify rice production to deal with salinity intrusion caused by climate
change? a) Yes b) No c) Yes, shift to other crops/livestock/fish (specify) ……………………….. d) Modify production techniques/inputs, specify……………….. f)
Other (specify)…………………… 2. Did you engage (more) in non-farming activities to deal with salinity effects caused
by climate change? a) Yes b) No witch to new economic activities, specify…………….. 3. Did you or household members migrate (more) to deal with salinity effects caused by
climate change? a) No b) Yes, I migrate c) Yes , other household member(s) migrated d0
Yes , whole household migrated
a) if yes , for what periods ? Short-term (< months)/longer-term (>6 months)
b. If yes, where to? a) Within region b) other region (specify) ………… c) Abroad (specify) ………
c. Was migration destination rural or urban? a) Rural b) Urban
4. Did you do anything else to deal with salinity effects caused by climate change?