MODERN ART MOVEMENTS AND ST IVES 1939–49

The focus of my thesis is to investigate the overlap and interaction between local and global contexts for art associated withRACHEL ROSE SMITH
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ABSTRACT
This thesis provides a view of modern art in St Ives between 1939 and 1949 by focusing on two
interlinked concerns: the movement of objects, people and ideas through communication and
transport networks, and the modern art movements which were developed by artists working in
the town during this period.
Drawing especially from studies of place, hybridity and mobility, Chapter 1 provides an account
of two artists’ migration to St Ives in 1939: Naum Gabo and Barbara Hepworth. It considers the
foundational importance of movement to the narrative of modern art in St Ives and examines the
factors which contributed to artists’ decisions to relocate. Using this information, it probes
presumptions surrounding St Ives as an artists’ ‘colony’ and proposes it as a site of ‘coastal
modernism’.
Chapters 2 and 3 examine the contribution by artists in St Ives to two developing art
movements: Constructivism and Cubism. Both investigations show how artists participated in
wide-reaching artistic networks within which ideas and objects were shared. Each chapter also
particularly reveals the value of art movements for providing temporal scales through which
artists could reflect upon and establish the connections of their work to the past, present and
future. Chapter Two focuses on the Constructive project associated with the publication of
Circle: International Survey of Constructive Art (1937), revealing how modern art in St Ives
inherited ideas and styles from earlier movements and continued to reflect upon the value of the
‘Constructive spirit’ as Europe changed. Chapter Three is an examination of Nicholson’s
connections to the Cubist movement and an analysis of the long-standing impact this had on his
work and critical reception both before and after the Second World War.
To conclude this thesis, two narratives centred on 1964, the year often used to define the end of
an artistic period in St Ives, suggest how the internationalism of artists and artist groups in St
Ives changed during the period which followed 1949.
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AUTHOR’S DECLARATION ..................................................................................................... 9
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................... 10 i. LITERATURE AND DISPLAYS .............................................................................. 10 ii. PLACE, HYBRIDITY, MOBILITY .......................................................................... 22 iii. MOVEMENTS AND TIME ....................................................................................... 28 iv. METHODOLOGY AND TERMS .............................................................................. 34 v. STRUCTURE AND LIMITATIONS ......................................................................... 40
1. 1939..................................................................................................................................... 44 i. WARTIME MIGRATION: GABO AND HEPWORTH ........................................... 45 ii. THE COASTAL COLONY AS SITE OF MODERNITY ......................................... 60
2 WIDENING CIRCLE: CONSTRUCTIVE GROUND ....................................................... 65 i. TRANSFER POINTS ................................................................................................. 67 ii. CONSTRUCTIVISM ACROSS EUROPE ................................................................ 87 iii. NEW GROUND: DISPERSAL AND ASSEMBLAGE FROM 1937........................ 94 iv. TOWARDS RECONSTRUCTION .......................................................................... 112
3 NICHOLSON’S CUBISM: TABLEAU, TEXT AND TABLE TOPS ............................. 120 i. LITERALNESS AND OBJECTHOOD ................................................................... 124 ii. EARLY ENCOUNTERS: ABSTRACTION AND PAPIER-COLLÉ ..................... 130 iii. FRAMES OF REFERENCE: LINE AND TEXT IN THE THIRTIES .................... 136 iv. NEOPLASTIC TABLES .......................................................................................... 146 v. OPENING THE VIEW: ST IVES AND TRANSATLANTIC EXCHANGE .......... 157
CONCLUSION: 1949–64 ......................................................................................................... 177
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
1. Photograph of Tate St Ives behind Porthmeor Beach (Tate website).
2. Examples of early exhibition catalogues, Tate St Ives: Tate St Ives: An Illustrated
Companion (1993), Alison Wilding (1994), Paul Feiler (1995-6), Rothko (1996).
3. Installation shot of ‘Gesture’ in Object, Gesture, Grid: St Ives and the International
Avant-garde, Tate St Ives, 2010.
4. Installation shot of Patrick Heron, Window for Tate Gallery St Ives (1992-93) and Yto
Barrada, Palm Sign (2010) in The Far and The Near: St Ives and International Art, Tate
St Ives, 2013.
5. Installation shot of the ‘Constructive Ideas’ gallery in International Exchanges: Modern
Art and St Ives 1915-1965, Tate St Ives, 2014.
6. As above.
7. Archive display in the ‘Constructive Ideas’ gallery in International Exchanges: Modern
Art and St Ives 1915-1965, Tate St Ives, 2014. Material selected with and arranged by
Enrico Tassi.
8. Alfred Barr, diagram representing Cubism and Abstract Art, Museum of Modern Art,
New York, 1936.
9. Diagram representing Inventing Abstraction 1910-1925, Museum of Modern Art, New
York, 2013.
10. Stephen Bann, Diagram representing ‘A Brief Chronology’ (Bann, 1974).
11. John Willett, Diagram representing ‘1. The main movements’ (Willett, 1978).
12. John Willett, Diagram representing ‘2. Organizations and political links’ (Willett,
1978).
13. Paul Klee, Angelus Novus, 1920, Israel Museum, Jerusalem. Ink, chalk and wash on
paper, 318 x 242 mm.
14. Barbara Hepworth, Two Heads, 1932, Pier Arts Centre, Orkney. Cumberland alabaster,
300 x 375 x 227 mm.
15. Ben Nicholson, St Rémy, 1933, Tate. Oil on canvas, 273 x 168 mm.
16. Barbara Hepworth, photograph of works by Hepworth, Nicholson and Calder at the
Mall Studio, c.1935.
17. Naum Gabo, Experimental Photograph, 1941, Tate Archive.
18. Naum Gabo, Spiral Theme, 1941, Tate. Cellulose acetate and Perspex, 140 x 244 x 244
mm.
19. El Lissitzky, Proun A1, Bridge 1, 1919-20, Museu Coleção Berardo. Pencil and
gouache on paper, 150 x 195 mm.
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20. Naum Gabo, Construction: Stone with a Collar, 1933, this version c. 1936-7, Tate.
Limestone, cellulose acetate and brass on slate base, 370 x 720 x 550 mm.
21. El Lissitzky and Hans Arp (eds), Die Kunstismen: Les ismes de l'Art: The Isms of Art,
1925.
22. Naum Gabo, Leslie Martin and Ben Nicholson (eds), Circle: International Survey of
Constructive Art, 1937.
24. Naum Gabo, Construction in Space: Arch, 1937, Guggenheim collection. Plexiglass,
476 x 810 x 241 mm.
25. Postcard from Marcel Breuer, Walter Gropius, László Moholy-Nagy, Alexander Dorner
and Herbert Bayer to Ben Nicholson, 1 September 1937 [postmarked], Ben Nicholson
Papers, Tate Archive.
26. Postcard from Nicholson to Leslie Martin, 4 September 1939 [postmarked], Leslie
Martin Papers, Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art Archive.
27. Peter Lanyon, Box Construction No. 1, 1939-40, Pier Arts Centre, Orkney. Wood, glass,
cardboard and gelatine filter in a wooden box, 327 x 404 x 55 mm.
28. Photograph of Peter Lanyon’s Box Construction No. 1, 1939-40, Conway Collections,
Courtauld Institute of Art.
29. Photograph of Lanyon’s studio, late 1939 or early 1940 (Stephens, 2000: 33).
30. László Moholy-Nagy, K VII, 1922, Tate. Oil on canvas, 1153 x 1359 mm.
31. Peter Lanyon, Untitled [piston rings], 1940, destroyed.
32. Joost Schmidt, Hyperboloid Sculpture, 1928. (Moholy-Nagy, 1932).
33. John Wells, Construction, 1940-41, Tate. Aluminium, steel, wood, copper wire and
rubber on stone base, 221 x 240 x 200 mm.
34. Aleksandr Rodchenko, Spatial Construction no. 12, c. 1920, Museum of Modern Art,
New York. Plywood, open construction partially painted with aluminium paint, and
wire, 610 x 837 x 470 mm.
35. Peter Lanyon, Blue Glass Airscape, 1960, private collection. Glass, ceramic, plaster and
paint on cork, 311 x 311 mm.
36. Ben Nicholson to Leslie Martin, 21 May [1936], Leslie Martin Papers, Scottish
National Gallery of Modern Art Archive.
37. Ben Nicholson, 1924 (first abstract painting, Chelsea), c.1923-4, Tate. Oil paint and
graphite on canvas, 554 x 612 mm.
38. Pablo Picasso, Musical Score and Guitar, autumn 1912, Centre Pompidou, Musée
national d'art moderne, Paris. Cut, pasted, and pinned coloured paper, sheet music, and
paper, and charcoal on coloured paper, 425 x 480 mm.
39. Ben Nicholson, 1924 (painting – trout), private collection. Oil on canvas, 220 x 230
mm.
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40. Ben Nicholson, 1914 (the striped jug), The Stanley & Audrey Burton Gallery,
University of Leeds. Oil on canvas, 851 x 660 mm.
41. Ben Nicholson, 1932 (profile – Venetian red), private collection. Oil and pencil on
canvas stretched over painted board, 1160 x 880 mm.
42. Pablo Picasso, Studies, 1920, Musée Picasso, Paris. Oil on canvas, 1000 x 810 mm.
43. Georges Braque, La Baigneuse, 1931, private collection. Oil on canvas, 1305 x 1954
mm.
44. Ben Nicholson, 1932 (painting), Tate. Oil paint, graphite and gesso on hardboard, 746 x
1200 mm.
45. Georges Braque, Sao, c.1933.
46. Ben Nicholson, 1933 (coin and musical instruments), Metropolitan Museum of Art,
New York. Oil on board, 1067 x 1219 mm.
47. Ben Nicholson, Au Chat Botté, 1932, Manchester City Galleries. Oil and graphite on
canvas, 923 x 1220 mm.
48. Ben Nicholson, 1930 (Christmas night), 1930, Kettle’s Yard, University of Cambridge.
Oil and graphite on canvas, 635 x 940 mm.
49. Ben Nicholson, Jan 27 1933, Tate. Oil paint, graphite, paper doily and printed paper on
canvas, 891 x 683 x 29 mm.
50. Ben Nicholson, 1930 (still life with jug and mugs), private collection. Oil and graphite
on board mounted on backboard, 380 x 445 mm.
51. Ben Nicholson, 1925 (still life with jugs, mugs, cup and goblet), private collection. Oil
and graphite on canvas, 600 x 600 mm.
52. Ben Nicholson, Offertory box for the Church of St Philip and St James at Rock, 1935,
private collection.
53. Ben Nicholson, 1935 (white relief), Tate. Painted wood, 1016 x 1664 mm.
54. Ben Nicholson, 1936 (white relief sculpture - version 1), Tate. Plaster on wooden base,
230 x 255 x 158 mm.
55. Jake Nicholson at Quai d’Auteil, Paris, c.1934, showing Ben Nicholson, December
1933 (first completed relief), Tate Archive Photograph Collection.
56. Abstract and Concrete exhibition, Lefevre Gallery, London, 1936, photograph by
Arthur Jackson.
57. Abstract and Concrete exhibition, St Giles, Oxford, 1936.
58. Ben Nicholson, 1936 (still life - composition), Lakeland Arts Trust. Oil on canvas, 505
x 760 mm.
59. Ben Nicholson, 1937 (painting), National Galleries of Scotland. Oil on canvas, 506 x
635 mm.
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60. William Orpen, A Bloomsbury Family, 1907, National Galleries of Scotland. Oil on
canvas, 865 x 915 mm.
61. Ben Nicholson, 1940 (St Ives, version 2), The Phillips Collection, Washington D.C. Oil
and graphite on cardboard mounted on cardboard panel, 384 x 460 mm.
62. Ben Nicholson, 1931 (St Ives Bay, sea with boats), Manchester City Galleries. Oil and
graphite on canvas, 409 x 560 mm.
63. Photograph of page 17 of Ben and Winfred Nicholson’s photograph album (Collection
Jake Nicholson), Tate Archive Photograph Collection.
64. Pablo Picasso, aquarelle from the Saint-Raphaël series, 1919.
65. Barbara Hepworth, Sculpture with Colour (Deep Red and Blue), 1940, Tate. Plaster and
string on plaster base, 105 x 149 x 105 mm.
66. Ben Nicholson, 1943-45 (St Ives, Cornwall), Tate. Oil paint and graphite on canvas,
406 x 502 mm.
67. Pablo Picasso, Playing Cards, Glasses, Bottle of Rum: "Vive la France", 1914-15, The
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Oil and sand on canvas, 521 x 635 mm.
68. George L.K. Morris, Untitled, 1938, Collection of Judith-Ann Corrente. Oil on canvas,
762 x 559 mm.
69. George L.K. Morris, New England Church, 1935-46, The Fred Jones Jr. Museum of
Art, the University of Oklahoma. Oil on canvas, 914 x 762 mm.
70. Ben Nicholson, 1936 (painting), Philadelphia Museum of Art. Oil on canvas on panel,
381 x 508 mm.
71. Amédée Ozenfant, Vases, 1925, Museum of Modern Art, New York. Oil on canvas,
1305 x 975 mm.
72. Ben Nicholson, 14 March 1947 (still life – spotted curtain), Aberdeen Art Gallery &
Museums Collections. Oil and graphite on board, 597 x 640 mm.
73. Barbara Hepworth at the unveiling of Single Form, 1961-64, UN Secretariat, New York
1964.
74. Installation of Barbara Hepworth’s works at the V Bienal, Museu de Arte Moderna, São
Paulo, 1959.
75. Unveiling of Single Form, 1961-64, UN Secretariat, New York 1964.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
As an AHRC-funded Collaborative Doctoral Award candidate, I have worked between the
University of York and Tate. I am foremost thankful to my supervisors, Chris Stephens and
Michael White, for facilitating this process as educators, professional mentors and experts in
their own fields.
Throughout this project Sara Matson (Curator, Tate St Ives) has been a constant source of
knowledge and support. Working with her on International Exchanges (Tate St Ives, 2014)
developed several ideas and provided invaluable curatorial insight. Similarly, working with
Helena Bonett (Ph.D. Candidate, Tate) on a series of seminars exploring legacies of modern art
in St Ives has introduced me to new methods and areas of interest. A few other individuals are
owed special thanks: Natalie Adamson, Elizabeth Bicher, Susanna Broom, James Finch, Sabina
Gill, Teresa Gleadowe, Mel Gooding, Helen Griffiths, Rose Hilton, Susan Lintott, Nigel
Llewelyn, Voon Pow-Bartlett, Ailsa Roberts, Jeanie Sinclair, Catherine Spencer, Robert Sutton,
Amy Tobin, Sarah Victoria Turner and Jonathan Vernon have each shaped a supportive research
community.
I have relied on the help of staff at countless archives and libraries. I am especially grateful to
everyone at the Tate Library and Archive. Artists’ estates have similarly granted access to
invaluable resources. I am thankful to Alan and Sarah Bowness, and Martin and Maureen
Lanyon, who have responded to my interests with enthusiasm and guidance. Sophie Bowness is
due particular thanks for responding so kindly to countless queries and requests.
This work would not have been possible without the help of an anonymous individual whose
support came at such an important time. To them I express my gratitude and certainty that their
generosity and active kindness will continue to inspire me in my life and work. I am constantly
encouraged by the interests and outlook of my family and friends. I particularly thank Alwyn
Hamilton and Tempe Nell for their care and creative sparks. This thesis is dedicated to my
mother, Genie Smith.
AUTHOR’S DECLARATION
I declare that this thesis is a presentation of original work and I am the sole author. This work
has not previously been presented for an award at this, or any other, University. All sources are
acknowledged as References.
Excerpts from the conclusion of this thesis have previously appeared in the below published
chapter.
Rachel Smith, ‘Sculpting for an International Community: Exhibitions through the 1960s’, in
Curtis, P. and Stephens, C. (eds). Barbara Hepworth. Sculpture for a Modern World, exh. cat.
(London, Tate Gallery, 2015): 90–97.
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INTRODUCTION
This thesis examines the contribution of artists living in St Ives, a harbour town in West
Cornwall, to international artistic communities and modernist movements as they extended over
time and crossed geographical boundaries. It considers the processes, meanings and effects of
contact between artists in St Ives and their collaborators, and positions artworks within
networks connecting key modernist precedents to shared contemporary concerns. Without
disputing the significance of the place of St Ives, which often satisfied artists’ practical,
aesthetic, personal or political concerns, it deconstructs boundaries constructed by notions of art
as belonging to or emerging from rigid concepts of geographical location and period. Positing
an alternative to previous literature on ‘St Ives art’, it reimagines and reconstructs connections
and conversations which reflect the ways artworks connect across time and place. In doing so, it
establishes a mode for thinking about the role of St Ives within a chain of modernist
movements, and the implications of St Ives’s relationship with these movements for studies of
its artistic community as a unified modernist group.
This introduction first presents existing scholarship on modern art in St Ives in texts and
exhibitions, and my own experience co-curating an exhibition at Tate St Ives. Secondly, it
outlines the theoretical and practical use of studies centred on concepts and experiences of
place, hybridity and mobility and the role of network theory for my considerations of ‘local’ and
‘international’ artistic communities. Next, it reflects upon the art historical and curatorial tool of
mapping artists and art movements upon geographical and temporal scales, before introducing
my own approach to relationships across time and place. It then outlines my research methods
and use of key terms, before describing the structure of this thesis and its limitations.
i. LITERATURE AND DISPLAYS
The existing literature on art and St Ives in the twentieth century is entwined with the history of
its display, especially through its changing relationship with Tate. Until fairly recently, writings
and displays have taken an inward-looking view, tracing the development of the town’s artistic
communities and privileging the idea that artists and artworks were intrinsically formed by the
local area. The Tate Gallery’s 1985 exhibition St Ives 1939-1964: Twenty Five Years of
Painting, Sculpture and Pottery formed the institution’s first substantial attempt to narrate this
history.1 This exhibition presented St Ives as an artists’ colony with its own local history, which
1 St Ives 1939-1964: Twenty Five Years of Painting, Sculpture and Pottery, Tate Gallery, London, 13
February–14 April 1985.
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was emphasised in the exhibition catalogue by the inclusion of a ‘personal memoir’ by local
resident and art critic David Lewis and a chronology of local events.
Just months before this exhibition opened came the publication of a portrait of the town,
Painting the Warmth of the Sun: St Ives Artists 1930-1975 (1984) by Tom Cross, which was
accompanied by a three-part television series produced by Television South West.2 Taking their
title from a letter written by the artist John Wells, both the book and programme series privilege
the view that St Ives was a landscape setting for artistic production and subject to be depicted.
The introduction by Cross begins with a comment by a nineteenth-century visitor to the town:
‘Seldom have I enjoyed a sea view more than when descending the hill that overlooks the town
of St Ives.’3 Together, these projects created a strong reading of the local place as the prime
determinant of the artists’ works and as the central unifying force between their works. This
thesis refutes this perspective on both accounts.
Following Millbank and Liverpool, Tate opened their third site in St Ives in 1993, and this
reinforced the association of a range of artists with the local landscape. Tate St Ives has since
become the institutional face of the town’s artistic heritage and the town has developed a public
image strongly related to this aspect of its past. In this regard, the building’s location and
architecture has had a profound effect. A white modernist building sited just beyond the beach
and curved-fronted like a shell or lighthouse, Tate St Ives has become a cultural beacon
representing the town and attracting visitors from afar (Fig. 1). Incorporating a sweeping view
of the Atlantic and infused with natural light, the surrounding landscape enters the Gallery to be
experienced alongside the work on display. Designed to be porous, the Gallery’s public spaces
are open in different ways to the changing conditions of light and weather, to the coastal rhythm
of tides or vessels, and to seasonal changes upon the beach, the town and its inhabitants. In
Memorial Museums: the Global Rush to Commemorate Atrocities (2007), Paul Williams defines
‘sited-ness’ as a ‘non-verbal’ or ‘particularly visible sense of spatial orchestration’ that
distinguishes the museum’s means of historical narration.4 While the ‘sited-ness’ of Tate St Ives
contributes a great deal to visitors’ experiences, its visual openness to the Atlantic coast also
reflects the dominance of the landscape in earlier accounts. Today, as the centrality of local
place to modern and contemporary art in St Ives is being challenged, the Gallery’s architecture
has proven especially difficult to counteract.5
2 The series was first shown on Channel 4 and each programme took a different subtitle: ‘St Ives’ (first
broadcast on 7 April 1985), ‘The Years of Development’ (8 April 1985) and ‘The Middle Generation’ (9
April 1985). 3 A visitor to St Ives, c.1832, quoted in Cross, [1984] 1995: 9. 4 Williams, 2007: 77. 5 In 2009, artist Heimo Zobernig responded directly to this challenge, in an exhibition at Tate St Ives
which combined works from the Tate collection, his own work and interventions to the gallery space.
Recognising the dominance of the sweeping Atlantic view in one of the galleries, he partially obscured
the view with a red curtain normally used in film and television production. He responded to the
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Publications which followed the opening of Tate St Ives continued to describe an artistic history
foregrounded in the local place, landscape and local communities. In St Ives:…