Microcomputers and Local Government: A Handbook ...

University of Nebraska at OmahaDigitalCommons@UNO

Publications Archives, 1963-2000 Center for Public Affairs Research

1984

Microcomputers and Local Government: AHandbook -- Instructors' ManualDonald F. NorrisUniversity of Nebraska at Omaha

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Recommended CitationNorris, Donald F., "Microcomputers and Local Government: A Handbook -- Instructors' Manual" (1984). Publications Archives,1963-2000. 248.https://digitalcommons.unomaha.edu/cparpubarchives/248

r:1%~RD r:'IPLirTE -

AND LOCAL GO . NMENT:

A HANDBOOK

INSTRUCTOR'S

MANUAL

CENTER fOR ~PPLI£0 ~fff,R£S£ARCH

By Donald F. Norris

Development of this handbook was supported by a grant from theW. K. Kellogg Foundation.

NOTES TO INSTRUCTORS

This handbook, and its accompanying instructor's manual, was written to be used with a one- or two-day workshop on microcomputers and local governments. The handbook was designed· for the local government official with little or no familiarity with micro­computers and their applications to the world of government.

The instructor's manual differs from the participants' handbook in three respects. First, the instructor's manual contains "Notes to Instructors" and brief introductions preceding each chapter outlining the contents and providing a few suggestions about ways to teach the material.

Second, throughout the instructor's manual, circled numbers appear in the margins of the text. These refer to the overhead transparencies that accompany the manual. The number is a signal to the instructor to use the appropriately numbered overhead at that point.

Third, a complete set of printed versions of the overheads is included. These may be made into transparent slides for use in the workshop.

Othetwise, the participants' handbook is identical to the instructor's manual. A 16 mm. color film entitled "The Personal Touch: Microcomputers and Local

Government" has been produced to accompany the workshop. This film may be purchased or rented from the Center for Applied Urban Research at the University of Nebraska at Omaha. The film (or its videotape version) is recommended for use as an introduction to the workshop as it closely parallels the handbook and provides a brief but clear introduction to micros and local governments. The film should help students to grasp more readily the concepts that are taught in the workshop.

In conducting the workshop, instructors should encourage participants to ask questions AT ANY TIME DURING THE PROGRJ\¥. Instructors. sjlould be especially sensitive· to participants' possible fear of asking questions that might appear to indicate their ignorance of microcomputers.

Instructors should not use technical computer jargon. As limiting as this mighr.berthe excessive use of jargon is guaranteed to lose participants or worse, to turn them off or make them hostile. When the use of jargon ~is necessary, carefully' define terms employed and relate them to everyday words that ordinary persons can understand.

Instructors should use examples, lots of examples, concrete examples, especially examples from governmental organizati.Pns.

This workshop is for governmental managers and administrators who need to know a little about the technology and a lot about how to acquire it safely and use it intelligently. Instructors should be especially careful about getting too technical.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

Acknowledgements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv

I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 A. The Micro Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 B. Microcomputers and Local Governments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 C. Purposes of this Handbook. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

II. Computers and Data Processing: A Primer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 A. Data Processing and Information Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 B. Uses of Information in Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 C. Evolution of Computer Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 D. Functions of a Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Ill. Microcomputer Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 A. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 B. The Computer System...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 C. Microcomputer Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

IV. Microcomputer Software... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 A. Software .................. ·. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 B. Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 C. Local Government Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 D. Processing Modes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

V. Procurement Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 A. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 B. Procurement Steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 C. Microcomputer Sales and Support. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 D. Where to Get Help. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

VI. Issues of Importance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 A. Hardware Expandability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 B. Hardware Compatibility 37 C. Software Adaptability and Transportability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 D. Documentation... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 E. Training. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 8 F. Functional Limitations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 G. Technological Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 H. Policies on Micros.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Appendices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 A. Data Processing Analysis and Recommendations

for the City of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 B. Request for Proposal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 C. Specifications for a Microcomputer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 D. Evaluation of Proposals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 6 E. Software License Agreement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 F. Microcomputer Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 G. Microcomputer Software Vendors for Local Governments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

11

PREFACE

This handbook has its origins in a conversation between the author and Dr. Theodore Maher in the spring of 1981. The conversation centered on the role that we believed soon would be played by microcomputers in local governments and the concomitant need for training and technical assistance in the acquisition and use of microcomputers.

Data on local government microcomputer ownership, some of which are reported in this handbook, have sustained our intuitive feeling of three years ago that these marvelous devices would quickly be acquired by cities and counties throughout the country. Current projections suggest that microcomputer acquisition by governmental organizations will continue unabated for some time.

Following up on the conversation with Ted Maher proved at once easier and more frustrating than imagined. Development of a concept paper for a project to develop training and technical assistance materials and programs on microcomputers and local government was a fairly straightforward enterprise. Securing funding to carry it out, however, proved more difficult. Happily, the W.K. Kellogg Foundation saw merit in the project and in July, 1982 awarded the University of Nebraska's Center for Applied Urban Research a two-year grant for it. This handbook is one of several components of that project.

The handbook was written to be used as part of a one- or two-day workshop on micro­computers in local government for persons with little or no familiarity with the subject. It was also designed so that it could be used as a stand-alone document for persons who are more well-versed in the technology. The standard documents in the Appendix were developed from demonstration projects in the acquisition of microcomputer systems by small local governments. They are provided for use by governmental organizations in determining their computing needs and in acquiring microcomputer systems.

An instructor's version of the handbook, for use by persons who intend to conduct workshops, is available. It contains suggestions for presenting the materials and includes all of the visual aids (overhead transparencies) used in the workshop.

A 20-minute color film (and videotape), entitled "The Personal Touch: Microcom­puters and Local Government," is also available. The film closely parallels the handbook and can be used as part of the workshop for governmental officials or as an introduction to microcomputers for local governmental officials, school organizations, and civic groups.

iii

Donald F. Norris Omaha, Nebraska June, 1984

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Development of this handbook involved several persons whose efforts the author wishes to acknowledge. David R. DiMartino played a major role in developing the standard documents for acquisition of microcomputer systems found in the Appendix, either authoring or co-authoring all of them. Robert Hober compiled the list of software vendors and called all vendors to confirm their offerings. Richard E. Yeager and Herbert A. Allaire of American Fundware, Inc., consented to the use of a modified version of their standard software agreement, and Michael Carpenter, MIS director of the city of Omaha, agreed to the use of a modified version of his specifications for purchase of a microcomputer.

B.]. Reed, associate professor of public administration at UNO, and Vincent]. Webb, director of the Center for Applied Urban Research, David R. DiMartino, Michael Carpenter, and members of the project advisory committee reviewed the draft manuscript and provided many helpful comments that have been incorporated in the final version of the handbook.

Marian Meier edited the author's prose and, as always, improved its readability. Mrs. Meier also supervised production of the handbook and developed the index. She was assisted by Tammy Wiles, Denita Walker, Theresa LaHood, and Patricia DeLancey.

Joyce Carson did the typesetting for the entire text and the Appendices. Initial drafts were prepared by Loni Saunders. Artwork was provided by Bruce McCorkindale, UNO undergraduate student.

Finally, special thanks are due to Dr. Gary W. King, project director, W. K. Kellogg Foundation, for his faith in and support for this project.

!V

PROJECT ADVISORY COMMITTEE

The persons listed below deserve separate acknowledgement because of the role they played as reviewers and advisors. Their assistance began with informal discussions with the author and included numerous telephone conversations, group meetings, and review of the manuscript for the handbook. Along the way, they provided sound advice that helped to shape not only this handbook but also the larger project of which it is a part.

NATIONAL LOCAL GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATION REPRESENTATIVES

Mr. Don Borut International City Management Association

Mr. Jeff Fletcher National League of Cities

Mr. Jeffrey Shiff National Association of Towns and Townships

Dr. Costis Toregas Public Technology, Inc.

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE REPRESENTATIVE

Dr. Theodore J. Maher Community and Rural Development Agricultural Extension Service

UNIVERSITY TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE AND EXTENSION REPRESENTATIVES

Dr. Donald B. Erickson Department of Economics Kansas State University

Dr. Alvin House Department of Agricultural Economics Michigan State University

Mr. Michael T. Pentecost Municipal Technical Advisory Service University of Tennessee

Mr. Robert Sellers Institute of Government University of Georgia

Dr. Jack Whitmer Extension Political Scientist Iowa State University

v

NOTES TO INSTRUCTORS

Chapter I. Introduction

The introductory chapter is general in nature and designed to open the subject of micros in a non-threatening manner. It provides clues to the popularity of micros in govern­ment, data from recent surveys of microcomputer use, and findings from demonstration projects in microcomputer adoption and use in local governments.

The purposes and limitations of the handbook (and, implicitly, the workshop, also) are stated. These bear emphasis by the instructor. The purposes are:

1) to provide an overview of computers and data processing-especially for the local official with limited (or no) prior exposure to this complex subject; 2) to provide an introduction to microcomputers and their uses and limitations in governmental organizations; and 3) to provide a set of tested guidelines and procurement documents for governmental officials to use in acquiring microcomputer systems. Workshop participants should be reminded that the workshop is at the introductory

level and that persons with a fair amount of knowledge about computers may be disap­pointed, that the handbook and workshop are not technical in nature but instead are aimed at the needs of governmental managers and administrators, and that no one will walk away from the workshop as an instant expert in the subject of micros and government.

I. Introduction A. THE MICRO REVOLUTION

I n 1976, two young Californians named Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak started a revolution.

It was a quiet revolution ... no shots were fired ... no demonstrations occurred . .. there were no casualties, but it was a revolution nevertheless . ..

data from recent studies indicate that large numbers of local governments will purchase micros in the next few years. 3

B. MICROCOMPUTERS AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS

a revolution that will have long-lasting results. A great deal of information exists on micro-That year these two young men developed the computers. Much of it is sales literature aimed at Apple, the first commercially successful micro- persuading people to buy them. Otber material computer.1 fJ\ is written by vendors, consultants, and reporters

~ for tbe popular media. Between the development of tbe world's

first computer in 1946 and the introduction of the Apple, about 500,000 computers of all kinds were installed. Between 1976 and 1984 over 10 million microcomputers were sold, 20 times the number of larger computers tbat had sold in the first 30 years of electronic computing. 2

Microcomputers, also known as personal com­puters, are affecting tbe way organizations do their work in a number of ways. Most importantly, they have brought computing or data processing to

a "personal" level. That is, for a few hundred to a few thousand dollars, persons who are not pro­grammers, systems analysts, or technicians can acquire computer systems that can be easily used to perform a wide range of tasks more rapidly, more accurately, and more efficiently than witb any otber available technology.

Micros offer potentially numerous benefits to their users. However, sales are far ahead of sociery's knowledge of tbese machines and how to acquire and use them effectively. This is especially true among America's local governments. Yet,

1

Information from tbese sources tends to contain f2\ four common themes: 1) micros are inexpensive-\.!:_) almost anyone can afford one, 2) micro sales are growing rapidly-almost everybody has one, 3) micros are easy to use-almost anybody can use one, and 4) micros have tremendous capabilities­almost anybody can do almost anything witb one.

Escaping this literature is difficult. Whether watching television, waiting in a dentist's office, riding in an airplane, or just reading tbe daily newspaper, people are bombarded witb informa­tion about micros.

One unfortunate aspect of this material is that very little of it is based on hard research into the acquisition and use of microcomputers. Instead, it is based on opinion, speculation, and superficial observation. Happily, a body of research-based information on the acquisition and use of micro­computers in local governments is beginning to appear. The following paragraphs present some of the more salient findings of that research.

First, according to two recent studies, relatively(3\ few local governments own and use micros. A 1982 \V study for the International Ciry Management Association found that 13 percent of ciry govern-

ments had them. In 1983 the University of Nebraska at Omaha's Center for Applied Urban Research determined that 7 percent of cities under 50,000 and counties under 10~000 in the plains and mountain states had micros.

1982 STUDY - 13 percent of city govern­ments had micros.

1983 STUDY - 7 percent of cities under 50,000 and counties under 100,000 had micros.

This relatively meager use of microcomputers by local governments is not surprising. Micros have been on the market only a few years, and local government use of new technology generally lags behind that of other sectors of society. However, by another measure, local government use of micros fares relatively well. According to the president of Apple Computer, John Sculley, only about 7 percent of Americans used micros in their homes or in their jobs in 1983 5

Second, according to the ICMA study three brands constituted the majority of micros used by local governments. These were Apple, IBM, and Radio Shack. 6 These three companies have the largest share of the nationwide microcomputer market so their presence in large numbers in local governments should not be surprising.

Third, micros were used primarily for word processing and financial management.7 Although many other functions were reported, few local governments used their systems extensively. Two of the reasons for this are that micros are typically single user, single function systems, and that most of the currently available program­ming is for word processing or related to financial management.

Fourth, the University of Nebraska atr4' Omaha survey found that 11 percent of small \.V cities and counties planned to buy micro­computers in the next two years while the ICMA survey set the figure at 3 5 percent of city governments. a This means that a substantial market potential

exists among local governments. It also means that as many as three times the number of current local government microcomputer users will actively be seeking such systems.

Demonstration projects in microcomputer acquisition and use in small local governments in Nebraska have also produced findings of interest and value.

First, and perhaps most important, a new class of microcomputer sales organizations has begun to appear in the local government marketplace. These organizations, patterned after the OEM's for minicomputers, offer "turnkey" systems and "packaged" applica­tion software designed specifically for local government activities.

OEM - original equipment manufacturer Turnkey vendor - sells a complete system Packaged software - programming written

for a specific function

OEM stands for original equipment manufac· turer, but in the world of computers it is often a misnomer. A computer OEM usually is an organi­zation that develops programming for particular brands of hardware and then adds this program­ming to the hardware and sells the hardware and software together. OEM's are also turnkey vendors. That is, they sell a complete system, install it, provide user and operator training, and turn the

0

----· ----------------------------·- ftad1elhaeK l

~~~ppla computczr 1nc.

2

system over to its owner, providing continuing support as required. Packaged software is pro­gramming that is written and sold as a package to perform a specific function, such as fund account­ing or payroll, but with sufficient flexibility to be used by organizations that have differing comput­ing requirements. The next few years can expect to see an increase in the number of microcomputer OEM's, turnkey firms, and developers of packaged programming designed for the local government market.

A second finding of the Nebraska demon­strations is that .microcomputers are not appropriate solutions to the computing needs of all classes and sizes of local government or for all governmental functions. For some governments and some governmental

activities, mainframes or mm1computers are required. While no magic formula exists to determine whether to use a micro, mini, or main­frame, the size of the organization, the size of the data base, and the number and complexity of the activities to be performed are important indicators. The larger the organization, the larger the data base, and the more numerous and complex the activities, the more likely a larger computer will be required.

Finally, the Nebraska projects have shown that with adequate outside technical assis· tance or in-house expertise, small local governments can use the procurement method discussed later in this handbook to determine their computing requirements and acquire and implement microcomputer systems.

C. PURPOSES OF THIS HANDBOOK CD The history of local government use of com­

puter technology is filled with examples of both successes and failures. The successes show that computers can be used effectively and efficiently, provide valuable information for management purposes, and do the work of scores of people. Indeed, many local governments would find doing without their computers impossible and would find the cost of replacing computer performed functions with personnel to be prohibi-

3

tive. The failures of compu_ ter systems in local government include examples of systems that were too costly, systems that failed to perform up to reasonable expectations, hardware inadequacies, software failures, and worse.

The question confronting local governments today is how to ensure that the acquisition and use of microcomputers can be successful. This hand­book and its accompanying training program are dedicated to this question.

The purposes of this handbook are: 1) to provide an overview of computers and

data processing, 2) to introduce readers and workshop partici­

pants to microcomputers, their potential uses in governmental organizations, and their limitations, and

3) to provide a set of procurement guidelines for local governments that plan to acquire microcomputer systems.

The handbook will delve into the functions of computers, look at recent research findings on computer use in local governments, examine the technology of the microcomputer, describe different rypes of hardware and software, and review some of the more important issues concern­ing microcomputer use in local government. The appendices contain sections covering different types of microcomputer hardware and provide standard documents for the acquisition of micro· computer systems.

This handbook is designed to accompany a one- or two-day workshop for governmental officials. It has also been written to be read independently of a workshop by the governmental official who has a modicum of knowledge about data processing and microcomputers.

Several things should be borne in mind about this handbook. It is written at the introductMy level and presumes that the reader has little know­ledge of micros and their use. It is not a tecbnical book, so persons with technical backgrounds and extensive experience in computers and data pro­cessing may be disappointed. It does not address such issues as chip technology, internal system architecture, programming, data communication, and other essentially technical issues. Instead,

its principal focus is one of simplifying an other- government. More than this should not be wise complex and often incomprehensible subject expected. In fact, the interested reader should so that potential users who are not technical seek information about microcomputers from experts will become more knowledgeable about several sources. These include books and periodicals how to acquire and use microcomputers. on micros, calls and visits to oilier governments

This handbook will not make the reader an f"7\ that use them, and visits to microcomputer sales instant expert. It will provide useful information \..V outlets. The potential user is urged to ask ques-about a difficult subject, provide a key to the tions, examine systems, and actually sit down at jargon or specialized language associated with the terminals of various microcomputers and try computer technology, and it will address a number out programs that are offered on them. of management issues involved in computer use in

4

NOTES TO INSTRUCTORS

Chapter II. Computers and Data Processing: A Primer

This chapter deals with four major topics: data processing and information manage­ment, the uses of information in organizations, the evolution of computer technology, and the principal functions of computers.

The major theme that the· instructor should emphasize is that COMPUTERS EXIST TO PROVIDE INFORMATION FOR MANAGEMENT PURPOSES in organizations. There­fore, users need to know what data processing is, what information is, what information management consists of, and how information is or can be or should be used in organiza­tions.

The section on the evolution of the technology is provided to give participants some sense of the history of this rapidly changing technology and also to inform them of the differences between earlier, larger, more forbidding computers and today's small, easy­to-use micros. In this section, the instructor should not emphasize the technical elements of that evolution but rather the differences in function and capability that each new genera­tion of computers has made available.

The discussion of the functions of a computer, although brief, is very important. Instructors will note that the cartoon on page 10 (also an overhead transparency) is closely related to the text and should be so used. For each of the technical functions of the com­puter a corresponding function exists in the "everyday" system that most people are familiar with. Use of this cartoon provides an easy and comfortable way to break the technical ice by using a graphic example easily understood by most persons to describe the computer's function.

II. Computers and Data Processing: A Primer A. DATA PROCESSING AND

INFORMATION MANAGEMENT

A LL LOCAL GOVERNMENT personnel, especially those in management positions,

The purpose of data processing-to provide complete, accurate, and reliable information for management purposes.

are regnlarly involved in data processing whether improving efficiency, reducing or holding down or not they know it. This is true for users of the number of personnel, recognizing that auto-manual systems as well as those who have com- mation is the only feasible means of getting a puters. particular job done, and peer pressure.

Data processing means the collection, 0 For routine data processing activities such as compilation, and manipulation of diverse processing payroll checks or water bills, the first facts available to an organization in order to goal of management is often to improve methods produce information. of performing repetitive tasks on voluminous

Information is a coherent, organized body f9\ data. Only secondarily does management consider of data that provides its user with knowledge \.V producing information for decision-making pur-about an event, activity, or phenomenon. poses. Yet, even in these routine areas, data pro-What does this really mean? Whenever data and cessing produces valuable information.

information are discussed, an old comedy routine An automated payroll system should give infer-about partial sports scores comes to mind. 9 A mation about total payroll costs and payroll partial score might read as follows: Lions 17. by department, function, project, and class of Partial scores are data. That is, they are diverse employee, and more. An automated water billing facts lacking coherence and organization. system should furnish information on volumes of

Information, on the other hand, would be water used by dass of customer, increases or the complete score: Lions 17-Packers 14. Infor- decreases in total water use, seasonal use variations, mation is made up of data, but it is complete, and percent of customers with overdue bills. coherent, and organized in an understandable and These are just a few examples of information usable manner. that should be made available to local government

Information is a- valuable resource. Complete, from two relatively routine data processing accurate information will enable governmental activities. What is true of these activities, of course, officials and personnel to make sound decisions is also true of others-data processing should regarding the organization and its activities. provide useful information for management

The purpose of data processing, especially purposes. automated data processing, should be to provide complete, accurate, and reliable information for management purposes. Organizations use data processing systems for

other reasons as well. These include cutting costs,

Data processing should provide useful infer-mation for management purposes.

5

®

What is meant by management purposes? The definition used here is anything that a local govern­ment's decision-makers and managers decide they need to know in order to do their jobs. Returning to the example of payroll processing, payroll information by project enables managers to under­take project cost accounting to ensure that a specific task, like a street resurfacing, is completed within the budget. This is information for manage­ment purposes.

Management purposes-anything that a local government's decision-makers and managers decide they need to know in order to do their jobs.

B. USES OF INFORMATION IN ORGANIZATIONS

Information can be used in many different ways and for many different purposes. The nature and purposes of the information vary with the type of organization. A sales organization will be interested in such things as inventory control, sales figures, gross receipts, net profit, and so on. A physician's office will want to have accurate patient records and also be able to calculate patient bills. A school system will want to maintain student records and do class scheduling, and on and on.

Two fundamental types of information manage­ment, regardless of organization, are housekeeping activities and decision-making activities.

Housekeeping activities include a variety of mundane, everyday functions that nearly all organizations perform.

HOUSEKEEPING ACTIVITIES • budgetary accounting • general ledger accounting • accounts payable • cash management and accounts receivable • payroll • personnel management • utility billing and accounting • tax billing and collection • departmental record keeping • word processing.

®

With the exceptions of word processing and certain aspects of departmental record keeping and personnel management, housekeeping activities are mainly concerned with financial management or preparing for and controlling the flow of funds to, within, and from a governmental organization.

Small governments and smaller sub-units within larger governments may perform these functions without computerization, but almost all larger governments use computers.

Decision-making activities are significantly different from housekeeping activities. The former may use much of the same information as the latter but their purpose is different. The purpose of budgetary accounting, a routine housekeeping activity, is to produce information about actual revenue and expenditures in relation to their

@budgeted (or projected) occurrence and in relation to the previous year's actual occurrence.

6

DECISION-MAKING ACTIVITIES • spreadsheet programs • data base management • decision support

Budget preparation, on the other hand, is a decision-making activity. Persons involved in the budgetary process will use data from the budgetary accounting system but will not stop there. Their

@

principal objective is to project future budgetary conditions. To do so, these persons will ask "what if" questions about future revenue and expendi­tures. Where the purpose of budgetary accounting is essentially to keep track of existing financial conditions, budget preparation attempts to provide information so that policy-makers can decide what to do in planning for the next budget cycle.

In the world of microcomputers, spreadsheet programs (such as VisiCalc, Multiplan and others) enable local government personnel to prepare their budgets by asking questions like: "What if all personnel receive a 5 percent raise?" "What if the cost of fringe benefits increases by 10 percent?" "What if tax revenues decline by 1 percent?" Spreadsheet programs allow managers to receive immediate answers to the effects of these "what if" conditions. Armed with this information, policy-makers can plan more knowledgeably for the coming year's budget.

Another example of decision-making using microcomputers is data base management. Two examples of data base management programs are dBASE II and DBMaster. They enable local govern­mental personnel to use standard English-like commands to create their own files, sort through files on a system, produce unique reports, combine data from separate files, and perform many other functions.

Reflect, for a moment, on the difficulty manually sorting through personnel records to complete federally required Equal Employment Opportunity reports. In one medium size city, these reports were prepared each year by a personnel technician who physically reviewed each of more than 2,500 personnel files to extract required information. A data base management

7

program can change this from a major task to a relatively short and simple exercise.

Data base management programs can also simplify other activities by providing information quickly and in a form desired by management. Like spreadsheet programs, they provide informa­tion for decision-making purposes. However, housekeeping activities far outweigh decision­making activities in current local governmental use of computers. Yet, the highest and most sophisticated use of microcomputers may well be to aid in decision-making.

C. EVOLUTION OF COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY

The world's first electronic computer, which became operational in 1946, was called ENIAC, standing for electronic numerical integrator and calculator. It was a huge machine, containing thousands of vacuum tubes. It weighed 30 tons, was hard-wired for up to 6,000 individual switches, and was kept in a large, environmentally controlled

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room. It operated at a speed in the millisecond range (1/lOOOth of a second) which, while slow by today's standards, was considerably faster than most people can balance their checkbooks.10

In the span of a single generation, computer technology has gone through four distinct develop­mental stages or technological generations. First generation vacuum tubes were replaced in the late 1950's by second generation transistors. The third generation was born in the mid-1960's when solid logic technology reduced the electronic innards of the computer to silicon chips, and integrated circuits replaced transistors.

The fourth generation of computer technology followed rapidly on the heels of the third and is based on what is called VLSI or very large scale integration. Using sophisticated photo-etching techniques, circuits containing the equivalent of tens of thousands of transistors can be placed on a silicon wafer the size of a fingernail. This has also made possible the latest revolution in com-

8

puter technology-the microprocessor or computer on a chip.

With each new generation, computers have become faster, smaller, less expensive, more reliable, and easier to use. Hence, computer tech­nology is one of the few areas of the economy where price has actually declined in relation to capabiliry in the past three decades. This has led, in part, to the increasing adoption and use of computers.

The state-of-the-art in commercially available@ computers is equipment or hardware based on VLSI. These can be either mainframes, mini- f1ij\ computers, or microcomputers. Their internal~ speed is currently in the nano- or pico-second range (one-billionth or one-trillionth of a second), and they can be accessed by an operator through a standard cathode ray tube (CRT) or computer terminal. Prices for state-of-the-art equipment range from a few hundred dollars for microcom­puters to several millions for super computers.

D. FUNCTIONS OF A COMPUTER report in the "out" basket. The report is delivered

COMPUTER FUNCTIONS ®to other persons in the organization and used by them I •

• Input • Processing • Storage • Output

A computer is an electronic device capable of performing four basic functions:

• input-placing data into the system • processing-manipulation of data • storage-maintenance of data • output-retrieval of data and information. These functions are performed using electronic

media or devices (computer terminals, disk drives, printers, and others). The use of electronic devices often gives rise .to confusion and apprehension. However, information management on a computer is conceptually no different from using a pencil and paper, a calculator, and a file cabinet.

On page 10 is an example of information@ management using the basic technology available to most organizations in their daily activities with-out the use of a computer. The data input function is analogous to the "in" basket sitting on the desk. This is where data, in the form of diverse facts and figures, arrive for consideration and action.

Processing occurs ·using a pencil and paper, a calculator, and a human brain. In this function the data are converted to information. An example might be a clerk or manager receiving overtime reports from various departments. These reports contain data. Manipulation or processing of these data will produce documents reporting on overtime use by department, project, and program, and will allow analysis of overtime against the current year's budget and in comparison to last year's budget. This type of information is something that many organizations would find valuable since it can be used to maximize operational efficiency. Data processing, whether manual or automated, is required to produce information from raw data.

Data and information storage in this system is handled in manila file folders that are kept in the vertical filing cabinet.

Output is the placing of a printed or typed

9

The major differences between informationf'jg\ management using the basic technology shown~ on page 10 and using an electronic computer are:

• Speed-computers are thousands of times faster than manual systems.

• Accuracy-computers calculate with a high degree of precision and are extremely reten­tive. That is, they do not forget unless they are told to do so. This also means that they will act on bad programming and data just as well as good.

• Efficiency-computers can perform the work of several people-even tens or hundreds.

• Equipment-instead of in and out baskets, vertical files, and calculators, data processing on a computer uses CRT's, CPU's, disk drives, and printers. (These and other computer devices will be discussed in greater detail in Chapter III.)

• Complexity-owing primarily to the tech­nology itself, even simple computer systems are far more complex than manual systems. Among other things, this means that good backup and restoration procedures are essential in case the system fails. Knowing what computers are not is also

important. They are not panaceas for the ills of local governmental management. Com­puterization is no substitute for good manage-

@

ment. In fact, using a computer to circumvent bad management practices can make the results of those practices even worse because the computer will act on bad data and pro-grams quickly and accurately, thereby compli-cating the problem. Computers can provide extremely fast, accurate,

and reliable processing, storage, and retrieval of data. They are especially good for work that is repetitive and involves large amounts of data. However, computers cannot make decisions. All they can do is provide organized information to persons who then must make the decisions. The information that computers can provide is limited by the data and software that are on the system.

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NOTES TO INSTRUCTORS

Chapter Ill. Microcomputer Hardware

This is the only TECHNICAL chapter in the handbook. Even so, it is fairly short and the attempt was made to write it in such a way as to avoid intimidating the uninitiated reader.

Explain to workshop participants why they need to learn about the technology of microcomputers. Reasons include that computer sales persons love the technology and the jargon that goes with it. Therefore, local officials should be armed with enough information about the technology to detect when they are not receiving completely accurate and correct answers (whether intentional or unintentional) from whatever sources.

Second, local officials should know the differences among various components of the technology (types of printers or disk drives, for example) in order to make intelligent choices about which component fits an organization's requirements.

Third, various elements of the technology (such as the difference in bit architecture) greatly affect the usability of microcomputers. Hence, the local government official should be acquainted at least at a casual level with the technology in order again to choose among different types of systems.

However, because many reference sources (including this handbook) are available, and because the most important part of the workshop involves the acquisition and use of micros, the instructor should not spend an excessive amount of time discussing technology related ISSUeS.

Nevertheless, here are a few items that the instructor may wish to emphasize: • Bits, bytes, K, memoty, RAM, and ROM are important terms to learn because they

deal with the internal size of the computer, the amount of work it can do, and the speed at which it works.

• Bit architecture is important as it limits or allows multi-user capability and also affects system capacity and speed.

• Peripheral devices (screens, keyboards, mice, floppy and hard disks, printers, modems, etc.) should be discussed in relation to their functions and capabilities and their uses in an organization, recognizing that the marketplace is rapidly changing in terms of ~vailable devices and their costs.

• Although no such thing as a "typical" system exists, a local government will probably not want to go below a minimum configuration of 128K, dual floppy disk drives, a monochrome monitor, and a matrix printer.

• Finally, when presenting this technical chapter, refer to the cartoon on page 10 (and its accompanying overhead) and use it when explaining the function of a particular device. The instructor should endeavor to make the conceptual and unfamiliar concrete by using terms and examples known to the audience.

Ill. Microcomputer Hardware A. INTRODUCTION

T HIS AND THE following chapter are technical in nature. However, they have been written

in order to simplify and demystify computer technology and terminology for local government personnel and, at the same time, present the principal technical concepts and components required for a basic understanding of a computer system.

The reader will not be able to design or build a computer or write programming after reading these chapters, but he or she should come away with a sound grasp of the main elements of a computer system and how it works. Such an under­standing is essential for personnel in the local government that intends to acquire and use a microcomputer.

required tasks. This means that everything is B. THE COMPUTER SYSTEM present that will enable local governmental

personnel to make a payroll, do budgetary One of the first questions typically asked when f2n\ accounting, print utility bills, or perform other

an organization decides to acquire a microcom-\0 functions. puter is, "Which micro should we buy?" A microcomputer system consists of two basic@

3 Ask a computer vendor or salesperson, and the elements. These are hardware including a central answer will very likely be a machine from his or processing unit (or CPU), mass storage devices her company. Ask a software vendor and learn that (usually magnetic disk or tape), terminals (usually the answer is a computer that the vendor's pro- cathode ray tubes or CRT's), printers and possibly gramming runs on. The answer provided here is other peripheral devices; and software or pro-quite different. By and large, the brand of micro· gramming including operating systems and computer matters very little. What matters is that application programs. the system performs the functions that require automation and that it does so at a predetermined C. MICROCOMPUTER HARDWARE level of effectiveness.

The term computer system means the hardware, software, and all other equipment and program­ming necessary for the computer to perform

12

1. Computer on a Chip. The microcomputer@4 gets its name from its principal hardware com­

ponent: the microprocessor. The first micro-

processor was developed in 1971 by Dr. Ted Hoff at the Intel Corporation in California. (Intel remains a major supplier of microprocessors.) Five years later, owing to dramatic increases in

scheme as: ON ON ON

microprocessor capacity, the microcomputer ON industry was born. OFF

OFF OFF ON. The number two (2) looks like this: ON ON ON ON OFF OFF ON OFF. Remember: a byte is a character-number,

letter, or symbol; a byte commonly contains eight bits; a bit is a binary digit representing one of the fundamental properties of electricity.

3. CPU and Memory. The computer's central f2u\ processing unit or CPU is where the work of the~

A microprocessor is a large scale integrated system occurs. The CPU is made up of three circuit containing the basic components of a principal parts. computer. These have been miniaturized and The first is the arithmetical and logical unit photo-etched onto a wafer of silicon about the that performs functions like addition, subtraction, size of a thumbnail. This wafer or chip contains multiplication, and division, and logical functions tens of thousands of miniature electrical switches like comparing numbers with one another to or gates that enable it to hold, read, and process determine lesser or greater than or equal to. data. The second major CPU element is the memory.

2. Bytes and Bits. Data are represented in a{.;;\ This is often referred to as volatile or erasable microcomputer as bits. The word bit stands~ memory. Its principal characteristic is that data for binary digit and symbolizes what enables a are stored there temporarily while being manipu-computer to function: the binary property of lated. Like the old fashioned chalk board, data electricity-it is either on or off. Computers are placed in memory, arithmetical or logical read bits of data in terms of their electrical functions are performed, and the data are removed character, whether current is off or on at a switch or erased. or gate. Memory in the computer is usually discussed

Eight bits are combined in computers to form a in terms of K or thousands of bytes (lK, however, byte. A byte (a combination of eight bits in on-or- actually equals 1,024 bytes, but when the industry off positions) is used to represent a letter, number, speaks of K, it usually rounds downward to the or symbol. Hence, a byte is a character. Characters nearest thousand units). Finally, memory exists in are determined according to the arrangement of multiples of 2K-4, 8, 16, 32 and so on. Typically, bits in a byte. For example, the number one (1) is the larger the number of K in a computer's represented in one common eight bit coding memory, the more work it can do.

13

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

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·-------------------Usable memory in a computer is known as RAM@7 Similarly, the buyer should learn how much

for random access memory. RAM means that the memory is required for the operating system, to computer's CPU can place data at any location in memory and by knowing the location or "address" can also retrieve the data. Both CPU and disk storage memory are based on RAM.

Another term to know is ROM. This stands for read only memory. ROM is memory in the CPU that cannot be used to store information. Typically, ROM holds machine instructions, such as the operating system, that must be present in memory in order for the computer to function.

In most of the major systems now on the market the ROM required for machine instructions is provided over and above the advertised system memory. However, not all systems are configured in this way, so the potential buyer should determine how much, if any, of the advertised memory is in ROM. Since ROM is not usable memory, the amount of ROM should be deducted from the adver­tised amount of memory in order to determine how much usable memory or RAM remains.

14

operate peripheral devices, and to run application programs. In this way, an organization can determine the amount of CPU memory required for its microcomputer. For example, in a 64K machine, 8K may be required for the operating system and 8K for an applications program, leaving 48K for storage and processing of data.

The third part of the CPU is the control unit. The control unit, or controller, tells the computer what to do and how to do it-for example, to get data, to perform certain functions on the data, to return data to mass storage, or to place data on the CRT. The controller is the traffic cop of the system.

4. 8- and 16-Bit Micros. At least three different(.;;\ types of computers are found in today's market-~ place: micros, minis, and mainframes. Although each was distinctly different at its inception, continuing technological development makes differentiation among them increasingly difficult. Nevertheless, differences among types of machines

are important to organizations planning to acquire new or to upgrade existing systems.

Micros began as single user, single function computers. Current 8-bit micros remain so, but the commercial marketplace now sports 16- and 32-bit micros that more and more resemble larger systems like minicomputers and mainframes. Indeed, some, although not all, of these larger micros are multi­programming, multi-user systems, and almost all of them have ample capacity to meet the require· ments of small governmental organizations.

The difference between 8-bit and 16-bit and larger computers is that the computer CPU acts on data in groups of bits. An 8-bit system addresses eight bits at a time, a 16-bit twice that, a 32-bit twice that, and so on. This internal dimension of a CPU, among other things, gives it speed in accessing and processing data, provides or limits multiprogramming capability, and determines maximum CPU memory. The larger the bit size, the faster the system, the greater its processing ability, and the larger the CPU memory.

At this writing, 8-bit micros are limited to 128K while 16-bit systems will configure to 740K of CPU memory. Larger CPU memory means that the computer is faster, can execute larger pro· grams, and can handle more data at one time. Many programs of interest to local governments require 128K or more of memory to operate, and they will operate more efficiently on a system with a 256K or larger CPU. For these programs, a 16-bit or larger microcomputer is a better choice than an 8-bit system.

Minicomputers are typically 16-bit systems, but many manufacturers have developed 32-bit or super minis, and micros based on 32-bit technology, such as Apple's Macintosh, have entered the marketplace. Mainframes are 3 2-bit and· larger systems. The larger the system, other things being equal, the more processing capacity, the greater the speed of processing, and, often though not always, the more costly it is.

Although this handbook is about microcom· puters, the reader should bear in mind that computer size and type are important in relation to an organization's computing and information management requirements. For some, single user,

15

8-bit systems will be sufficient. Others will require 16-bit or larger micros, and still others will need minicomputers or mainframes. The type and size of computer for an organization depends on the types and amounts of data to be stored and work to be performed on it, and the availability of software that will run on it.

5. Peripheral Devices. The CPU cannot work alone. Three vital functions are missing-input, output, and mass storage. Various devices are used to perform these functions. Perhaps the most common input device on a microcomputer is the terminal, often called a CRT (cathode ray tube) or video display monitor. This is a device that looks like a small TV screen with a keyboard attachment. Commands and data are entered via the keyboard. Additional input devices include optical character readers, magnetic tape units, magnetic disk units, card readers, and even voice recognition units.

Screens for microcomputer video monitors are available in a variety of colors, principally black and white, green, and amber. Also, full color monitors are available. Decisions on screen color and whether to use a color monitor should be based on such considerations as eye comfort and the functions to which the system will be put. For example, if color graphics will not be used, a color monitor may not be required. Potential users should review various types and colors of screens before purchasing.

Microcomputers are sold with several different types of keyboards. A local government planning to buy a micro should specify a typewriter-style keyboard, preferably one with a ten key pad attached for numerical entries. Potential users should test different styles of keyboards to ensure that the one selected can be used easily and efficiently. Keyboards and the user's comfort are very important since the keyboard is where the user will do most of his or her work on the system.

At least one micro manufacturer, Apple, has invested a considerable sum of money to develop and market an alternative to the keyboard. This device is known as the mouse. The mouse is a small box attached by a wire to the computer. By moving the mouse, the user moves a cursor

on the video monitor screen. A button on the mouse enables the user to command the system by selecting appropriate choices of actions that appear on the screen. Even with the mouse, how­ever, data and text must be entered into the system using the keyboard.

Mass storage on a microcomputer system can be likened to the vertical filing cabinets found in most offices. A mass storage unit is where the data base of the organization, all of its records and files, is kept. Memory in the CPU, on the other hand, is like the single file drawer in an executive's desk where only the files being used for current projects are kept.

In microcomputer systems, magnetic disk is the most common data storage medium. Magnetic tape is also frequently used. The major difference between these storage media is that with disk, data are stored under what is known as the random access method or RAM. Data stored on tape are stored sequentially. Hence, access time for disk is much faster. That and steadily decreasing prices for disk storage have made it the preferred method for data that must be available for instant retrieval. Archival and infrequently used files can be stored on tape efficiently, and tape is also useful to system backup purposes.

Two common types of disk storage devices are the floppy disk and the hard disk. Floppy disks (or diskettes) look like 45 rpm records and are somewhat flexible, hence the name floppy disk. Floppies come in various sizes, but 3Y2-inch, 514-inch, and 8-inch sizes are the most common. They can be inserted and removed from their disk drives as needed by the system user. Floppy disks typically hold from about 150K to over half a million bytes of data with some double sided, double density diskettes holding over one million bytes. Floppies with the ability to store even more data can be expected on the market in the near future.

Hard disks differ from floppies in three principal ways. First, they are rigid, not flexible. Second, they hold far more data, 5, 10, and 20MB being common sizes with hard disk drives of up to 40MB now on the market. (MB stands for megabyte and means millions of bytes.) Third, the disks are

16

contained in sealed units or disk drives from which they cannot be removed.

Data are magnetically encoded onto disk or tape for storage purposes. Unlike the volatile memory of the CPU in which data are held electronically, data placed magnetically on disk or tape will remain there until erased by the computer user. Loss of power or fluctuations in power will not cause data losses on disk.

However, accidents do happen. Tapes can break, coffee can be spilled on a disk, and mechanical failures can occur. These and other problems can destroy all data on a disk in an instant. Hence, making copies of all data stored on disks and tapes is essential. These copies are called backups.

For both floppy and hard disk systems, backup is an important consideration. Floppy disks can serve as backups to other floppies. Similarly, floppies can be used to back up hard disks, but a large number of floppies and a fair amount of time may be necessary (ten 500K floppies for 5MB of hard disk). Hence, magnetic tape is often used for backup on micros that have large disk storage systems.

Printers are the most common output devicesf29\ for hard copy materials (or information printed on \!:V paper) on microcomputers. Local governments need to be concerned with two basic types of printers. These are the dot matrix printer and the letter quality printer.

Dot matrix printers form characters by printing a series of dots within a specified matrix as shown on page 17. These printers are suitable for printing bills, checks, budget reports, and other documents that do not need to be of letter or correspondence quality. Some dot matrix printers now on the market, however, can also offer print that closely resembles that of a letter quality printer. Dot matrix printers cost from a few hundred to a few thousand dollars, depending upon speed, durability, and capacity.

Letter quality printers get their name from printing that looks as if it came from a typewriter. They are especially good for correspondence, narrative reports, manuscripts, and the like. Although letter quality printers costing a few hundred dollars are now on the market, to get the

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speed, durability, and capacity needed for most local government work, a cost from two to four thousand dollars is more typical.

All micros of any consequence to local govern­ments are equipped with things called ports or interfaces. A port is a physical connection to the computer that allows peripheral devices to be connected to the CPU and data to be transmitted between them and the CPU.

A serial port on a computer allows data to be transmitted one bit at a time or in series: A parallel port allows data to be sent in groups of bits, typically a byte at a time, or in parallel.

The difference between serial and parallel data communication is important primarily in relation to printers. Most micros on the market come with parallel interface to their printers. However, this is one industry where very few things are standard, and some systems are equipped with serial ports for their printers.

A printer built for parallel communication will not work with a micro that has only serial ports (and vice versa) unless special attachments to

convert parallel transmission to serial are added. Another important peripheral device for a

microcomputer system is the modem. Modem stands for modulator/demodulator. It is a device that enables computers to communicate with one another. Essentially a modem takes electronic impulses from a computer and changes them into a form that can be transmitted on ordinary tele­phone lines. The modem also receives signals by telephone and translates these into bits that can be read by the computer.

An organization needs a modem if it wants its microcomputer to be able to communicate with other micros, with mainframes or minicomputers, or to be able to interact with numerous com­puterized networks and data bases around the country.

6. Configuring a System. The amount of CPU memory and disk storage and the number and types of peripheral devices that a local government needs (known as system configuration) are directly related to the number and types of functions that will be performed on the system, the number of users, the size of the data base, and the volumes

18

and frequencies of activity in each function that will be automated. Generatly speaking, no two systems will be identical because the organizations in which they operate will be different. However, few local governments will be able to make much use of a microcomputer that has less than 64K of CPU memory, a single floppy disk drive, a monitor, and a dot matrix printer. On today 's market such a system can be expected to cost from $1 ,5 00 to $2,500, exclusive of software. For many organiza­tions, especially those that plan to use a micro extensively, this minimum configuration will not be adequate. Additional memory, usually a second floppy disk drive or a hard disk, and a faster, sturdier printer will be required.

A guide showing the typical conversion of typed material to bits and bytes in computer memory is reproduced in the box. This guide may be helpful in determining the amount of memory and storage for a given activity.

BITS, BYTES, AND STORAGE

One byte (eight bits) of disk space or main memory is necessary to store one letter or symbol.

A typewritten page holds approximately 250 words (1,500 characters and spaces). Thus, 1,500 bytes (12,000 bits) of computer space are necessary to store a page of text. Therefore:

• 1.5K of computer space is needed to hold one typewritten page (in main memory or on a disk)

• 30K of computer space is needed to hold 20 typewritten pages

• 150K of computer space is needed to hold 100 typewritten pages.

Source: adapted from Guide to Personal Computing, Digital Equipment Corporation, 1983, p, 44.

NOTES TO INSTRUCTORS

Chapter IV. Microcomputer Software

If one message should come through loud and clear from this chapter it is that SOFTWARE IS THE KEY TO THE MICROCOMPUTER SYSTEM. This chapter discusses the principal types of software of concern to local governments (operating systems and application programs), the principal languages in which programming is written for micro­computers, and also looks at the typical types of applications that are automated on micro­computers in local governments. Finally, a brief discussion is presented of the major pro­cessing· modes, and definitions are provided for terms frequently encountered when dis­cussing processing on microcomputers (e.g., on-line, interactive, user friendly, and others).

In presenting this chapter, the instructor should make clear to participants that, to paraphrase Peter McWilliams,* "Having a micro means that you never have to write a computer program." Although organizations clearly CAN write their own programming, they rarely will need to do so. The reason is that a wide range of "off-the-shelf" program­ming is available at very reasonable prices ($100 to $600 range), and that programming for the local government market is now being written increasingly by software houses and OEM's. This is the so-called "packaged software."

Programming or software may be more difficult for participants to comprehend than hardware. At least they can see and touch hardware. All they can sense about software is the software disk and instruction manual. The instructor should explain that although the stuff called software cannot be sensed in a tactile manner, and although it exists only in the form of a set of instructions called a programming language (that is somewhat like a foreign language), well-written programming is remarkably easy to use.

Finally, to be able to use computer programming (or hardware for that matter) a person DOES NOT need to know a programming language, how to write programs, or even to understand the electronics behind the operation of the computer. If a person can read, he or she can use a microcomputer.

*Peter McWilliams, The Personal Computer Book (Los Angeles, CA: Prelude Press, 1983).

IV. Microcomputer Software A. SOFTWARE the functions of the peripheral devices. For

example, the operating system communicates with

HARDWARE is only incidental to a microcom·faO\ the CRT to receive and execute commands, assigns purer system. In fact, some experts contend~ print jobs to printers and establishes printing

that most commercially available microcomputer priorities, and decides when to write data on or hardware will work reliably and effectively for read data from disk storage and what actions to most organizations. What most often makes a take on these data. Operating systems are either microcomputer system work or fail to work, and provided by computer manufacturers or are what causes persons implementing microcomputers written especially for certain classes of machines. in local governments to become either heroes or Several operating systems are availabl~ for villains, is something called software. microcomputers. As is true for many other aspects

Software is called that because it is not hard- of computer technology, most are incompatible ware, but it really is not soft either. In fact, it with one another and will run only on specific cannot be sensed at all in a tactile manner. It is brands and types of micros. Among other things, called software only because of the earlier evolu- this means that application programs written to tion of the term hardware for machinery. If run on one operating system probably will not machinery is hard, then programming must be soft. run on another.

Software, or programming, is even more For 8-bit micros, somewhat of a standardfai\ difficult for many persons to comprehend operating system has emerged. It is called CP/M~ than hardware. Yet, software is by far the for control program for microcomputers. A few most important .part of a computer system. of the micros that use CP/M as their principal Without software, the computer is an expen- operating system are the Kaypro II, NEC 8800, sive, dumb hunk of metal, plastic, wires, and and Epson QX-10. silicon. It does nothing but take up space. However, several other operating systems for Microcomputers can perform only one action 8-bit systems also exist. These include TRSDOS

at a time. Their incredible speed is what enables (DOS stands for disk operating system) for Radio them to perform tasks so quickly and so efficiently. Shack's 8-bit micros, AppleDOS for Apple micros, To do so, micros must be given precise instructions and others. Increasingly, these and many other covering each single step of an activity. These sets 8-bit micros can be modified to use CP/M by of instructions are called programs or software. adding a special hardware card or board to the

Several kinds of programs exist. For govern- CPU. mental purposes, however, the two most important For 16-bit micros, there are three major com-categories of software are operating systems and peting operating systems. PC-DOS and its sister application programs. MS-DOS are operating systems for the IBM PC

Operating systems reside on the computer'sfai\and its compatibles. At this writing, MS-DOS memory and control the activities of the rest of~ appears to be setting a de facto standard for 16-bit the system, including the application software and micros. However, a 16-bit version of CP/M, known

19

as CP/M-86 is available, and many experts feel that processors or other sophisticated limited function AT&T's UNIX operating system will gain in popu- machines. The impact of this class of software, larity following the breakup of the Bell System and especially word processing, has been and promises AT&T's en tty into the data processing marketplace. to be enormous, especially as such programming

For most local governments, application @)becomes linked to other computer systems and as programs are the single most important 3 the specialized boxes gain capabilities to perform parts of the system. They perform the work additional data processing functions. of the organization. Application software Prices for microcomputer software vaty widely. commonly performs such functions as Some generic or offtbe-shelf programming for accounting, budgeting, billing, inventory con- such functions as word processing and spreadsheet trol, payroll, personnel management, equip- analyses can be purchased for as little as $100 per ment management, and many others in local package. More complex programming for such governments. things as inventory, payroll, or accounting can cost Each program, whether an application program from $300 to $500 per package. OEM developed

or an operating system, is really made up of software for such activities as fund accounting may numerous sub-program elements. A payroll pro- cost from $1,000 to $2,500 per package or more. gram, for example, should not only order payroll Custom written programs may be even more checks printed. It should also verify the amount expensive. of each check, ·make and record all deductions, Off-the-shelf software is produced for a mass update the general ledger and all subsidiary ledgers, market and is the least costly of the current prepare payroll reports and reports for all deduc- generation of microcomputer programming.· Soft-tions, and perform many more functions. Each ware written especially for the smaller local govern-function requires a separate program element. ment market is more expensive, and one-time or

The more complicated the task, the more custom written software will cost even more. complex will be the program. After all, a program By almost all accounts, however, microcomputer is a step-by-step reconstruction of all procedures software is considerably less expensive than pro-that must be performed manually to complete a gramming for minicomputers and mainframes. task.

Application programming to perform data base management and decision-making functions is also available. Included here are such things as inquiry and report generating programs, data management and data base management systems, and spread­sheet programs. These allow computer users to create unique files, make unique inquiries into a data base, generate one-time reports, sort through all files on a system for related data, and play "what if" games with data from selected files.

No discussion of application software would be complete without mention of highly specialized programming that has burst upon the computer scene and spread rapidly over the past few years. This class is known as office automation software and includes word processing, electronic mail, and data communication programs. Some of these programs operate on standard computers and CRT's, others on specialized boxes called word

20

B. LANGUAGES

Computer software is written in special codes known as programming languages. Best estimates suggest that a couple of hundred languages have been developed since the first computer was built. For general business and local government com­puter use, however, only three are of importance. These are COBOL, BASIC, and FORTRAN.

COBOL, standing for common business oriented language, is probably the most widely used language for business-type functions in minicom­puters and mainframes. This should not be surprising since it was created exclusively for this purpose. To date, however, COBOL is not the primary programming language for micros, although its use is increasing.

BASIC, or beginner's all-purpose symbolic instructional code, is probably the most widely

@

used language on microcomputers. Both COBOL and BASIC are known as high-levellanguages. This means that programs written in these languages contain English-like statements. Oh, not florid prose ... but understandable words and phrases.

Inquiry, report generating, and data manage­ment type programs are even more English-like. Ordinary computer users armed only with a simple book of commands and instructions can operate these programs using standard English commands. No programming skills are required.

FORTRAN, for formula translation, is essen­tially a scientific and engineering language and does a good job with mathematical equations and expressions. Hence, it is in wide use where these functions are required, such as in engineering and public works applications.

Other languages, although not as common as BASIC, FORTRAN, and COBOL, are being seen with increasing frequency on micros. Two that deserve mention are Pascal and Logo. For the local government official, however, the name of the programming language is less important than whether adequate application software is available to run on the micro.

Generally speaking, the more sophisticated the microcomputer, the greater its language capabilities. While 8-bit systems typically are limited to one language and that is usually some version of BASIC, 16-bit and larger systems may support several languages.

Language capability is important for two reasons. First, if a local government plans to do any of its own programming, it will want a system that either has a language that staff members already know or a language like BASIC that is relatively easy to learn. Second, a system's language capability must be known in order to acquire software written in the correct language. A system that supports only one language such as BASIC will not run programs written in COBOL and vice versa.

C. LOCAL GOVERNMENTAL APPLlCATlONS

A recent book entitled Microcomputers in Local Government listed a large number of local govern-

21

mental functions that can be performed on micro­computers. These are shown in the chart on page 22.

Surveys of actual microcomputer use conducted by the International City Management Association and the Center for Applied Urban Research at the University of Nebraska at Omaha have found, however, that micros in local governments are used primarily for word processing or for applica­tions involving financial management. These studies also found a sizable local government demand for microcomputers. 11 This suggests that an increasing number and variety of applications can be expected to be found on micros in local governments in coming years.

As one expert in the field has said about com- f35\ puter use in local government, "The only limits to~ the use of computer technology are the pocket­book and the imagination." 12 In other words, if a local government wants to use a micro for a particular function and can afford to do so, it will probably be able to find or develop the system.

.... 2 2

0

'i./1 \/~0

LOCAL GOVERNMENTAL MICROCOMPUTER APPLICATIONS

Office and Administration Word processing File management Document locating Council minutes index Ordinances/resolutions Calendar and scheduling Financial modeling studies Specifications Department performance data Miscellaneous data/notes Risk management Statistical comparisons Strategic planning Management by objectives

Finance Accounting Budgeting Purchasing Payroll Financial forecasting Bond payments and redemptions Property assessment Tax billing Business licenses Inventory management Utility billing Accounts receivable Investment management

Personnel Recruiting and placement Personnel records Employee skills inventory Training records

Public Safety Crime reporting Police incident analysis Computer-aided dispatch Stolen/recovered property Officer activity Payroll scheduling Traffic violation processing Accident reports Court schedules Fire incident analysis Fire prevention inspection

Public Works Vehicle maintenance Utility billing analysis Meter inventory Street maintenance planning Street condition inventory Street lights/traffic signals Work orders

Community Development Building permits Inspection scheduling Land use data Capital expenditure projection

Parks and Recreation Park facilities inventory Parkland maintenance Recreation registration/scheduling Forestry statistics

Library Library circulation Library inventory On-line card catalog

Source: James R, Griesemer,Microcomputers in Local Government {Washington: International City Management Association, 19831. p. 26.

22

D. PROCESSING MODES a third might inquire into the status of a budgetary acocunt, all the while the printer is running a

When compared to the state-of-the-art in com- detailed report on equipment maintenance. In this mercially available microcomputers, earlier case, several different programs are in operation generations of computer technology appear on the system by several users. Multiprogramming surprisingly primitive. Earlier generation systems is synonymous with the term multi-user. typically were batch-oriented. That is, a user would A major difference among types of microcom-execute a series of coded forms, a keypunch puters exists in the area of multiprogramming. operator would turn these into a deck of punched Multiprogramming capability is lacking in 8-bit cards, and then the cards would be delivered to microcomputers. They are essentially single user, the computer center where they would be pro- single function systems. Some, although not all, cessed. Sometime later a printed report would be 16- and 32-bit micros, have multiprogramming forthcoming. On larger computers, several batch capabilities. That is, several persons can use the activities could occur simultaneously, but on system to perform several functions, all at the smaller systems only a single application could same time. be performed at a time. Multiprogramming should not be confused

While the batch processing of activltles like@s with multiprocessing. Multiprocessing is where billing or payroll is not uncommon in current two or more CPU's are connected together. systems, modern· technology encourages a different A user-friendly system is one that can be used kind of system use. This can be defined as on-line, by persons who have little or no background or real time, interactive, and multiprogramming. training in computer technology or programming. Modern systems are also referred to as user-friendly. In this case, a payroll clerk might enter all

On-line means that the computer's peripheral necessary data and all commands necessary to the devices such as CRT's, printers, and tape or disk computer to ensure that a payroll is made and all drives are physically connected to the computer. accounting therefore is properly recorded. Offline, then, means a device that is not physically User friendliness is not a property of computer linked to the computer. hardware; it is a software function. User-friendly

Real time means that processing is accomplished software instructs users, provides them with @7 immediately upon command by a user. This con- choices of actions to take (often in the form of trasts with earlier batch machines where a user sequenced lists or multilayer menus), ensures would deliver code sheets or punch cards to the that illegal actions cannot be taken, and forgives central data processing location and wait several mistakes. hours or even days before seeing any results. For example, a payroll clerk might see a menu

Interactive means that a computer user, sitting (or list of choices) on the CRT. The menu provides at a CRT and using the system's keyboard, mouse, several choices, asking for instance whether to or other input device, can enter, revise, or delete 1) create a record, 2) update a record, or 3) delete data and generally command the system while a record. If the clerk answers (1), a second menu communicating directly with the computer. This providing choices of actions for record creation is man-machine interaction. will appear and so on until actual data entry to

Multiprogramming means that, due to its create the record begins. Furthermore, only incredible speed, the CPU appears to be performing "legal" entries are allowed. Hence an address several functions simultaneously. For example, cannot be entered for a Social Security number, one user might enter billing data via a CRT, and if a mistake is made, the software tells the another might update accounts receivable records, user and allows for instant corrections.

23

NOTES TO INSTRUCTORS

Chapter V. Procurement Guidelines

This chapter presents a tried and tested method for the procurement of microcomputer systems by local governments (or other organizations, for that matter). This method consists of "SEVEN SIMPLE STEPS."

The steps are: 1. determine computing and information management requirements 2. establish technical, economic, and political feasibility for a microcomputer system 3. develop and release a request for bid or proposal describing the organization's

requirements 4. receive and evaluate bids or proposals 5. select a system 6. negotiate a contract with the selected vendor 7. implement the system and monitor its performance. Among the many issues considered in this chapter, the following deserve particular

emphasis: 1) Political feasibility is often the most difficult question to resolve in a procurement

effort. 2) Cost/benefit analysis is important in determining if a microcomputer system is

feasible and warranted, but cost/effectiveness may be difficult to establish. 3) Communication among the principal actors in the procurement effort (manage­

ment, staff, consultants, elected officials, others) is often critical to a successful procure­ment and system installation.

4) Software to do the work of the local government is the KEY to the success of the system-software should be the first, last, and most important thing considered in the procurement process.

5) If at all possible the standard vendor written contract should not be signed-instead an instrument that adequately protects the interests and rights of the local government should be written.

6) A careful and deliberate system installation should be undertaken in order to ensure that the system works as promised.

V. Procurement Guidelines A. INTRODUCTION

EACH DAY local governmental personnel are bombarded wirb information about micro·

computers. They are told rbat computers can do almost anyrbing and can do it faster, smarter, and cheaper.

They are assaulted as well as insulted by sales pitches to buy micros. They are told implicitly that somerbing must be wrong wirb rbose who do not have rbem. More explicitly rbey are told rbat rbeir kids will flunk out of school or grow up stupid if rbey do not have rbese marvels.

Much of rbis information is produced in order to sell equipment or is written in order to sell interesting articles to rbe popular media. Very little is based on objective research into rbe actual uses of microcomputers and rbeir effects on sociery. Many sales pitches are nonsense, lacking a valid basis and blatantly appealing to emotion. They have been very effective, however, as rbey have helped to create a gigantic market for micro­computers in a very short time.

Information of rbis sort, however, provides scant help to rbe person or organization consider· ing a microcomputer. A decision to acquire a

microcomputer system requires a well-considered, systematic approach rbat must be followed care­fully and completely.

The merbod recommended in rbis handbook for microcomputer system procurement is not very different from rbe merbod rbat should be used in rbe acquisition of any goods or services by a governmental organization. This method has been used successfully in rbe acquisition of larger computer systems by local governments around rbe nation, and its use in microcomputer procurement has been tested successfully in demonstration projects in small Nebraska local governments.13

B. PROCUREMENT STEPS

The procurement method recommended here consists of seven steps'

5 SELECT A SYSTEM

6 NEGOTIATE CONTRACT

7 IMPLEMENT &MONITOR

4 EVALUATE PROPOSALS

1 DETERMINE REQUIREMENTS

2 ESTABLISH FEASIBILITY

3 PREPARE RFP

24

1. Determine Requirements. Acquiring a com­puter system is not a technical issue. Certainly several of rbe activities and much of rbe informa­tion required are technical in nature, but system acquisition is fundamentally a management issue.

Local governmental officials regularly make decisions to allocate resources in order to accom­plish rbe work of rbeir organizations. Computer

@

INFORMATION MANAGEMENT REQUIREMENTS FOR AN EQUIPMENT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Equipment • detailed description of all vehicles and equipment • equipment status and condition reports • depreciation schedule • equipment assignment (location/staff) • equipment specifications

Maintenance • records of all repairs (preventative, maintenance, emergency, vendor, waranty) • 12-rnonth history (on-line) • equipment life history (on tape) • equipment life history (on tape) • billing to departments • preventative maintenance scheduling

Parts Inventory and Control • detailed parts inventory • integration of inventory with purchasing system • critical reorder parameters • parts control (receipt, issuance, charging, transfer, return) • handling of both used and new parts

Work Orders • labor and parts • updating of equipment, maintenance, parts, and performance evaluation files

Fuel Inventory and Control • inventory status for all fuel dispensing stations • fuel dispensing records • fuel use by vehicle • integration of fuel inventory with purchasing system • critical reorder parameters

Productivity/Performance Auditing • performance standards • performance reports (actual vs. performance standards, by type of activity, by repair facility, by

employee)

25

system acquisltion is just another set of resource by an interdepartmental task force of a midwestern allocation decisions. The same principles associated city for the purpose of vehicle and equipment with resource allocation and problem solving in management. These are the information items that other activities apply. management felt it needed in order to do its job.

The first question to ask when considering a@ They are stated functionally so that computer microcomputer is: Does the governmental organi· 9 system vendors will be able to decide how their zation really need a micro? In order to answer this hardware and software will best meet those needs question, a government must determine its com- and so that management will know what it is puting and management information requirements. getting. A requirements analysis will at once help establish These probably do not represent the functional the basis of need for a computer system and will requirements for equipment management for all allow decisions to be made regarding computer communities as the requirements of one city or type and size. county will certainly vary from those of another.

Management information requirements are However, this outline should provide at least a not created out of thin air. Where do they basic understanding of the management infer-come from? The place they do not come from mation requirements for one major functional is computer system vendors. Never ask a area in local government. vendor to define the management information 2. Establish Feasibility. The second step in the needs of a local government. Vendor repre- process of acquiring a microcomputer is to

sentatives know computer sales and the determine whether a micro is feasible technically, capabilities of their particular brands of financially, and politically. Computerization is hardware or software. They do not know the technically feasible in local government for a wide computing and information requirements range of functions. of a particular organization. Vendor defined Technical questions arise during several aspects information requirements will almost always of a microcomputer procurement. Examples resemble systems available from the vendor. include memory size, amount and type of mass Management requirements are defined as the storage, number and types of peripheral devices,

result of detailed analysis. Local government centralized or distributed processing, 8- or a 16-bit managers can either perform the analysis using system, type of communication capability needed, local staff resources, or they can request consulting and many others. assistance. Either way, careful analysis is required, These technical questions are directly related to

and its result should be a clear statement of the the agency's management information require-organization's information needs. Even if a govern- ments and to the volumes and frequencies of its ment ultimately decides not to acquire a micro- activities. computer system, it will at least have gone through Volumes and frequencies are important to the a valuable exercise and will have developed a set sizing of the system. In the example of the equip-of information requirements against which to ment management system, they include the revise manual systems and make them more number and type of vehicles and other equipment, efficient. length of the inventory records, the frequency of

The statement of the organization's information the transactions that create and maintain records needs should identify as specifically as possible on the system, and the frequency of inquiry and what information the local government needs to reporting, and others. Volume and frequency data be provided in order to do its job properly. The must be gathered during the information manage-Appendix contains a copy of a requirements ment requirements analysis. It must also be pro-analysis for a small local government. vided to prospective vendors as part of the request

What follows here is a statement of management for bid or proposal so that they can respond with information requirements that was developed an appropriately configured system.

26

In many commumties, financial and political example, analysis showed that a system could have feasibility are more significant than technical been financed using cost savings over a five-year issues. Financial and political feasibility touch on period. Yet, after lengthy consideration, city whether a local government can afford a computer decision-makers scaled the system down con-system and whether local officials and staff will siderably because in their view the initial expendi-support automation. ture was "politically" unjustifiable, especially in

Some form of cost/benefit analysis should be@ an election year. In another community, a city used so that decision-makers will know how much council voted unanimously against acquisition, the system is likely to cost. Naturally, an objective even after a positive cost/benefit analysis. The analysis is required. Total system costs should be reason was lack of communication with council identified both for initial installation and for members, and the opposition of one key city continued operation. These data are essential in official managed to delay system procurement any system acquisition. for years and made the final procurement effort

Total system costs involve at least the following: • All hardware for the initial system configuration (e.g., CPU, monitors, disk drives, printers,

modems, cables, and any other equipment needed to make the system function at an acceptable level)

• Operating system • Application programs, whether off-the·shelf or packaged, or the cost of program development,

and including any required modifications • Hardware maintenance • Software support • Supplies (e.g., paper, ribbons, disks) • Electrical (e.g., power supply) or room modifications • Additional furniture (e.g., desks, tables, etc., to hold the equipment) • Conversion of data from existing systems and methods to the microcomputer.

These costs should be totalled and projected for one- and five-year periods in order to provide a clear picture of both initial and system life costs. In governments that own antiquated computer systems such as bookkeeping machines and early model minicomputers, the system life costs of a microcomputer system will compare very favorably, and the new system will provide substantially enhanced capabilities. In cases where the govern· ment will be a first-time purchaser of computer technology or will acquire a micro as an additional piece of equipment, out-of-pocket costs can be expected to be greater than with existing methods. However, the functional benefits and capabilities of the micro may more than outweigh these dollar costs. Making such a determination may be the most difficult part of the procurement effort.

Cost/benefit analysis alone, however, is often insufficient to establish system feasibility. In one

27

·far more difficult than necessary. No guaranteed method exists to ensure the @

political feasibility of a computer system procurement, but several measures can be taken to facilitate it. They include a sound requirements study, objective cost/benefit analysis, and open, honest communication with key staff persons and elected officials. Communication is critical throughout the

process because it promotes understanding of the need, costs, and impacts of au tarnation. Under­standing, of course, does not necessarily result in support, but at the minimum it provides all participants with a common framework and pro­motes educated decision-making.

This is why in many communities a committee of elected officials and key staff persons is established to participate throughout the procure­ment process. These persons will be part of the

' : II (\ : l ! ,,

l l\l I l

I .. ,~,: I ' . )

' ,, lr

'•

determination of management information require­ments and will, at the minimum, review all elements of the process. This helps committee members to understand the procurement process and to appreciate the need (if there is one) for the system. This knowledge can then be communicated to the government's governing board when the time comes to decide whether to acquire a micro­computer system.

In smaller communities, use of such a committee may make more sense than in larger ones. In smaller communities a $15,000 or $20,000 micro­computer system may be seen as a large purchase where in larger governments purchases of this size are routine. In larger communities, however, other issues are important, including compatibility of systems, proliferation of micros, and competition with the mainframe. Here, a clear organizational policy on micros may be helpful. Chapter VI discusses such a policy.

Once a local government initiates a micro­computer system procurement process, it must decide how to acquire the needed software. Soft­ware is the key to a computer system, for without it the box just sits there and does nothing.

28

Local governments have the following f42\ microcomputer software options: 1) buy~ off-the-shelf software, 2) buy ''packaged" software designed for local government functions, 3) buy software from another organization and modify it to meet local requirements, 4) hire an outside organization to create software especially for the organiza­tion, or 5) write the software in-house. A stndy by the University of Nebraska at Omaha's Center for Applied Urban Research found that over 60 percent of small local governments acquired their programming from computer hardware or software organi­zations.l4 The first two options, off-the-shelf and packaged

programming, have distinct advantages. First, the most costly methods of acquiring software are in-house development and unique development by outsiders. The least expensive methods are the purchase of packaged or off-the-shelf software. Second, for an increasing range of governmental functions, vendors are beginning to supply either full turnkey microcomputer systems (hardware, software, and support services) or software packages that have been developed specifically for local governmental organizations.

Third, hardware is increasingly cheap and soft­ware is increasingly expensive. This is because continuing technological advances have resulted in significant hardware price reductions relative to

value. The creation and support of computer software, on the other hand, involves the work of people, instead of technology, and people time is expensive. This is one reason why a government's software decision is more important than its decision on hardware.

Fourth, programming is a highly specialized discipline requiring persons with equally special­ized skills. These skills often are not related to the functional requirements of local government. That is, relatively few programmers know much about government and governmental requirements. Recent data continue to show that programmers are in relatively short supply nationally and command relatively high salaries. The 1983 entry level salary, for example, for programmers

averaged over $20,000. 15 Experienced program­mers earn even more. Hence, in-house program­ming can become highly costly, especially for small governments.

3. Prepare Request for Bid or Proposal. When a local government's desire for a computer system becomes known, numerous marketing calls and unsolicited proposals from vendors often result. A community that proceeds with a system acquisi­tion on the basis of unsolicited "solutions" is asking for trouble.

A well-written RFP (request for proposal or request for bid), on the other hand, will help to ensure an effective and efficient system procurement. An RFP should contain the organization's computing and manage­ment information requirements, present the volumes and . frequencies of its activities, and establish substantive and procedural ground rules for the procurement. An RFP should be based on the requirements

analysis and should tell prospective bidders exactly what the local government requires in a computer system, both technically and otherwise. It should provide the vendor with a clear idea of the rules that will be applied in evaluating proposals and should provide a schedule to be followed during the procurement. Any unique legal or other requirements should also be addressed. (A sample RFP is found in the Appendix.)

The development and submittal of an RFP may not be desirable or even practical in all cases. In some governmental · organizations, policy decisions exist regarding the types of micros that can be purchased. In others, the amount of money to be spent on a micro will not justify use of an elaborate RFP procedure. In these instances, however, the organization's computing and infor­mation management requirements should be determined before proceeding, and requirements should be matched carefully with the hardware and software capabilities of the systems under investigation. (The Appendix also contains a sample set of microcomputer hardware specifica­tions for the organization that does not need to

use the RFP procedure.) 4. Evaluate Responses. Once the submittal

29

deadline arrives, no further proposals should be received, and the formal evaluation process should begin. Knowledge of computer technology is essential during the evaluation to determine whether proposed systems are technically adequate and to ensure that proposals are comparable.

Once bids have arrived, they should be subjected f'43\ to careful, objective evaluation. Several elements~ of the proposals should be scrutinized. These include:

1) RFP requirements-Did a proposal meet all RFP requirements? For example, were all required application programs bid? Were the specified operating system and language capabilities bid? Many other questions will arise.

If all requirements were not met, can the proposal be accepted anyway? Did the RFP allow th~ local government to waive tech­nicalities and informalities and accept what it deems to be the best proposal?

2) Hardware-Were all hardware elements pro­posed? According to unbiased technical reports, is the hardware reliable? Is the hard­ware configuration adequate for the organiza­tion's computing requirements, especially CPU memory and disk storage?

3) System expandability-Can the hardware be expanded to meet the organization's growth requirements by adding additional increments of memory, disk storage, and peripherals? Will it accept additional operating systems and programming languages?

4) Hardware maintenance-What type of hard­ware maintenance is available (e.g., on-site, drive-in, mail-in, other)? Are replacement devices available for use when a particular hardware element needs repair? What type and length of hardware warranty is offered for each piece of hardware?

5) Software support-What type, if any, of support for the application software is pro­posed (e.g., on-site, via telephone, or other) and for how long? Is software support needed for any or all software packages? What type and length of software warranty is provided?

6) Vendor organization-What is known about

the vendor organization, its size, length of time in the microcomputer business, financial health, number of personnel, reputation, reliability, number of similar installations, experience in the governmental marketplace, and availability of personnel to install and suppon the system?

7) Additional capabilities-What other capabili­ties are available with the system or from the vendor that may be required in the future for a particular system (e.g., additional packaged or off-the-shelf software or programming capabilities, and other equipment)?

8) Cost-Relative to other proposals, what is the total cost of a proposal, including both initial hardware, software, supplies, and support costs, and operation costs for a five-year period? How does each proposal compare in this respect to each other pro­posal? (A sample bid evaluation is included in the Appendix.)

Naturally, many persons will ask where to get the information necessary to perform proposal evaluation without the use of a consultant. Evalua­tions of hardware and some packaged and off-the­shelf software are provided by a variety of publica­tions. These include periodicals like Info World, Computerworld, Byte, Popular Computing, Consumer Reports, and many others. DataPro Research Corporation and other organizations publish comprehensive directories of computer hardware and software that provide invaluable information when evaluating systems.

Visits should be made to vendor organizations to see and use proposed systems. Part of the evaluation should also involve visits to local govern­ments and other organizations actually running proposed systems. Vendor proposals and unbiased technical reports are essential documents in a procurement process, and vendor demonstrations of equipment and software are helpful too, but nothing should substitute for seeing a comparable system running on live data in a real local govern­ment.

5. Select a System. At the conclusion of the evaluation, at least the two top systems in priority order should be recommended to the governing

30

body or other procurement authority for selection. These should be the systems that, as a result of the evaluation, emerged as the organization's preferred choices. With the approval of the govern­ing body or procurement authority, negotiation should be initiated with the system ranked first. In the event negotiations with this vendor fail to produce a satisfactory agreement, discussions should begin with the second choice.

Here is the only place in the procurement process that the issue of the "best" system should be raised. Best is defined as the system that among all proposals received-based on cost, vendor reliability, service, software capability, hardware performance, and other criteria-most closely meets the requirements of the RFP. In other words, best is a relative term and must be viewed in the full context of the procurement process, including the requirements analysis, RFP, evalua­tion criteria, the local government's needs, and its budget for data processing.

6. Negotiate a Contract. Signing a vendor's standard contract is rarely a good idea. To do so is to sign a document written by the vendor for his convenience and protection. A local instru­ment, created to ensure local convenience and protection, is preferable.

However, in the microcomputer marketplace use of a locally written contract may be difficult. The reasons for this-in contrast to the purchase of minicomputer and mainframe systems-are 1) the cost of microcomputer hardware and software is relatively low; hence, fewer incentives exist for vendors to spend the time and money to negotiate locally written contracts that larger purchases encourage; 2) much of the software for micros is the inexpensive (e.g., the $100 to $500 range) off-the-shelf variety that is produced in large quantities for a mass market, and here again vendors lack the incentive to negotiate locally based contracts; 3) many microcomputer sales organizations handle hardware and off-the-shelf software purchases with standard terms and sales agreements which they are unlikely to change; and 4) as a general rule most microcomputer hardware and software are highly reliable.

Thus, microcomputer systems can be treated

like other purchases with which local governments have ample experience, such as office equipment and motor vehicles. In these cases, the use of a vendor's standard purchase instrument or some reasonable version thereof, with modifications as required by local ordinance or state law, is a relatively standard practice, particularly if other steps in a sound procurement process have been followed.

The low cost and high reliability of microcom­puter systems also mean that their purchase exposes a local government to less risk than the purchase of mafnframe and minicomputer systems. This is another reason to place less value on a locally developed purchase contract.

However, where a locally written contract can be negotiated (e.g., with a turnkey micro system vendor or as the result of a large-scale purchase of several systems), an attempt to do so should be made. The most important aspect of a procure­ment contract for a microcomputer system is performance. The contract should establish clear performance criteria or standards and provide for system acceptance only after the system continually meets these standards over a reasonable period of time. Then and only then should pay­ment be made. An example of a performance standard might be the requirement of no software failures and CPU up-time effectiveness of 98 per­cent or better over a 3D-day period of continuous run time using live data. Placing additional standards in the contract, of course, is a good idea.

Linking payment to performance is neither new nor radical. It is, however, fundamentally important. Unless a local government establishes and uses performance standards, it will be in a weak position to demand corrective action in the event the system does not work. Adequate remedies like liquidated damages, requirements to repair or replace, and others should be in the contract, and the local government must insist that any lawsuits arising out of the contract be tried in local courts, not in the courts of some distant state in which the vendor's headquarters is located. (A sample contract for the purchase of software is included in the Appendix.)

31

7. Implement System and Monitor Performance.@ System implementation typically begins with hard­ware delivery. The system should be uncrated, connected, plugged in, and turned on. Let it run for several hours a day for a week or two to make sure all the hardware is in working order. This is called the "bum-in" period.

Second, various elements of programming should be installed incrementally, preferably in some logical order, such as the general ledger system first, then payroll, then utility billing, and so on.

Third, during application program installation, user personnel should receive vendor provided training in all program areas as well in operating the hardware.

Fourth, data files must be created for all appli­cation programs either by manual input or by converting electronically encoded data from other computer systems. This may be the single most difficult and time-consuming part of system imple­mentation.

Fifth, after completing steps one through four, actually running programs on the system may begin. During the first month or two, operating in parallel may be necessary. That means running the new microcomputer system in parallel with the old manual or electronic system to make sure that all elements of the new system work properly.

Finally, system performance must be monitored and established contractual procedures adhered to.

One city, using a locally developed performance­based contract, paid for its system prior to comple­tion of acceptance testing. The system failed to perform adequately, and the city spent months haggling with the vendor for a remedy.

Performance monitoring means making sure that hardware and software are delivered on time, that the hardware functions without failure, that the software performs .all required functions, that adequate memory and storage are available for processing, and that staff training and software documentation are provided. In other words, for value agreed upon, the vendor performs all required tasks and the system performs all required functions.

C. MICROCOMPUTER SALES AND SUPPORT may mean that the software proposed or sold by these organizations will not meet a local govern-

Several sources are available from which local@ ment's needs. However, quite a bit of the pro-governments can purchase microcomputer systems. gramming sold for standard business purposes can These include companies that specialize in micro- be used effectively without modification, e.g., computer sales, discount chains, department word processing, inventory, payroll, spreadsheet, stores, audio and video stores, farm co-ops, system and data base management software. manufacturers, and others. Systems can also be Buying directly from a manufacturer may not purchased through mail order catalogs. be as desirable as from a microcomputer store.

Local governments can buy both hardware and This is true if for no other reason than that manu-software from the same organization or hardware facturers are primarily oriented toward the sale at one place and software at another. Unless a of their brands of hardware. On the plus side, complete system including hardware and software however, these organizations are well-equipped to is acquired, however, the microcomputer will be sell and service their hardware. At least some less than useful. manufacturers have learned that programming

Several major differences exist among types of is what is important in micro systems and offer a organizations that sell microcomputers. Depart- wide range of application software for use on their ment stores, discount chains, and audio and video machines. shops, for example, are not primarily in the In the last couple of years a new rype of micro-business of selling micros. Therefore, they cannot computer system vendor has appeared on the be expected to be highly knowledgeable about market, the so-called OEM's or turnkey vendors. micros, sell a wide range of hardware or software, These are organizations that develop software or be able to provide extensive hardware main- for a vertical market, e.g., local government, tenance or software support. Many of these organi- and then sell their software together with a zations also sell only home computers or low end particular brand of hardware as a complete system. business systems, typically 8-bit or small 16-bit OEM's and turnkey vendors serving the local micros with limited memory, few peripheral government microcomputer market are becoming devices, and software that is aimed at the home more plentiful. user market. One of the advantages of buying from an OEM is

Companies that specialize in microcomputer that software is this vendor's primary concern, and sales-often microcomputer stores-tend to focus the software has been written for the governmental their efforts on small businesses. The systems they marketplace, not as a generic application or for offer usually can be configured with ample business and commercial organizations. An OEM memory and disk storage capacity for such organi- typically will stand behind the quality and zations and will support several peripheral devices functionality of his software through a warranty (disk drives, monitors, printers, tape drives, or a software support agreement that may be modems, and others), and programming needed unavailable from other organizations. for business applications. Microcomputer stores All microcomputer equipment is sold with also offer training in system installation, operation, warranties of one kind or another, e.g., 30, 60, or and the use of application programming. To one 90 days, during which time a malfunctioning degree or another, they also offer continuing piece of equipment can be returned for repair or software support and will either provide hardware replacement at no cost. Some equipment is sold maintenance directly or arrange for maintenance with better warranties than others, and the con-with a service organization. sumer should bear this in mind when purchasing.

The one major limitation of microcomputer The larger issue, of course, is what to do after the stores is their lack of knowledge about local warranty expires. Should an organization purchase government data processing requirements. This a maintenance contract or assume the risk.

32

associated with equipment failure? While no advice is absolutely foolproof in

this regard, most microcomputer equipment is highly reliable and relatively inexpensive. Hence, the cost of a hardware maintenance contract may not be worthwhile. Making sure that the system is put through a good burn-in during the warranty period will often be sufficient to determine if any devices are defective. This plus careful backup procedures will ensure that any subsequent failures will not cause the loss of data and files. Arrange­ments should be made with the vendor from whom the system was purchased for rental or loan of replacement devices should any part of the system (printer, disk drive, CPU) go down and have to be out of service for repair for a considerable period. Three alternatives typically can be utilized for@

hardware maintenance: on-site (that is, a repair person appears and performs equipment main­tenance on site), transportation of the malfunc­tioning device by the owner to the vendor or service location, or mailing or shipping the device to a remote service location. Each of these alterna­tives has pros and cons. For example, on-site service is the most expensive, and an organization may have to wait hours or days before a repair person appears and is able to correct the problem. Carry-in and mail-in maintenance are less expensive but require that a person from the local govern-ment actually take the device to the service loca-

replacement if they are found to be defective. Another more extensive and expensive type of software support is provided by OEM's and other software developers. Here, a toll free number is frequently available, and the organization will provide continuing support including both hand­holding, remote diagnosis, correction of bugs, provision of updated software releases, and even modifications to installed software. Of course, these more extensive services are more costly.

\

tion or prepare and ship it to be repaired. In both A local government should decide what, if any, cases, the user must be prepared to operate with- software support will be required and in its RFP out the piece of equipment for days or even weeks ask vendors to respond with descriptions and while it is being repaired, unless other arrange- costs for various levels of software support. As in rnents have been made. the case of hardware maintenance, no hard and

Software support involves "hand-holding" by@7 fast rule is available, but a local government should the vendor after the sale and initial training (if any weigh carefully whether software support is really training is provided). For many commercially . worth the price. This is particularly true in the case available packages this involves a toll free tele- of off-the-shelf packages like word processing, phone number that can be reached during normal spreadsheet, and database management that are business hours. Questions can be asked and relatively inexpensive and quite reliable. Available directions for program use will be provided. toll free answering service support for such soft-Remote diagnosis or correction of software bugs, ware is probably adequate. However, for more however, generally is not provided for these detailed and complex packages such as an inte-packages, although they can often be returned for grated fund accounting system, a local government

33

will probably want to pay the extra cost to receive a higher level of vendor support.

of independent consultants and firms of various types that specialize in data processing assistance exist. The latter include management consulting firms, accounting firms, data processing con· sultants, and others. Also, some communities have

A final word of advice on micro sales and support is that a potential buyer should try to purchase his or her system from a repu· table vendor. At all costs, avoid the snake oil salesman. A reputable vendor is one who knows microcomputer hardware and software and understands the needs of your organiza· tion, one who will be in business next year (and the next and the next), one who offers a wide variety of hardware and software, and a vendor with whom a degree of rapport and trust can be developed.

@ been able to use local citizen experts satisfactorily. Local governments that lack adequate staff exper· tise in the area of data processing should look to one or more of these sources for assistance. A few thousand dollars invested in consulting assistance may mean many thousands saved and the avoid­ance of serious problems later.

f I I '/, ;, 1 I I

D. WHERE TO GET HELP

The same selection standards should be applied to a prospective consultant as to any other purchase of services. Spending as much on consult­

@ ing assistance as the microcomputer system will cost is probably not wise or necessary. This may be easy to do, however, since consulting assistance can be expensive compared to the relatively low cost of microcomputers.

Many local governments, especially small ones, may feel the need for expert assistance in under· taking a microcomputer procurement effort. Numerous sources of such assistance exist. In several states, university-based technical assistance or extension programs provide data processing system procurement help to local governments at no cost or for a nominal fee. In addition, hundreds

34

Finally, never ask a computer hardware or software vendor to provide consulting assistance unless the vendor will not be allowed to bid on the (c;;\ system. The fox should not guard the chicken coop ~ nor be given the key to the door.

NOTES TO INSTRUCTORS

Chapter VI. Issues of Importance

Several issues, some of which were raised in earlier chapters but deserve added attention, are presented in this concluding chapter. These are issues that potential buyers of microcomputer systems should be familiar with in order to protect themselves during a procurement effort.

Issues included are: hardware expandability and compatibility, software adaptability and transportability, software documentation, training to use the hardware and software, and functional limitations of micros (including CPU memory and disk storage limits, single versus multi-user capabilities, speed, perceptions of micros in organizations, lack of hard­ware standardization, competition for use of the micro, unnecessary duplication, and the fallacy that installation of a micro will solve basic management problems). Additional issues include the impact of technological change on micro use by local governments and the adoption of a policy on micros in local governments.

This chapter also discusses microcomputer sales and. support, describing the major types of organizations that sell micros, and listing some of the strengths and weaknesses of each. Also discussed are the main alternatives for servicing microcomputer components.

Finally, a few words of advice are offered for those local governments in need of assistance in their microcomputer procurement effort, e.g., where to get help.

VI. Issues of Importance

T HIS CHAPTER discusses in greater detail several issues of importance to the potential

local government microcomputer purchaser. These issues are: hardware expandability and compati­bility, software adaptability and transportability, software documentation, trammg, functional limitations of micros, the rapidity of change in microcomputer marketplace, and a policy on microcomputer procurement.

powerful the system, the more expensive it 1s. When deciding which type and model of hard­

ware to acquire, a local government should think in terms of both initial and long term require­ments. A memory size of 64K or 128K may be adequate initially, but if the organization's com­puting requirements are expected to grow, the system should be able to grow with them. A 64K or 128K limit may cause problems at a later date, and a system with greater expandability may

A. HARDWARE EXPANDABILITY

®be a better buy.

I All computers provide their users with potential

benefits and confront them with distinct limita­tions. Micros are no exception. One major limita­tion to the use of microcomputers is CPU memory. For example, the maximum available memory for 8-bit micros is 128K. However, many 8-bit systems are limited to 48K or 64K of memory. A local government using an 8-bit system will not be able to expand it beyond this maximum configuration even if data files and application programs require a larger CPU capacity. Similarly, 8-bit micros also have greater disk storage limitations. They are often limited to single or dual floppy disk drives with a maximum capacity of 150K to 300K per diskette. Larger data files will require the use of multiple diskettes.

On the other hand, 16-bit systems have far more CPU capacity than 8-bit systems. For example, 16-bit systems can be purchased with as little as 64K or CPU memory, but many can be expanded to over 700K. They can also handle hard disk drives with up to 40MB of storage capacity. Of course, each expansion increment, whether CPU memory or disk storage, adds an increment of cost to the system. Typically, the larger and more

..._~

36

B. HARDWARE COMPATIBILITY

Hardware compatibility is another important consideration, especially for those governments that plan to acquire more than one micro, that already have minicomputers or mainframes, or that want to communicate with other computers. In this regard, two different types of compatibility should be considered. The first is strictly micro to micro compatibility. This can be achieved either by staying with identical or nearly identical hardware, such as all Apple lie's, or all IBM PC's, or by buying computers with compatible operating systems, such as machines that support CP/M or MS-DOS. In this way, the software that the organization purchases will be ·able to be run on all of the hardware that it owns. Connecting the micros in what is known as a local area network may also be feasible so that they can communicate with one another and share common data and files.

The second type of compatibility concerns communication with other computers, especially minicomputers or mainframes or with remote computerized networks and data bases. Many micros on the market can be configured with additional hardware or software elements (e.g., modems and communication software) to com­municate with other computers. However, the type of communication desired may be a limiting factor. Many micros can act as terminals on larger com­puters and can upload and download flies and data from them. Today, however, micros that can share programming with larger computers are rare.

C. SOFTWARE ADAPTABILITY AND TRANSPORTABILITY

As has been stressed repeatedly, software is the single most important element of a micro computer system. Software should not only do the work for which it is intended, such as payroll or utility billing, but it should also be adaptable and transportable. Adaptability means that a software package should be capable of being modified for the specific purposes of the organi­zation that purchases it. This means that such things as screen formats, input and output formats,

37

file and record layouts, printing formats, reporting requirements, and many others must be flexible enough to be adapted to the way the organization does its business rather than having to adapt the organization to the requirements of the software.

Transportability in part relates to the earlier@2

discussion of hardware limitations. Can the soft­ware be used on various micros within the organi­zation? If the hardware or the operating systems are compatible, then the answer is yes. If they are not, then the answer is no. If an organization anticipates purchasing several micros, transporta­bility is an important issue. Transportability means that the organization will not be faced with unnecessary duplication of software purchases; one package can be shared by several users on different machines.

D. DOCUMENTATION

One of the complaints most frequently voiced by computer users concerns something called software documentation. Documentation usually refers to the user's manuals or instruction guides that accompany microcomputer equipment and

programming. These manuals are frequently incomplete, poorly written, difficult to follow, and frustrating to use. They also have been known to

contain incorrect information and instruction. Toll-free hot-line telephone numbers will rarely

substitute for good documentation. The user, therefore, should search for systems that not only perform required functions adequately but also are supported by good user documentation.

Documentation can also refer to what is known as the source code. This means the actual pro­gramming language instructions that create the software. For most local government micro users, source code will not be available and, if available, it should not be desired. The only reasons for having source code are 1) in case the writer of the program suddenly goes out of business, and changes are needed in it or 2) the organization intends to make changes in the program right from the start. The former problem can be avoided by purchasing software that requires no program­ming level changes. In the latter case, the best solution is not to buy software with the idea of making changes in it, especially if the local government does not have a staff of qualified programmmers.

the benefits of system use. Also, serious mistakes such as erasing data and files can be made as the result of lack of training, and the most efficient methods of system use may never be learned.

E. TRAINING Thus, the local government buying a micro

generally should spend the necessary time and @ money on formal training for staff persons. Such

No one can use a microcomputer system with- training should include both operation of the out training, and while some persons learn more hardware and instruction in each of the purchased quickly than others, efficiency will occur only software packages. A sufficient amount of training after some training and a lot of practical appli- should be provided to ensure that local staff will cation. be able to use each application program and all

Formal training is available at a cost from most system capabilities effectively. microcomputer system vendors. A limited amount Another way to get training is from the instruc-of training may be offered "free" with the tion manuals and diskettes and self-taught tutorials purchase of hardware or software. Actually, this that accompany hardware and software. These training is not free. Its cost has been built into can be helpful but are often difficult to follow, the price of the hardware or software. especially for the uninitiated, and this type of

A greater price is paid, however, when formal training may require a greater commitment of time training is not acquired, and personnel are and be more frustrating than formal training. expected to learn to operate the system without it. They then have the additional burden of learning the system by trial and error while continuing to

do their routine work. It also delays the time when the organization can expect to begin reaping

38

F. FUNCTIONAL LIMITATIONS

To hear some vendors tell it, microcomputersf"54\ have virtually no limitations and can be used for~

virtually all purposes known to man. This is non­sense. Here are some of the more important functional limitations that potential purchasers should know.

1. Memory and Disk Storage. At this writmg something over 700K is the maximum CPU memory configuration for commercially available 16-bit micros, and 40MB of hard disk is about the maximum effective disk storage capacity. Of course, many micros have far more limited con­figurations. These capacities, as great as they are, cannot compare with the megabytes of memory and gigabytes (billions of bytes) of disk storage offered on minicomputers and mainframes. Micro­computers are smaller and hence cannot do as much work as larger computers.

2. Single User. Their size and internal architec­ture also limit most micros to being single user systems, although given the proper communication software and hardware linkages, several micros can be connected together to form something of a multi-user environment. Minicomputers and main­frames are truly multi-user, multiprogramming computers that will support a wide range of peripheral devices and numerous users performing

39

a variety of tasks at the same time. True multi-user micros are just now entering the market, and months or years will be required for software development to catch up with the hardware capabilities of these systems.

3. Speed. Micros are also relatively slow. Waiting for a micro to retrieve a piece of information from a large data base or to print a lengthy report can be frustrating, especially when a mainframe or mini­computer can accomplish the same task in a fraction of the time. Of course, micros are considerably less expensive than larger systems, and, unless speed is essential, the slower system can easily be justified by the lower cost. Further­more, even with relatively slow speed, micros are far ahead of the speed of data processing with manual systems.

4. Perceptions of Micros. Microcomputers may be perceived as toys in an organization. This can have at least two results. The first is that no one will take the micro seriously and thus it may not be used. It will just sit there and do nothing, not because it will not work, but because no one will use it. The same can happen as the result of fear of microcomputers. People will not use them if they are afraid of them.

Second, almost every organization has a closet programmer or two. As soon as a micro appears, these otherwise mild-mannered souls will burst out of the closet intent on writing programs. This can be a valuable asset if properly channeled, but it can also mean that the introduction of a microcomputer will result in the loss of effective manpower. The closet programmers will spend their time "playing" with the micro rather than doing their work.

5. Lack of Standardization. Lack of standardiza­tion is a scourge on the microcomputer industry. It means that local governments must be know­ledgeable in purchasing micros in order to acquire systems that will work effectively. Although lack of compatibility is the rule throughout the world of computers, the problem is magnified somewhat in relation to micros because they seem so genuinely easy to use and are so inexpensive. There can be no greater (and possibly more costly) surprise than to discover that the newly purchased

micro will not run certain desired programs, that 7. Duplication. In organizations that have other it is incompatible with other systems the organiza- computers, micros, if not acquired carefully, can tion already owns, or that additional hardware or also lead to unnecessary duplication of effort. software elements must be purchased before it That is, micros will be used to do or redo much of will work properly. what is done or should be done on the minicom-

6. Competition. Competition or conflict within ( W puter or mainframe, or micros themselves will be an organization can affect the use of a micro. This~ duplicative of one another. may mean competition among staff persons for 8. No Panacea. As pointed out in Chapter II, use of the system. Whose is it? What are the func- a microcomputer is not a panacea for bad manage-tions to which it is dedicated? Which persons and ment practices. Thinking that the introduction of functions have priority? A second form of compe- a micro into an organization will cure bad manage-titian can occur between the micro and the data ment practices would be foolhardy. It can, how-processing department in local governments that ever, help good managers to be better by making have larger computer systems. Data processing their work easier, faster, more accurate, and more system managers and personnel may fear the comprehensive. However, local governments should intrusion of micros and the competition from never automate systems or practices that are them and, therefore, may oppose the introduction inefficient, ineffective, or error prone. To do so and use of micros into the organization. These will mean that the same mistakes are made faster persons may Olso refuse to provide adequate and retained longer. support for micros. Often, the pressure for acquir­ing micros comes from persons at the departmental level who have been denied effective access to the programming and power of the mainframe. This may serve to increase the degree of conflict over the micro and further hinder its effective use.

• 40

G. TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE

During the writing of this handbook, numerous new hardware and software products for micro­computers were released, and many more can be expected to be introduced in the future. In this same period, at least one major microcomputer manufacturer (Osborne) went bankrupt, and another manufacturer facing huge financial losses withdrew a highly advertised product from the home computer market (the Texas Instruments 99/4A).

The rapidity of technological change and the volatility of the microcomputer market have given pause to more than one potential purchaser. Issues of concern include at least the following: Will a system bought today be substantially less expensive or even outdated in a few months or years? Will the model acquired still be on the market or the manufacturer still in business in a few months or years?

To answer these questions requires a prescience not available to mortal man. However, the follow­ing advice may be helpful.

System usability is the key to the issue. Local governments ordinarily do not buy computers to stay on the leading edge of technological change.

®

Instead, they buy them in order to accomplish certain specific functions and to do the work of the organization. Hence, an 8-bit micro with 64K of memory and a dual floppy disk drive used for word processing or spreadsheet analysis is as good for its work at three years of age as it was when brand new. A more current 256K 16-bit machine with greater storage capacity that may cost the same today as the 8-bit system did three years ago is really no functional improvement. Waiting to buy a system until the price goes down a few hundred dollars means not having the productivity benefits of a microcomputer in the interim.

In order to guard against the risk that a manu­facturer will go out of business leaving the local government with essentially useless equipment, the following considerations may be helpful: buy a system that 1) is one of the more popular brands, 2) relies on one of the more widely used operating systems, 3) has ample third-party software, and 4) has adequate hardware support. A micro purchased

41

with these considerations in mind will remam functionally effective for a long time.

The next major change in the market will probably be the introduction of the true multi-user micro. This shift has already begun, but a few years will be required before it comes to fruition. This is so because of the inevitable lag between hard­

'ware availability and software development. Here, too, the question is whether a small local govern­ment or even a department in a larger government should wait for the arrival of the multi-user system. The answer is probably no. For the limited com­puting requirements of most of these organizations, single user micros will be adequate. If they are not, then networking single user micros or the purchase of a minicomputer may be the reasonable alternative.

Technological change and marketplace volatility can be frightening, but the use of common sense and the guidelines presented in this handbook can help to minimize their negative consequences.

H. POLICIES ON MICROS

Local governments may find useful the adoption of formal policies regarding the acquisition of microcomputers. Such policies may be as simple as limiting the amount of funds that can be expended for a given piece of equipment or as comprehensive as specifying the type of hardware, operating system, software capabilities, and price range and requiring review and approval by a purchasing officer or data processing committee.

Regardless of the detail of the policy, an organi­zation that plans to acquire micros needs to ensure hardware and software compatibility, prevent conflict over system use, prevent unnecessary duplication of hardware and software, and maximize the effective use of this technology. In the absence of a formal policy, more limited procurement guidelines that address the issues raised above regarding hardware and software can be beneficial.

FOOTNOTES

1The Altair was probably the first microcomputer to appear on the American market. However, it was sold as a kit to be assembled by the user, and its appeal was limited largely to hobbyists. Radio Shack's TRS 80 was on the market earlier than the Apple, but the contemporary litany credits Jobs and Wozniak with opening the micro market with their innovative product.

2see Gary B. Shelly and Thomas J. Cashman, Introduction to Computers and Data Processing, (Fullerton, CA: Anaheim Publishing Co., 1980), chapter 2, for the number of minicomputers and main­frames. The estimate of the number of micros sold by 1984 was provided by Aaron Goldberg, research manager, International Data Corporation (IDC), Santa Clara, CA, December, 1983.

3Donald F. Norris and Vincent]. Webb, Microcomputers: Baseline Data Report (Washingtom Inter­national City Management Association, July, 1983), p. 2; and Donald F. Norris and David R. DiMartino, Computers and Small Local Governments: A Survey of Computing in the Plains and Mountain States (Omaha: Center for Applied Urban Research, University of Nebraska at Omaha, August, 1983), pp. 24~26.

~orris and Webb, p. 1, and Norris and DiMartino, pp. 7 and 25.

5 Info World, July 18, 1983, p. 31, interview with John Sculley.

6Norris and Webb, pp. 2-3.

7Ibid., pp. 7·8.

8Norris and DiMartino, pp. 24-26, and Norris and Webb, p. 2.

9with appreciation for the humor of Bob Newhart.

10This discussion of the evolution of computer technology is based in part on Shelly and Cashman, chapter 2. For persons interested in an especially well-written, understandable text on computers and data processing, this book is highly recommended.

It appears, however, to be incorrect in one respect. As in many other contemporary works, ENIAC is credited with being the world's first electronic computer. Recent litigation has established that Dr. John Vincent Atanasoff of Iowa State University developed the world's first electronic computer in 1939, seven years prior to ENIAC.

11Norris and Webb, pp. 2 and 7, and Norris and DiMartino, op. cit. Interestingly, a recent survey of 5,000 businesses found that micros were used mostly for spreadsheet analysis (68.7 percent), followed by accounting (61.9 percent) and word processing (48.4 percent). See Personal Computer Survey (New York: Dun and Bradstreet Credit Services, 1983), p. 24.

12Thanks to john Scoggins, currently an independent consultant and author of Computers and Local Government (Athens, GA: Institute of Government, University of Georgia, 1978), for this quotable quote.

13This method and these steps, in a somewhat modified form, were originally developed and docu­mented in the training and technical assistance program associated with John Scoggin's handbook on microcomputers and local government. See Scoggins, op. cit.

14Norris and DiM.artino, p. 12.

151983 Computer Salary Survey (Source EDP Personnel Services, 1983), p. 14.

42

NOTES TO INSTRUCTORS

Appendices

The handbook contains seven appendices. The first five are essentially standard docu­ments that with appropriate modifications can be used by governmental organizations in the procurement of microcomputer systems. These appendices are:

• Data Processing Analysis and Recommendations-the recommended study for determining an organization's computing and information management require­ments and the feasibility of acquiring a micro.

• Request for Proposal • Specifications for a Microcomputer-for the organization that does not want or

need to use the more elaborate RFP method. • Evaluation of Proposals-an example of evaluations of proposals for microcom­

puter system received by a small city. • Software License Agreement-this or something like it is recommended when

purchasing packaged software. The next appendix is a reprint of an evaluation of several hardware systems. It was

adapted from Creative Computing's Buyer's Guide to Personal Computers, 1984. This gnide.will be out of date quickly. Instructors are urged, therefore, to provide more current hardware evaluations for their workshops. These are available from a variety of publications that cover the microcomputer industry.

The final appendix is a list of organizations known to the author that provide packaged programming for local governmental functions. The list, admittedly, is incomplete as probably many more such organizations are or soon will be in business around the country. Instructors and participants are urged to add to the list such organizations as they know that are producing packaged governmental software. (The author would appreciate receiving information about these organizations and the software that they have available.)

S3::JIGN3dd'l1

NOTE TO THE READER

The documents included in Appendices A and B were developed initially hy David R. DiMartino and Donald F. Norris as part of a demonstration project funded by theW. K. Kellogg Foundation in the acquisition of microcomputers by small local governments. They are printed here in modified form as models for use by other governmental agencies and technical assistance personnel. Naturally, they will require modification and customization to fit particular organizations.

Sections of the "boilerplate" for these documents had their origin in the methodology for procurement of minicomputer systems presented in John Scoggins, Computers and Small Local Governments: A Workshop (Athens, GA: Institute of Government, University of Georgia, 1978) .. Scoggins' work was funded under a grant from U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.

44

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I. Scope and Purpose

This report presents an analysis with recommendations regarding the data processing needs of the city of . The analysis was undertaken pursuant to an agreement dated between the city of and -----.

This report will provide city officials with information on the current status of data processing in their city government and the city's information management data processing needs. The report will also discuss the applicability of microcomputer technology, the probable configuration and cost of a microcomputer system to meet their needs, and recommendations concerning future action by the city in the area of microcomputer system procurement.

II. Microcomputer Technology

Recent advances in technology have brought computers within the· reach of many local governments in America. These advances have substantially reduced the cost of com­puter systems and have also made possible effective computer use by local government personnel who are not data processing experts.

The first advance has been a tremendous reduction in the physical size and cost of computers coupled with dramatic increases in their functional capability. Second, the current generation of application programming, or software, available to local governments is characterized by flexibility and "user friendliness." That is, the programming is designed for interactive use on video terminals by personnel who have little or no knowledge of computer technology or programming. One result of these changes is that local governments today can acquire and use computer systems to aid in performing everyday activities and can do so with a high degree of confidence and at relatively low cost.

The third major advance has been the introduction of the microcomputer. These small, inexpensive, yet relatively powerful machines, when coupled with appropriate software, can become significant tools in the performance of local government functions.

Microcomputers can be used as "personal" computers. That is, they can be single user, single function machines-somewhat analogous to the telephone or adding machine, or they can be used by several persons to perform a variety of activities. Certain micro­computers can also be linked together to form local distributed processing networks of small machines.

III. Acquiring the Technology

Regardless of the type of hardware, a computer system should be viewed as a tool to be used like any other piece of office equipment. It is an integral part of the work routine, just like the typewriter, the telephone, the adding machine, or the filing cabinet.

Computer usage is technically feasible in almost all organizations. Technical feasibility, however, is often less important to local governments than several other factors, including:

• Cost. Cost is perhaps the best understood and most definitive means of determining the feasibility of any new system. Is the new system more or less expensive than current methods? Although cost may be the best understood criterion for determining feasibility, accurate cost estimates are often difficult to obtain, especially in cities with limited current data processing capabilities.

46

A word of caution is in order here. Few local governments that implement computer technology can expect to reduce overall costs. Thus, a strict cost justification for an electronic data processing system may be impossible. At best, a local government can anticipate cost displacement (e.g., the moving of costs from one place in the budget to another) or cost avoidance (e.g., the use of more efficient technology to prevent, avoid, or move into the future costs that would otherwise occur).

• Ease of Operation. Some computer systems can be operated only by technically trained personnel. A factor in favor of the current technology, especially the present generation of mini- and microcomputers, is that in many cases local government personnel who are not trained in the technology can easily operate these systems, and a technical staff of programmers is not required.

• Available Programming. The availability of proven, easy-to-use software or pro­gramming to make a computer system do what a local government wants, when it wants, and how it wants is crucial to system feasibility. Without adequate software, a computer is only an expensive box that fulfills no useful purpose. Software is available in most functional areas of local government from a variety of sources and needs to be considered prior to hardware considerations.

• Growth. An important factor in the feasibility of an electronic data processing system is the extent to which it can grow to meet future government requirements. Not only should the system be capable of accepting more sophisticated uses and equipment (hardware) but also of accommodating normal growth in the volume of city activities.

• Staff Considerations. The degree of acceptance of computer technology within a local government is a significant consideration in system feasibility. Similarly, the degree of staff ability to perform specific local government functions (e.g., payroll, utility billing, etc.) and staff aptitude and enthusiasm for the use of computers can be constraints on system effectiveness. To put it more plainly, staff support for computerization, compe­tence in positions that will rely on computer technology, aptitude for using automated equipment, and interest or enthusiasm for automation are most important to the effective implementation of a computer system in local government.

• Political Feasibility. Finally, political feasibility may well be the single most critical element in the success of computerization in a local government and the most difficult factor to deal with. Political feasibility means the extent to which local elected officials and administrators understand and support the need for an electronic data processing system procurement. On the other hand, the support of these persons can help immeasurably to ensure the smooth acquisition, installation, and operation of a system.

Once a local government has reviewed these factors and determined both the need for and feasibility of acquiring new or enhancing existing automated technology, a step-by­step procurement plan should be adopted. This study of the city of 's current data processing requirements is the first step in such a plan. It will, in turn, lead to the following activities, in order of occurrence.

• A decision by city officials whether to acquire a microcomputer system based on the recommendation contained in this report. This decision should follow shortly after review of this report by city officials.

• In the event the city decides to acquire a system, the city (or its consultant) will develop and submit to microcomputer system vendors a Request for Proposal (RFP) to meet the requirements identified in this study.

• Proposals received by the city will be evaluated, and a short list of finalists will

47

be selected from among all of the proposals for additional consideration. • City officials will be asked to approve the selection of finalists and to authorize

further evaluation of these proposals, including visits to local governments having systems installed by the finalists.

• A detailed evaluation of the remaining proposals will be conducted,and a system will be recommended for selection by the city.

• A contract will be negotiated with the selected vendor. • Finally, system installation, testing, and acceptance will complete the procure­

ment plan. This step-by-step plan outline here is recommended for use by the city of as

a method proven effective for computer system acquisition in numerous local governments throughout the country.

IV. Current Data Processing in the City of -------

The current level of data processing in an organization, whether manual or automated, is an indicator of the organization's need for improved technology. It also provides insight into potential problems that may arise with implementation of newer technology. A review of an organization's data processing operation also allows the development of a cost-benefit analysis that can be used, in part, to determine whether new or enhanced data processing capabilities are justifiable.

The following is a brief discussion of the data processing activities in the city of ----- Data for this section of the report were provided through interviews with the city manager, city clerk, and other staff personnel.

A. Administrative Offices

The clerk's office in operates a ledger card bookkeeping machine, purchased from a private owner in 1980. Current maintenance costs for the system are $2,250.00 per year, with a one- to two-week turnaround time for necessary repairs. Backup data processing is by hand.

The is an outdated machine. It uses programming on cassette tapes and can perform only one function at a time. Maintenance for the system can be expected to become increasingly costly and difficult to obtain, and the machine lacks expandability to accommodate additional functions. Its salvage value is minimal. Finally, due to its age and functional limitations, enhancement of present operations on this equipment (e.g., a more up-to-date utility billing system) would not be advisable.

Only two functions are currently automated on the __ . These are: city payroll-20 biweekly payroll checks (plus approximately a dozen summer employees) utility accounts and biiling-1,000 customers for sewer and water and 1,250 for garbage services, billed quarterly.

In addition, a service bureau does basic month-end and year-end accounting for the . city at a cost of $180 per month or $2,160 annually.

At the end of each month, the city sends the service bureau a list of checks paid and revenues received. The service enters data from these documents onto its computer system and prepares monthly reports for the city, including balance sheet, income and expenditures

48

journal, and consolidated funds comparison for each department by monthly and yearly totals. A time lag of two to three weeks occurs between the time the city submits its infor­mation to the bureau and the receipt of bureau reports. In addition, the data are maintained by the service bureau to facilitate year-end auditing.

The city clerk also operates a memory typewriter. All correspondence, reports, ordinances (25 per year), resolutions (25 per year), and city council agendas (one per month), and council meeting minutes are produced on this machine.

A number of additional functions are performed manually. These include accounts receivable, accounts payable, and personnel records.

In addition the city manager is currently experimenting with in-house automated data processing on an portable computer system with an dot matrix printer, leased for $200 per month. The manager uses the for budgeting prepara-tion, budgetary accounting, and word processing.

B. Other Offices

At present, the chief of police makes no use of electronic data processing. The chief stated his principal need as a computer terminal and printer for data base management. His six-man force processes approximately 400 arrests per year. The desired system would assist with report filing and records searches. These functions would involve the automated accessing of complaint, warrant and criminal history records, drivers' licenses, and motor vehicle registrations.

None of the other departments in presently uses data processing. More-over, due to the size of the city and the relatively limited volume of administrative work carried out by these departments, automation does not currently appear warranted.

V. Basic Applications to Consider for Computerization

A. Introduction

The use of automated data processing in the city of is relatively limited. This is understandable if for no other reason than the size of the city (pop. 2,300) and its operational requirements. In addition, the currently being used is essentially old technology with considerable limitations as to expansion or enhancement. This equipment also represents a generation of technology that does not permit integration of the city's major administrative functions, e.g., accounting, budgeting, and payroll.

The current generation of data processing technology permits and encourages both functional and data base integration. In fact, the type of system that should be considered by the city should have the following characteristics.

Transaction oriented-When a transaction such as updating the accounts receivable file is made, the system accepts the transaction and either automatically updates all affected ledgers and funds or stores the transaction for later updating. This would, for example, permit automatic distribution of the entry throughout the system and would also provide for an audit trail of the transactions. On-line-computer terminal(s) and printer(s) in one or more physical locations in city hall would be connected to the computer's central processing unit. Real-time-Processing on the system occurs at the time a user begins to work at a

49

terminal, and no need exists to create punch cards, ledger cards, computer coding forms or other input documents to run through the system at a later time. Interactive-This means that users communicate directly and immediately with the computer through a video display terminal or CRT. User-friendly-Computer programming or software is written in such a way that the programming itself instructs users in its operation. At the minimum, user-friendly software is "menu driven," meaning that hierarchical lists of choices of actions appear on the video monitors, and users instruct the system in the completion of required actions by selecting the correct choices. Data Base and File Management-The system should include software that will enable users to make unique inquiries across data bases, to create unique files, to combine data from various files, and to generate unique (not pre-programmed) reports, all using standard English language commands.

B. Applications

With these requirements in mind, a single stand-alone microcomputer system with programming in the following functional areas should be considered by for automation:

Integrated financial management system, including the following elements' general ledger accounting budgetary accounting vendor accounting accounts payable accounts receivable

Payroll/personnel system Utility accounting and billing Data base management Word processing.

VI. Equipment Configuration and Estimated Cost-Microcomputer Alternatives

A. Immediate

A single microcomputer, with 128K to 256K of main memory and lOMB to 20MB of hard disk storage, could fulfill the city's basic data processing needs. The single system would have one work station located in the city clerk's office with a dual mode printer. The programming would include integrated financial management, payroll, and utility billing, data base management, and word processing.

The costs can be expected to range between the two amounts shown in Figure 1.

FIGURE 1

Hardware (CPU, video display monitor, hard disk drive, and printer) Software (as discussed above)

Total

50

Low High

$ 6,000 4,500

$10,500

$ 7,500 8,000

$15,500

Maintenance for a system of this configuration would cost an estimated $1,200 to $2,000 per year, if deemed necessary. However, except for the disk drive unit, a maintenance policy is not recommended. This is due to the reliability of microcomputer systems in general and the fact that replacement costs for most system elements are relatively low.

B. Future

Future functions that might be considered for automation on additional microcom­puter(s) include:

- an integrated law enforcement system for the police department, - a vehicle and equipment management system for the public works department.

Automation for the police department would require the acquisition of a second micro­computer system with hard disk drive at an estimated hardware cost of $6,000 to $7,500, and an estimated .. software cost of $5,000 to $7,500.

Automation for the public works department (equipment management only) could be accomplished on the system in the city clerk's office at an estimated cost of $2,500 to $4,000 for software only.

VII. Alternative Methods of Acquiring Computer Technology

A. Alternatives

The city can acquire the required microcomputer system by using one of three basic 'alternative methods. This is so whether the city chooses a single microcomputer or multiple microcomputer system. These alternatives are: 1. Acquire microcomputer hardware and also develop application software (programming) for the system. 2. Acquire microcomputer hardware and off-the-shelf software and either modify this software or modify city procedures to accommodate the software. 3. Acquire a fully programmed and supported system, including both in-house computer hardware and packaged application software. Such a system would be operated by existing city personnel.

B. Evaluation of Alternatives

1. In-house hardware/in-house software development This alternative is not deemed acceptable for the following reasons:

The length of time required to create the required software will be excessive. The personnel and cost requirements of in-house software development and support are excessive. The limited availability of qualified programmer/analysts with experience in municipal government would result in difficulty in hiring and retaining a qualified programmer(s).

This alternative would take too long, cost too much, and involve too much risk for a small local government to implement a data processing system.

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2. Microcomputer and off-the-shelf software a. Advantages

The city would own and control its own system. Both hardware and software are readily available, inexpensive, easy to use, and reliable. Little or no training will be required to operate the system. The city can acquire and install such a system quickly.

b. Disadvantages Off-the-shelf software may not be adequate for certain functions, e.g., fund accounting. Staff may not have the ability or background to modify or ei_Uploy successfully off-the-shelf software for city purposes. Only standard, vendor written purchase contracts are available for this type of acquisition.

3. Microcomputer and packaged software a. Advantages

The city would own and control its own system. The software is tested and reliable, and some packages can be modified by the vendor to meet the city's specific requirements. The system can be operated easily by existing personnel. The system provides a relatively easy transition and introduction to electronic data processing. A procurement contract may possibly be executed under which a vendor is fully responsible for system (hardware and software) performance or at least for soft­ware adequacy and performance.

b. Disadvantages Certain problems are associated with ownership and control of a computer system, including system depreciation and obsolescence, equipment failure, and use scheduling. Unanticipated vendor problems can occur. Personnel problems can arise involving both training of personnel and personnel fear of and/or opposition to a system.

C. Recommendation

This study recommends that a Request for Proposal (RFP) be developed to solicit proposals for microcomputer hardware and packaged software per the configuration recom­mended in Section VI of this report. The city should not consider in-house software development or purchase of a microcomputer and off-the-shelf software because neither alternative provides an adequate solution to the city's software requirements.

VIII. Conclusion

Three compelling reasons exist for the city of to proceed with this recom-mendation. First, the equipment that it currently operates for purposes of utility billing and accounting is antiquated, has essentially no expandability or enhancement potential, and maintenance on this equipment can be expected to become increasingly expensive.

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Second, the current generation of microcomputer technology is relatively inexpensive, highly reliable, and will provide the city with a considerably enhanced capability to perform needed data processing tasks. For example, the city will have data management and full word processing capabilities on the system and will have integrated financial management software-none of which are now available on presently owned equipment.

Third, the city can proceed with the recommendation made to submit RFP 's for a new system at virtually no risk. That is, no decision regarding acquisition of a replacement system will be made until bids have been received and evaluated and cost comparisons made. At that time, city officials will have a much clearer idea of the costs and benefits of a new microcomputer system versus continuing with present methods.

A new microcomputer system is estimated to cost from $10,500 to $15,500. It will provide computing capabilities in the areas of integrated financial management, payroll/ personnel, and utility billing and accounting. If current maintenance and service bureau costs are subtracted from this estimate, the net result is an estimated one-year cost of from $6,090 to $11,090. Amortizing these costs over three- and five-year periods shows that the system will pay for itself in a very short time. See Figure 2. The cost of the system, more­over, can be financed over two or more years, thus reducing its impact on any single budget year.

FIGURE 2

One-year Difference

Estimated cost of microcomputer system Current one-year maintenance and

service bureau cost

Difference

Low

$10,500

-4,410

$ 6,090

Three-year Difference

Estimated cost of microcomputer system Current three-year maintenance and

service bureau cost

Difference

Five-year Difference

Estimated cost of microcomputer system Current five-year maintenance and

service bureau cost

Difference

53

$10,500

- 13,230

($ 2,730)

$10,500

- 22,050

($11,550)

High

$15,500

-4,410

$11,090

$15,500

- 13,230

$ 2,270

$15,500

- 22,050

($ 6,550)

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

1.0 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Purpose. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.2 Submissions/Schedule. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1. 3 Selection Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2.0 General Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2.1 Conformity/Uniformity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2.2 Additional Information/Further Contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2.3 Rights of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2.4 Liability and Insurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2.5 Price Protection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2.6 Funding Out Clause. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2. 7 Delivery Date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2.8 Maintenance/Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2.9 Systems Responsibility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

3.0 Proposal Format .................................. c . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . 4

3 .1 Vendor Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 3 .2 Application Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -4 3.3 Hardware..................................................... 4 3.4 Maintenance/Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 3 .5 Training. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

4.0 (Organization). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

4.1 Size. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 4.2 Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 4.3 Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

5.0 Systems Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

5.1 System Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 5.2 System Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 5.3 Operating System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 5.4 Application Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

6.0 Forms Required for Proposal Submission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

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1

1.0 Introduction

1.1 Purpose

This Request for Proposal (RFP) is submitted to solicit proposals from qualified vendors of computer hardware, software, and support for the . In order to receive consideration, a proposed system must meet the requirements of -------- as herein described.

1.2 Submissions/Schedule

Sealed proposals marked "Microcomputer System Proposal" will be accepted by _______ no later than 5:00 p.m. on . All proposals shall be submitted in accordance with the conditions and instructions provided herein.

Schedule: Date RFP release : Closing date for submissions: Oral presentations and system demonstrations: Evaluation completed and vendor selected:

The schedule is a guideline, and certain dates may vary somewhat from the original intentions. In no event, however, shall the deadline for proposal submissions be changed.

1. 3 Selection Process

The selection of a computer system by will involve both objective and subjective elements. The selection process is outlined below.

1.3.1 Evaluation Criteria

The following criteria will be used to evaluate all proposals: hardware, operating system, application software, hardware maintenance/support, software maintenance/support, vendor organization, and cost.

1.3.2 RFP/Bids/Selection

This RFP is issued to provide interested vendors with uniform information concerning the requirements of for an automated infor­mation processing system. Vendors shall avoid superficial marketing language and materials and focus on the actual configurations and capabilities of pro­posed systems. The attached forms shall be used by vendors in bidding their systems. Failure to do so may lead to rejection of proposal by ------

All proposals will be evaluated by in consultation with --------will present his recommendation(s)

to the of the who will make the final decision regarding contract negotiation and award.

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2

1. 3. 3 Oral Presentations/Demonstrations

If oral presentations and/or demonstrations of proposed systems are desired, these shall be arranged in advance at a time and place convenient for __ _ officials and personnel. Discussion of equipment during oral presentations/ demonstrations shall be confined to the configuration and level of equipment recommended in the proposal. The discussion of applications software shall be limited to currently available systems. The presentation/demonstration is not a negotiating session. Only material in the vendor's formal written proposal will be considered, and all sessions will be limited to a maximum of two hours.

2.0 General Conditions

2.1 Conformity/Uniformity

All proposals shall conform with the requirements presented in this RFP and shall be submitted using the forms provided in Section 6. Failure to conform may result in rejection of proposals.

2.2 Additional Information/Further Contact

Although the RFP and resulting proposals are of great interest to ------­

vendors shall direct all inquiries or requests for information relative to this RFP to who is the consultant selected by to assist in this procurement process. Any deviation from this requirement may result in disqualification of a vendor.

2.3 Rights of

2.3.1 Right of Rejection

--------reserves the right to reject any or all proposals, to waive technicalities or informalities, and to accept any proposal deemed to be in the best interest of ______ _

2.3.2 Right to Purchase From Any Source

--------reserves the right to purchase in part or in whole any desired equipment or services from any source or sources.

2.3.3 Rights to Submitted Materials

All proposals, responses, inquiries, or correspondence relating to this RFP, and all reports, charts, displays, schedules, exhibits, and other documents provided by vendors shall become the property of when received. retains the right to use any or all system ideas presented in any proposal. Selection or rejection of a proposal does not affect this right.

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3

2.3.4 Contract

reserves the right to require a performance based contract or ather performance guarantee from the selected vendor. will base payment for the system on system performance.

2.4 Liability and Insurance

The selected vendor shall save and hold harmless from any and all liability arising out of the infringement of any patent or copyright in respect to the normal use of proposed or installed equipment or software.

2.5 Price Protection

Prices quoted in ·the proposal shall be firm and not subject to increase during the term of any contractual agreement arising between and the vendor as a result of the proposal. Vendors shall provide firm prices less any federal excise tax. Vendors shall stipulate the expiration date of their quoted prices.

If a price on a piece of hardware or software is reduced by the vendor during the term of this proposal, the same shall be made immediately available to -------and and its consultant shall be notified in writing by the vendor within 10 days.

2.6 Funding Out Clause

Vendors shall signify their willingness to accept a clause in the contract providing that in the event 's budget does not allow for funds to maintain an auto­mated data processing system for any following year, a contract for lease or lease/ purchase (if either of these options is selected) may be terminated and services discon­tinued without penalty to

2.7 Delivery Date

Vendors shall specify the delivery date of equipment, services, and/or products (e.g., how long from the time of order to delivery of hardware and/or software). will expect to receive, in part or in whole, the selected materials and services on dates and times specified, and the same will be duly entered into the contract with the selected vendor.

2.8 Maintenance/Support

Vendors shall state their hardware and software maintenance policies. They shall also specify the names and addresses of all service organizations that will provide maintenance of all equipment and operating and application software proposed herein. Vendors shall also specify the maximum response time for all services. The response time quoted shall be the maximum time to elapse between the time a call for service

59

4

is made and a service response occurs. Vendors shall also indicate whether service is on-site by vendor representatives, via telecommunications, or will require that mal­functioning equipment or software be delivered by the to the vendor's service location. This information is to be provided on Form 4.

2.9 Systems Responsibility

The contents of this RFP notwithstanding, the vendor has the responsibility to verify the completeness, accuracy, and suitability of his proposal to meet the functional requirements of as stated herein.

If, after installation of the system, any additional equipment or software is necessary to meet 's requirements, the vendor shall provide this equipment or software without claim for additional payment. The successful vendor shall be obli­gated to provide a system that meets all guarantees in his proposal for the price con­tained therein and one that operates effectively and to the satisfaction of -----

3.0 Proposal Format

Proposals shall be written in a concise and straightforward manner, and superficial market­ing statements and materials shall be avoided.

Proposals shall include the following elements.

3.1 Vendor Identification

Vendors shall identify themselves and provide a list of current users of their systems on Form 1 (see Section 6 of this RFP).

3.2 Application Software

3.2.1 Furnish narrative description, including principal functions and outputs for the application software package in each functional area (Form 2).

3.2.2 Specify cost by application, including license or other fees (Form 2).

3.2.3 Identify computer language(s) in which applications are or will be written (Form 2).

3 .2.4 Identify and provide names and telephone numbers of contact persons in local governments or other organizations in which the proposed application software is installed and supported by the vendor (Form 1).

3.2.5 Specify conditions of use, i.e., restrictions, proprietary rights, etc. (Form 2).

3 . 3 Hardware

3.3.1 Describe proposed equipment configuration (Form 3).

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5

3.3.2 Provide names and telephone numbers of contact persons in local governments or other organizations in which identical or nearly identical systems are installed and supported by the vendor (Form 1).

3.3.3 Provide purchase cost itemized by equipment device (Form 3).

3.4 Maintenance/Support

Specify information related to both hardware and software maintenance and support (Form 4).

3.5 Training

Be able to provide training in system operation and specify the nature and extent of training programs, and the cost, duration, and location of programs, and the qualifi­cations of trainer(s) (Form 5).

4.0 (Organization)

4.1 Size

_______ is a of approximately population located in has a stable population, and no major annexation is currently planned.

4.2 Administration

------- operates under the direction of who serves as chief operating officer. He will have general responsibility for oversight of the imple­mentation and future operation of the proposed EDP system.

4.3 Functions

The handles the finance, personnel, and utility functions of-----____ 's annual budget is approximately $ owns and operates a machine currently used to process payroll and utility accounts and billing. The transaction volume includes:

a. Payroll for 20 year-round and 12 seasonal employees, amounting to approxi­mately 600 checks annually

b. Utility accounts and billing for 1,000 customers for sewer and water and 1,250 customers for refuse collection. Customers are billed quarterly.

----- accounting functions are handled by a service bureau. sends a list of checks paid and revenues received at the end of each month to the service bureau which prepares monthly reports. Reports include balance sheet, income and expenditures journal, and consolidated funds comparison for each department by monthly and yearly totals.

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Word processing is accomplished on a

All other functions such as accounts receivable, accounts payable, and personnel records are handled manually. Accounts payable number approximately 100 per month.

5.0 System Requirements

This section of the RFP is intended to assist vendors to structure proposals appropriate to the specific needs of Sufficient processing power, mass storage, and peripheral devices shall be available to serve all required activities efficiently and economically. If the selected system fails to perform according to 's require­ments and if this failure is determined to be the fault of the vendor, the vendor shall provide all enhancements or additions required for effective performance at no cost to

5.1 System Constraints

5 .1.1 Personnel Considerations

The desired system shall be capable of being operated by existing personnel. User operator training will be required.

Programming changes or modifications shall be documented and capable of accomplishment by the original providing vendor.

5.1.2 File Protection and History

In order to safeguard data files, provision must be made by the vendor for a daily system backup of all files to a machine sensing medium (e.g., tape or floppy disk) that can be stored in a different location.

5.1.3 File Security

All computer files shall be accessible in an interactive mode using CRT's. The vendor shall provide security on the system to guard against access to data by unauthorized persons and unauthorized changes to existing data. Such security provisions shall include both hardware and software "lock outs" as well as effective auditing procedures.

5.1.4 Modularity

The proposed system must have the capability for expansion. Increased processing, printing, and mass storage capabilities and networking ability may be needed for future applications. The proposal shall address the means and extent of system expansion in each of these areas.

5.1.5 DataManagement

Vendors shall propose data base management and/or file management pro­gramming with their proposed systems, describing this programming in full.

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5.2 System Hardware

The proposed system hardware configuration shall provide for an on-line, real time operation with user operating capabilities. Rigid disk must be the primary mass storage medium. The forms in Section 6 of the RFP must be used to specify all hardware characteristics, including ROM and RAM capacities, storage (disk) capacities, 8, 8/16, or 16-bit architecrure, etc.

Suggested guidelines for the system are a minimum of 128K of main memory, lOMB of hard disk storage, one video monitor, and one line printer. The acrual configuration of the system, however, shall be recommende·d by the vendor and be based on his proposed system's capabilities and 's file, record, and data processing requirements.

5. 3 Operating System

The proposed system must have an operating system that supports the requirements listed under hardware, e.g., on-line, real time, and interactive. The system shall have a data/file management capability. prefers that the proposed system use one of the more common operating systems or have the capability to do so, although this is not a requirement.

The operating system and programming languages supported by the hardware must be specified.

5.4 Application Software

5.4.1 General

The development, installation, and performance of the application software are the most important elements of the proposed system. System acceptance and payment will be based on the performance of the initial application software system.

5.4.2 Functions

Proposed systems must provide programming in the following major functional areas: Financial management, payroll, personnel, and utiliry and billing.

is considering the acquisition of programming for police records and reporting at a later date, so vendors shall include this element in their proposals if available.

a. Financial Management

An integrated financial management system designed around a general ledger accounting subsystem is 's first priority requirement. The system shall be capable of encumbrance accounting and conform to accepted governmental accounting standards.

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The system shall be transaction-oriented, i.e., an entered transaction must not only update the file against which the transaction is made but all other affected files or subsystems.

The system shall be a governmental fund accounting program and include but not necessarily be limited to the following subsystems:

Budgetary accounting Accounts receivable Accounts payable General ledger accounting.

b. Other Functions

Programming in the following functional areas is also of high prioriry to _____ . Vendors shall propose programming in each of the following areas:

(1) payroll (2) personnel records (3) utility billing and accounting (4) spreadsheet (5) data base management/file management (6) word processing.

c. Future

(1) police records and reporting

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6

10

FORM 1

GENERAL INFORMATION

Organization Submitting Proposal

Organization name:

Contactpe~on: ________________________________________________________________________ ___

Address=-----------------------------------------------------------------------------

Cicy/State/Zip'------------------------------------------------------------------

Telephone'--------------------------------------------------------------------

Current System Users (local governments or other organizations*):

User 1 · Name: --

Organization:

Address:

Telephone:

Configuration:

User 2- Name:

Organization:

Address:

Telephone:

Configuration:

User 3 - Name:

Organization:

Address:

Telephone:

Configuration:

User 4 - Name:

Organization:

Address:

Telephone:

Configuration:

*Users listed on this page should have systems comparable to the system herein proposed. (Use separate page to list additional users.)

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FORM 2

SOFTWARE INFORMATION BY FUNCTION

Vendors shall complete one copy of Form 2 for each required software package. These are: Integrated Financial Management System, Spreadsheet, Payroll, Personnel Records, Utility Billing, Word Processing.

N arne of package: (If more than one package or subsystem, use additional forms.)

SourceNendor:

Functions included and description: (attach sample screens)

Function

Progr~rninglanguage: --------------------------------------------------------------------------

Record capacity:

RAM required to operate:

Disk storage requirement:

Peripheral devices required to operate:

Documentation (type and brief description­attach samples):

Cost (purchase price only), $ ________________________ __

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FORM 3

HARDWARE CONFIGURATION

12

Equipment Manufacturer/Model #: ------------------------------

Memory (CPU), a) Proposed RAM capacity:------------b) Expansion increments: c) Maximum RAM: d) ROM capacity' e) System bit size:--------------­£) Principal operating system: g) Other operating system capabilities: --------

Storage (disk drives): a) Floppy disk(s) proposed, -----------

(1) model name/#,------------­(2) bundled?----,------------­(3) diskette type/capacity'----------­(4) min./max. number drives:---------­(5) cost per expansion drive:-----------

b) Hard disk proposed, -------------

(1) model name/#, ------------­(2) bundled?--------------­(3) capacity'--::---::------------(4) min./max configuration: __________ _

(5) cost per expansion drive: c) RAM required to operate: -----------­

(1) floppy drive' (2) hard drive'---------------

Monitor: a) Model name/#, b) Columns: c) Rows: d) Colo" e) Pixel configuration: ---------------

Printer: a) Model name/#: ---------------b) Speed'-----------------c) Type (matrix, other)' -------------d) RAM required to operate:

Networking Ability (explain):

Immediate Costs

$ ____ _

$ ____ _

$ ____ _

$ ____ _

$ _____ _

Expansion Costs

($----:--' (per increment)

$ _____ _

$ _____ _

Single or Multi-user:-----------------------------------

Compatibility (with other micros, minis, inainframes):

Documentation: a) System assembly' $ _____ _ b) User guide(s), $ _____ _ c) Language(s), $ _____ _

Proposed back-up method (specify), $:::::::::::::::::: TOTAL FOR PROPOSED HARDWARE $ _________ _

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13

FORM 4

MAINTENANCE INFORMATION, HARDWARE

Organization providing maintenance:

Organization name:

Con tact person:

Address:

City/State/Zip, ------------------------------

Operating hours of maintenance program:

Is hardware maintenance: ___ on-site, depot, ___ maiHn?

Describe typical response time (per covered device) for repair: ------------------

Type of maintenance program:-------------------------------

Devices covered:

Annual cost' Memory (CPU), $------­

Floppy disk drive' $-------Rigid disk drive: $ --------Monitor: $ _______ _ Printer: $ _______ _ Total' $ ______ _

Vendor's recommended hardware maintenance (type, device, cost); please explain below:

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14

FORM 5

SUPPORT INFORMATION, SOFTWARE

Organization providing software support: ---------------------------

Organization name:

Contact person: __________________________________ _

Address'-----------------------------------------------------------------

City/State/Zip,

Type of support offered (e.g., user assistance, program modification, replacement, debugging, etc.) (Please describe.):--------------------------

Operating hours of maintenance/support: ---------------------------

Typical response time:

Software applications covered: ----------------------------------

Monthly cost: $ Annual cost: $ _____________ _

(per application) (per application)

Vendor's recommended software support (type, application, cost). Please explain below.

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FORM 6

TRAINING INFORMATION

Vendor should describe below the type and extent of training in system operation and in use of application programs and also provide cost per training element.

Training Element (describe): Location Duration Cost per Element

Total Cost $

- -

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SPECIFICATIONS FOR A MICROCOMPUTER

These specifications for a microcomputer procurement were developed by Mr. Michael Carpenter, MIS director, city of Omaha, Nebraska, and are presented here slightly modified with Mr. Carpenter's permission.

For governmental agencies and units with in-bouse data processing expertise that have determined their information management requirements, these specifications can serve as an abbreviated form of request for bid or proposal and are a sound alternative to the lengthier, more detailed procurement method recommended in this handbook. Note that these specifications address hardware, a widely used operating system, and the capability of the system to run off-the-shelf software. Programming written for local governmental functions is not specified.

Finally, providing standard forms would be advisable (such as those in the RFP in Appendix B) with these specifications so that vendors will be forced to provide information in a uniform format. The use of standard forms promotes easier analysis of bids and proposals.

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SPECIFICATIONS FOR A MICROCOMPUTER

All features must be available and demonstrable at the time of the bid submission. Contact _____ for additional information.

I. Basic Hardware

One (1) microcomputer with the following features:

16-bit processor 256,000 characters random access memory Minimum of one (1) standard parallel and two (2) RS 232C serial interfaces Internal clock/ calendar Dot-addressable graphics capabiliry.

One (1) 5\4 inch floppy disk drive with a minimum storage capacity of 320K formatted.

One (1) box of 10 5\4 inch floppy diskettes.

One (1) fixed disk Winchester drive with controller having a minimum formatted storage capacity of 10 ME.

Hardware and software necessary to provide a method for backing up the fixed disk Winchester drive (minimum 10 MB formatted capaciry) in less than 10 minutes with minimal operator intervention.

One ( 1) 12-inch or larger color display with dot addressable graphics having a minimum resolution of 640 pixels horizontally and 400 pixels vertically.

One (1) full function QWERTY typewriter style keyboard with 83 or more keys including a numeric keypad.

One (1) dot matrix printer with data processing and correspondence quality printing capability and the following features:

132 column at 10 character pitch six or eight lines per inch vertical spacing dot-addressable graphics minimum speed 120 cps in data processing mode and 40 cps in correspon­dence mode.

One (1) line surge protector to guard equipment from variations in power supply.

II. Basic Software

One (1) MS-DOS release 2.0 or later operating system.

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III. System Requirements

System must run using the MS-DOS release 2.0 or later operating system and be able to support SNA/SDLC data communications.

System must be able to run the following general use software: Lotus 1-2-3, Multiplan, VisiCalc, WordS tar, dBASEII, TIM3, PFS File, and Report.

IV. Other requirements:

Vendor must provide installation of equipment.

A 90-day warranty must be available for all hardware devices.

Hardware maintenance must be available on a local basis with the following options:

a. Carry-in service (by annual fee and by time and material)

b. On-site service (by annual fee and by time and material)

Maintenance cost must be provided by component if available.

Delivery must be made within 3 0 days of bid award.

Vendor must provide a minimum of __ hours on-site training for all equipment devices and __ hours for each software package.

V. Pricing Information

Purchase prices must be provided by system component.

Prices must include freight, installation, cables, operating system software, i.e., every­thing to make the system operational.

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Sample Evaluation of Proposals

This sample evaluation of proposals is based on tbe proposals received by tbe city of Gordon, Nebraska, in its procurement of a microcomputer system. Eleven proposals were submitted to tbe city of Gordon in response to its RFP. For tbe sake of brevity and because tbe evaluation format and metbod can be presented tbrough a smaller number of examples, evaluations for only five proposals are shown here. These five are representative of tbe microcomputer proposals contained in tbe larger group received. The names of all vendors have been changed to maintain anonymity. .

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1. Data Processors, Ltd. (DPL)

DPL is a service bureau and software house located in . References are included for two cities, four counties, a college, and six businesses.

Hardware proposed is an XYZ PC system with 128K of memory, a 20MB hard disk system, and a floppy disk drive. The XYZ PC is a 16-bit system with an MS-DOS operating system. Also included in the system are a monochrome monitor (25 x 80 display matrix), and a 100 cps printer.

Hardware is covered by a 90-day warranty and is serviced through XYZ, Computer Stores, Inc., or Major-Chain retail stores. Maintenance beyond the initial 90 days is optional.

A full range of requested software that is developed and tested is proposed. Software support is provided by DPL via telephone, The first year of support is included

in the purchase price; thereafter, software maintenance will cost 10 percent of the purchase price of each software package.

RFP Requirements:

Hardware All met

Software Financial management Payroll Personnel Utility billing Spreadsheet Word processing Data base management

Cost Summarv

Hardware (with operating system) Software Training

Annual maintenance Hardware Software

Purchase price First-year cost Five-year cost Average annual cost

Recommendation

XYZPC 128Kmemory 20MB disk storage

yes yes yes yes yes yes yes

$ 9,135.00 5,364.00 1,000.00

570.00/year 6 3 6. 00/year

$14,499.00 16,069.00 20,893.00

4,179.00

This proposal should be selected for further consideration for both hardware and soft­ware and for software only in conjunction with the proposal from Grain Elevator and Supply. All specifications are adequate and prices are reasonable.

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2. Grain Elevator and Supply (GES)

GES is a local farmers' supply business, in operation for 50 years. It is also an authorized dealer of XYZ personal computers and software. No governmental references are provided.

Hardware proposed is an XYZ PC system witb 128K of memory, a 15MB hard disk storage, and two floppy disk drives. The XYZ PC is a 16-bit system witb an MS-DOS operating system. Also included in tbe system are a monochrome monitor (24 x 80 display matrix), and a 200 cps printer.

Hardware is covered by a 90-day warranty and is serviced by GES through Computer Store, Inc. in some 75 miles away. GES proposes a second system at its office as backup.

Software is only partially developed. The general ledger, accounts payable, payroll, and spreadsheet are either packaged systems or have been locally written. However, the personnel and utility billing systems must yet be developed.

Software is warranted for 90 days, but arrangements and costs of maintenance beyond that period are unclear.

RFP Requirements:

Hardware All met

Software Financial management Payroll Personnel Utility billing Spreadsheet Word processing Data base management

Cost Summary

Hardware (with operating system) Software Training

Annual maintenance Hardware Software

Purchase price First-year cost Five-year cost Average annual cost

Recommendation

XYZPC 128Kmemory 15MB disk storage

yes yes to be developed using a data base package to be developed using a data base package yes yes yes

$ 7,383.00 4,730.00 1,500.00

430.00/year (estimated) not specified

$12,113.00 14,043.00 15,763.00

3,153.00

The hardware system in this proposal should be selected for additional consideration in conjunction with software from the Data Processors, Ltd. proposal.

Hardware proposed is adequate and at a reasonable cost, and the vendor's local office location (with system backup) is a strong attraction. Software status is a problem, however; hence, the recommendation of combining the hardware proposal from this vendor with software from a second vendor.

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3. Great Plains Micros (GPM)

GPM is located in . It is a small software house primarily serving business organizations and school districts. Three references, all schools, were provided.

Hardware proposed is a Champion III based system with 256K of memory, a 20MB hard disk system, two floppy disk drives, a green monitor (24 x 80 display matrix), a 160 cps dot matrix printer, and a video cassette recorder for record backup. The Champion III is an 8-bit system with a proprietary operating system.

Proposed software includes all functions requested. However, the personnel and utility billing functions are not fully integrated with the financial management system, and the utility billing package is relatively new and untested. All other systems are in operation in several organizations.

Software support is provided by Data Systems, Inc., located in _________ _ for the financial management and payroll packages. Personnel utility billing and spreadsheet packages will be supported by· GPM. Software support costs for Data Systems, Inc., are included in the proposal, but no software support costs are provided for GPM.

Training will be provided on-site by GPM for all software systems and for hardware operation.

RFI' Requirements:

Hardware All met

Software Financial management Payroll Personnel Utility billing Spreadsheet Won! processing Data base management

Cost Summary

Hardware (with operating system) Software Training

Annual maintenance Hardware Software

Purchase price First-year cost Five-year cost Average annual cost

Recommendation

Champion III 256K memory 20MB disk storage

yes yes yes yes yes packaged packaged

$11,828.00 10,595.00 included

1,294.00 per year 540.00 per year

$22,423.00 24,257.00 32,593.00

6,319.00

Due to its relatively high cost, this proposal should be placed in a secondary priority group for consideration at a later date should the fail to reach a satisfactory purchase agreement with one of the top rated vendors.

This vendor's software is not totally integrated, and system support is split between two vendors. Otherwise the system is adequate.

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4. Micros and Software Company (MSC)

MSC is located in NE. This company is also relatively new and provided references including two businesses and one governmental agency.

Hardware proposed is a Super Micro S-200 system witb 256K of memory, lOMB hard disk storage, and one 514 inch floppy disk drive, a green monitor (24 x 80 display matrix), and a 100 cps dot matrix printer. The Super Micro S-200 is an 8-bit system tbat uses a CP/M operating system.

Hardware maintenance will be provided by MSC on-site witbin tbree working days of receiving a request for service.

Software offered is a "custom package," to be written in Microsoft BASIC by MSC. No details on tbis package are provided, altbough MSC says it will meet tbe city's software requirements for tbe price of its bid.

Software support will be provided by MSC during regular business hours via telephone or on-site witbin tbree days on an "as needed" basis at a flat hourly rate plus travel expenses.

Training for botb hardware and application software use will be provided by MSC on-site. The amount of training is not specified.

RFP Requirements:

Hardware All met

Software Financial management ) Payroll/personnel Utility billing Spreadsheet Word processing Data base management

Cost Summary

Hardware (witb operating system) Software Training.

Annual maintenance Hardware Software

Purchase price First-year cost Five-year cost Average annual cost

Recommendation

Super Micro S-200 256Kmemory 1OMB disk storage

all application software to be custom developed

off-tbe-shelf off-tbe-shelf

$ 9,615.00 12,500.00

600.00

1,920.00 hourly rate

$22,115.00 24,635.00 31,315.00 6,463.00

Because of its relatively high cost, tbe lack of cost data for software maintenance, tbe lack of detail on application software systems, and tbe fact tbat application software is not yet written, tbis proposal should not be selected for furtber consideration.

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5. Western Computer and Data Processing (WCDP)

WCDP is located in NE. It is a relatively new company and provided only one governmental and three corporate references.

Hardware proposed is a Megamicro M-20 microcomputer with 512K of memory, 20MB hard disk storage, and an eight-inch floppy disk drive, a green-on-black monitor (34 x 80 or 34 x 132 display matrix), and a 150 cps dot matrix printer. The M-20 is a 16-bit system that uses a proprietary operating system.

On-site hardware maintenance is available through a third party service organization located in a city 400 miles distant. Depot service is also available with a 48-hour turnaround time during regular business hours.

A full range of requested software is proposed with the exception of a personnel package. Word processing is also available for an additional cost of $500.00.

Software support is provided by WCDP and Megamicro in the form of toll free telephone assistance during regular business hours, typically with no greater than a two-hour response time. Software support is· included with the software purchase.

A total of six days of training for system operation and on the application software would be provided on-site by WCDP. The cost of training is included in the cost of the soft­ware.

RFP Requirements:

Hardware All met

Software Financial management Payroll Personnel Utility billing Spreadsheet Word processing Data base management

Cost Summary

Hardware (with operating system) Software Training

Annual maintenance Hardware Software

Purchase price First-year cost Five-year cost Average anriual cost

Recommendation

Megamicro M-2 0 512Kmemory 20MB disk storage

yes yes no yes yes yes yes

$16,480.00 6,950.00

included in software purchase cost

1,393.00 included in software purchase cost

$23,430.00 24,823.00 30,395.00

6,079.00

Due to its relatively high first-year and five-year costs, this proposal should be placed in a secondary priority group for consideration should an agreement not be reached to acquire one of the top-rated systems.

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II. SUMMARY OF EVALUATIONS

Total Average (five·year) Annual Purchase

Vendor System Cost Cost Price Recommendations

DPL XYZ PIC $20,893 $ 4,179 $14,499 Select total system for further (128K-20MB) consideration

GES XYZP/C 15,763 3,153 12,113 Select hardware for further (128K-15MB) consideration

GPM Champion III 32,593 6,319 22,423 Second priority consideration; (256K-20MB) cost and software integration

MSC Super Micro S-200 31,315 6,463 22,115 No further consideration; (256K-10MB) cost and software and

maintenance

WCDP Megamicro M-20 30,395 6,079 23,430 Second priority consideration; (513K-20MB) cost and hardware support

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Software License Agreement

This software license agreement, or something similar to it, is strongly recommended for governments that purchase packaged (as distinct from offcthe-shelf) software. It provides adequate protection to both the vendor and the purchaser. Section XI of the agreement enables the purchaser to return for a full refund· any software with which he or she is dissatisfied within six months of purchase at no penalty.

This agreement was developed by a vendor who sells and supports local government software on microcomputers, American Fundware, Inc., of Steamboat Springs, CO, and is used here in modified form with permission of American Fundware.

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SOFTWARE LICENSE AGREEMENT

This program license agreement (hereafter "this agreement") is entered into by and between the VENDOR and the LICENSEE:

I. Grant of License, Agreement to Provide Related Materials and Related Services. In consideration for Licensee's payment of the one-time license fee, but subject to all of the terms, conditions, and limitations of this agreement, Vendor grants to Licensee the personal, non-exclusive, non-transferable right to use the current release as of this date of the licensed program in machine readable form and the right to use the related materials, defined below, on or in connection with the central processing unit of the designated computer system. In further consideration for such one-time license fee, Vendor agrees to provide the related services defined below.

II. Definitions.

A. The "licensed program" shall mean the specific application program(s) listed in Section XIV, in machine readable form. "Licensed program" shall further include all new or additional releases made by Vendor to the licensed program during the one-year period following the delivery date of the current release.

B. "Related materials" shall mean all other materials furnished by Vendor and officially released pertaining to the licensed program including, for example, instruc­tional documentation, user and operational guides, and training guides.

C. "Related services" shall include:

(1) Installation support and trammg of Licensee's employees in the use of the licensed program at the (vendor or licensee location) for the number of days during the first year set forth above. Related services does not include training or retraining of Licensee's employees with respect to general data processing concepts, machine operations, keypunch training, system security, and/or backup procedures; and

(2) Software support, maintenance, and any necessary telephone con­sultations, for one year commencing on the delivery date.

III. Additional Charges. The one-time license fee shall not include the following, all of which shall be paid by Licensee as additional charges:

A. A fee for time expended by Vendor's employees, at a reasonable hourly rate, for training or retraining Licensee's employees in the use of the licensed program after the initial installation support;

B. Per Diem at per day, plus travel and lodging expenses of Vendor's employees, for the on-site support after the initial training specified above;

87

C. Direct costs of transmitting new releases of or changes to the licensed program, except those necessitated by defects in the current release;

D. Telephone charges;

E. Programming fees at current rates for any modification to the licensed program requested by Licensee and agreed to be performed by Vendor not necessitated by defects in the licensed program.

IV. Term. The license herein granted shall be perpetual and shall be terminable by Vendor or by Licensee only upon the terms and conditions set forth in this agreement.

V. Defects in Licensed Program. During the first year of Licensee's use of the licensed program, Vendor will provide programming services, without additional charge for time or out-of-pocket expenses, to correct the unaltered current release of the licensed program if it shall contain any error, malfunction, or defect. Licensee agrees to advise Vendor in writing of the precise nature of any suspected error, malfunction, or defect and to provide Vendor with all relevant information upon request in order that Vendor may render such programming services.

VI. Use of Licensed Program by Licensee. Licensee shall use the licensed program only for its own purposes and not in service on a fee basis for any other person, entity, or governmental unit. Use of the licensed program on any additional computer equipment (other than a unit installed in complete substitution for the central processing unit) shall require payment of an additional license fee. Licensee shall not copy the licensed program in whole or in part except for safekeeping and backup purposes. Only the number of machine readable copies of the licensed program that are necessary for such backup purposes will be in existence on or off the Licensee's premises at any one time. Licensee is granted only the use of the licensed program, and such program shall remain the property of Vendor. Licensee shall never assign, transfer, convey, or give the licensed program or related materials to any party, nor shall it disclose the licensed program or related materials or any portion or aspect thereof to any party.

VII. Licensee's Employees. Licensee's employees will have access to the licensed program and related materials. Licensee agrees that it will, prior to making the licensed program and related materials available to any employee, obtain reasonable assurance from each employee that they will not disclose or convey any release of the licensed program or related materials or any aspect thereof to any person or entity.

VIII. Security. Licensee agrees that it will take reasonable steps to secure the licensed program and related materials from theft, destruction, and unauthorized disclosure.

IX. Responsibilities of Licensee. Licensee shall be exclusively responsible for the supervision, management, and control of its use of the licensed program, including but not limited to (a) establishing adequate backup plans, (b) insuring access to qualified Vendor programming personnel to assist Vendor in diagnosing, patching, and repairing licensed program defects in the event of a program malfunction; and (c) implementing

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sufficient procedures and check points to satisfy the requirements for security and accuracy of report and output as well as restart and recovery in the event of a malfunction.

X. Responsibilities of Vendor. Vendor shall ensure the proper machine con­figuration, shall install all licensed programming, and shall provide days of user and management training for Licensee personnel in the operation of all licensed programs. In the event the machine configuration shall be inadequate to run the application programs

and their data bases as specified in Section XIV, Vendor will at no cost to Licensee add such increments of memory or disk storage to the system as required to make it run said pro­gramming and data bases.

XI. Warranty and Limitation of Liability. If Licensee is dissatisfied with the licensed program or related materials after reasonable efforts at using them, then Licensee may, at its discretion during the six-month period commencing on the actual delivery date, return all copies of the licensed program and related materials to Vendor and receive a full refund of the one-time license fee, after deduction of any charges then outstanding and payable· from Licensee to Vendor. Notwithstanding such return, Licensee and its employees shall continuously remain liable under their covenants not to convey, assign, donate, or disclose the licensed program and related materials and the provisions of this agreement for Vendor's damages. After the return of the licensed program and related materials, Licensee's right to use the licensed program and related materials or any aspect or derivative thereof shall cease.

Licensee and those claiming under Licensee specifically agree that their sole and exclusive remedies under this agreement shall be reimbursement to Licensee of the one-time license fee. In no event shall Vendor be liable to Licensee or any third parties for loss of profits or other economic loss, or for any indirect, special, consequential, or other similar damages, arising out of any breach of this agreement or malfunction of the licensed pro­gram, even if Vendor has been advised of the ·possibility of such consequential damages.

XII. Hardware Supplied by Licensee. Any new hardware supplied by Licensee under this license agreement shall be subject to the specific manufacturers' warranties only and not those of Vendor. Any used hardware supplied by Licensee under this license agreement shall not be subject to any warranties unless expressly written and attached to and made part of this lease agreement by all parties.

XIII. Complete Agreement. Vendor and Licensee acknowledge that they have read this agreement, understand it, and agree to be bound by its terms. The parties agree that this agreement is the complete and exclusive statement of the agreement between them, and that it also includes as an integral part hereto Licensee's Request for Proposal dated

----------------,Vendor's Proposal dated (as amended by ) and correspondence dated -------between Vendor and Licensee.

89

XIV. List of Licensed Programs Purchased by Licensee.

1. __ _

2. __ _

3. __ _

4. __ _

etc.

VENDOR: LICENSEE:

By:--------- By: ________ _

90

16

31:1'11MOI:I'I1H 1:13~ndi!\IO:JOI:I::li!N

Computer Comparison Chart

BY JOSEPH DEVLIN AND DIANE KONCUR

Adapted from:

Creative Computing Buyers' Guide to Personal Computers and Peripherals, 1984

Copyright © 1983 Ahl Computing, Inc. Used by permission

92

'0 w

I ------- -------

Computer

Vendor Model ---- -----· ----

$500 to $1,500 -----------

Applt· Appi•J II"' CulllllUir" lri<'

C"i"'rltolLr,CA 140819961010

------------rr~n,lrn Cornput!lr Acv 1000 Corp Chc:rry Hill. NJ (6091 482-0900

-$1,500 to $2,500

C~ii(.HI U.S.A. Inc AS-100M l.o~k~ S11~~t<s>, NY 1516) 488-6700

Curn,nodor"' SuperPet Business M,lcttin~>S Wesl ChHster. PA 12151431-9100

Crr."n"'nco. Inc C-10 Mt. View, CA 1415) 964-7400

Franklin AC€ 1200 Cornputer Corp Chllrry 1-hll. NJ 16091482·5900

"M "M Bocu H~ton. FL Personal 13051998-6607 Cornpurer

IPCI

f-Kay pro CllriJ Kavoro II Solan~ El<1ach, CA I trans· (6191 755-1134 porral.llel

'--·

Base Micro-Price processor

$1,395 8-bit 6508

$1.095 8-bit 6502

$2.325 16-bit 8088

$1.995 8-bit6510, 8·bit 6809

$1,785 8-bit Z80A

$2.195 8-bit 6502. 8-bit 2808

$1.355 16-bit 8088

$1,595 8-bil 280

Memory Lan!,TUages Keyboard Display RAM (stand/ Method of maxi ROM Included Options Display

64K/ 16K B~sic, Pas- ty~J;wr iter- s~par~t~

128K cal. Pilot. st•1le color CRT Fortran, or TV Logo

64K 12K App:e Basic integrated separare typewriter· color CRT swle with or TV numeric kEypad

128K/ Canon typewriter· mono-512K Basic. style with chrome

Microsoft numenc CRT, color Basic, kEypad optional Cobol

96K 39K Waterloo mtegrated integr~red

Basic, as- typewriter- rnono-sumbler, stvls with chrome Fortran, numeric CRT Pascal, k€ypad Cobol, APL

64K 24K Basic Fortran, detached 12'" mono-Ratfor, Lisp typewriter· chrome

style CRT standard

128K 12K C·Basic. integra<ed separate Floating tYPewriter- color CRT Point Basic Sl'!lewith or TV

numeric keypad

64K/ 40K Cassette Basic. d~tached separa1e 640K Basic Pascal, typewriter- mono·

Fortran, srvle with chrom>! or Cobol numGric color CRT

keypad or TV

64K 2K MBasic Pascal, d~tacl1ed built·in 9'" Fortran. IYIJ8Wrlttlr· ITII,ll\0· Cobol st·lltJwltll c11rorne

numer1~ CRT koyparJ

Operating Systems I Storage lmerfaces Graphics

'""'"d Resolu- Disk Disk

Text tion Included Options Standard Optional

~ 40124. 40x48 or up to 6 cassette ser1al ~ro~n-

80/24 280x192 5.25" por'l. 2 pun par- etorv optional 140K joystick allel port,

drives ports IEEE-488 f.'Orl ·-----j

40/2<'1 <'10x48 up w6 8 f)~riph· RS-232 Apfllll color. 5.25"' eral con- i-J(>rt, C-=n '-"lllll•

' 280~192 143K nectars. rronics p~til~le!

I drives jr:JySiiCk paroiiRI lJOS 3,3

port f)() II

_____ j 80/25 B colors lOMl~ Cen- 4RS-232 CPIM-86,

optional Win· ((QniCS C~ntron· MS-Oos. chester. 1nrerface 1cs, sync OASIS-16 2 5.25"' CUIIIillUnl· 640K or 2 cariuns 8""1Mb 1nll'nface drives

80/25 128 up to 8 IEEE 488 propr1· CP/M graPhic 5Mb or parallel ~tJry ~'li<'C'I•KI

characters 7Mb Win- port. RS· chester 232 serial drives. or port up to 8

~ 5.25'" 340K or l.lML> drives

80/25 graiJhics 5.25" 2nd 390K RS-232 port. coos charac· 390K drive serial printer I CP/M ter set drive parr, p~r· like) included allel port

40/24, 280:<.192 5.25" up 10 4 8 periph· Appl~

70124 40x48 143K 143K eral con- COII1·

80124 calm dr1ve drives n~ctors. pa11ble jOyStick DOS, Pc!ll Cl' M 1:!0

---80/25 320:<.200 5.20"' up to 2 cas~11~ RS-232 MS llLJS

14 color), 160K 160K or PIJrt pill I IPC 640:<.200 dr1v~ 320K DOS I. 18!Wl Uriv~s. 2 CI'·M·8G.

10Mb LJCSD ~nd/or iJ·S> st~nt 20Mb Win· chest~r

drivt!S ·--·-·-·-

80•25 2 5.25" AS-232 CP·M2.2 191K port, driv"s paralltll

prirl\1:11 ~(Ill '--------__ _I -----

"' -!>

-Compurer

Vendor

Murruw S~n L«dlldro, CA (41l:il430-1970

NEC 1-IDr~le E teet ronics Ell- Grelv~

Villclgll, I L 13121 228·5900

$2,500 and up

Appl1: Cmn1XIIE!I Inc. Cupertinu, CA (408) 996-1010

AP).Jie Cornpuwr lr,c Cupertino, CA (4081 996-1010

Apple Computer, Inc CuPtll!lno, CA 14081996-1010

Byti!C· HvP<Hion Div Ouawa, Ontario Can<~di.l

1813) 226-7255

Coluntbi<l Data Products Culuonbia, MD 1301) 992-3400

Col!ll-'ill'l CrJnliJU\el Corp. HrJOJSI\lll, TX (617)536-0470

8&0 Micro· Model Price processor

M1cro· $1.590 S·bit ZSOA Decision

BBOO $2,497 8-bit ZSOA, Series 16-bit

8086 CO· processor optional

Apple Ill $2.695 8-bit 6502

Apple Lisa $9.995 16-bit 68000

Macintosh $2,495 32-bit 68000

Hype<rion $3,195 16-bit I trans- 8088 POIIable)

Columbia $2,995 16-bit VP portable 8088 (trans-portable)

Cm'npaq $2,995 16-bit Portable 8088 l~rans-

portable!

Memory Languages Keyboard RAM (stand/ max) ROM Included Options

G<K <K Mocrosoft PilOt dewched Basic, typewriter-BaZic style

l'l'ith numonc k~ypad

64Ki 32K/56K NBasic. dotached 1281<. N-88 s~sic typewriter· 28K/ style 294K with 116·b•t numer1c version) keypad

256K! 4K Appl.osoft Business typewriter· 512K Basic Basic, style

Pascal With Cobol nJmeric

keypad

1Mb 16K Basic Plus, typewriter-Pascal, style Cobol with

numeric keypad and mouse

128K/ 64K Pascal typewriter 512K Fortran style.

Basic n·ouse attachment numer1c keypad

256K 8K M1crosoft Cobol, detached 20K Advanced Fortran. tvPewriter· display Basic Pascal style RAM with

numeric keypad

128K/ Basic detached 256K typewriter-

swle With numeric keypad

128K/ BK Microsuft typ~writer·

512K GW Basic style included with with numeric operating keypad system

---··-- -

Display Storage Interfaces Operating Systems Graphics

Method of Resolu- Disk Disk Display Text tion Included Options Standard Optional Standard Optional

12" mono- 80!25 5.25" up to 4 2 RS-232 CP/M 2.2 chrome 200K 5.25" ports,

monitor drive 200K or Centronics included 384K port

drives

12" mono- 80!25 640x400 2 5.25" 10Mb Centro11.ics CP/M 2.2 MS-DOS chrome 320K Win· parallel CRT drives chester. 2 port included. 8" 1.2Mb RS-232 color CRT drives available

separate 40/24 140x192 5.25" up 10 6 cas sene serial ).Jrnprietary color CRT oc 140K 5.25" port, port, or TV 280x192 drive 140K joystick parallel

116 drives, 4 port port colors), 5Mb Win- RS-232 IEEE-488 560x 192 chester port port mono- drives chrome

' integral12" 44/144 364x720 5Mb Win· 2 RS-232 proprietary CP/M-86, mono- chester ports. Xellix

I

chrome drive, 2 parallel CRT 5.25" port

860K drives

9" black 80/24 512x342 3Y,"' Sony up to 2 RS-232 PfOI)r,etary and white BW micro- 31'.." s~rial

I bit-mapped floPPY m1cro (printer) high disk drive, lloppl~s mouse resolution 400K per interfac~

monitor single sided 422 port diskene for modem

external disk drive networking for Macintosl1

built-in 7" 80/25 320x200. 5.25" 2nd 5.25" RS-232 7-slot MS-DOS CP/M-86 amber CRT 640x200, 320K dnve, serial IBM ucso

320x250, 5Mb or 1)011, exl)ansion Jl·Sysl<·!"l 640x250 10Mb RS-423 Ci111SSIS

Winchester serial !-lOll, drive Centron·ics

parallel poll

built-In 9" 80/25 2 5.25" 12Mb RS-232 and MS-OOS mono- 320K Winchester O;ntronJcs CP/M-86 chro"w drives drive pons, ISM-CAT compatible

expansion slot

-built-in 9" 25/80 320K 2nd 5.25" Centronics async MS-OOS CP/M-86 rnono- 5.25" drive parall<!l communi- 1.1 UCSD chrom!l drive interface C8\IOnS I)·Svst~ETI

SCrll~n card compat1l'll11 wirh IBM PC cards

"' V>

,--Computer

Vendor --

CmcHW W<JS!Idkc Vlllanc, CA 12131706-1505

------DitJil<ll l (]UIIllllP.Ilt

Corp M.;ymml, MA (6171 e~:J?-5111

--Dirruall"uq.nnem Corp. Maynard. MA 1617!897-5111

Epson Americ;~ Turr<~nCc. CA 12131539-9140

18M Boc;; R,wm. f' L 13051 998-6607

Kaypru Coo·p Solana Beach. CA 16191755-1134

Morrow Sar1 Leandro. CA 14151430..1970

Rad•u Shack Fort Worth. TX 18171390-3011

Radio Sh<~c~ Fort Wurtl1. TX {8171 390-3011

T<iXIJS lnstrurnonts Dotlas. TX 18001 527-3500

'--

Base Micro· Model Price processor

Corona PC $2,595, 16-bit & Portable $2,545 for 8088 (trans· portable pllrrablel

Prof~s- $3,995 16-bi\ sion<~l PDP-11 326/360 compatible

Rainbow $3,495 8-bit 100 Z-BOA.

16-bit 8088

OX-10 $2,99~ 8-bit 280

18M $4.995 16-bit Personal 8088 Computer XT

Kaypro 10 $2.795 B·bit Z80A I trans-portable I

Decision 1 $4.995 8-bit ZBOA

TRS-80 $3.199 8-bit Modul 12 Z-80A

TRS-80 $4,999 8-blt ModP.I 168 ZBOA. lml.llti-usOJrl 16-bit

68000

Profes- $2,595 16-bit sional 8088 Computer

Memory Languages Keyboard RAM (stand/ max) ROM Included Options

128K/ BK/ M1crosoft detached 512K >6K Basic typewriter-

stl'le with numer1c keypad

256K! Dibol, detached 1Mb Cobol, typewriter-

Fortran, swle with Pascal. numeric Basic keypad

641</ "K C. MBasic detached 2561< typewriter-

style with numeric keypad

64K/ 8K MBasic detached 2561< typewriter· 32K/ swlewith 128K numeric video keypad RAM

1281</ 40K Basic Pascal, detached 6401< Fonrar1. rypewriter-

Cobol st;"le with numeric kevpad

64K 2K MBasic. Pascal. detached SBasic Fortran. typewriter-

Cobol srvle with numeric keypad

64K/ 2K Microsoft c. detached 1Mb Basic, ' Pascal typewriter-

a~zic style with numer1c keypad

BOK Bas1c Cobol, typewriter-Fortran style with

nurner1c ke·~pad

2561</ a~sic Cobol. typewriter-768K FortrarL style with

numenc ke·tpad

641</ 81</161< Basic BilSIC. deiached 256K included Fortran. typewriter-

With CQbol, style with on~rating Pascal numenc system kctpad

Display Storage Interfaces Operating Sys[ems Graphics

Method of Resolu- Disk Disk Display Text tion Included Options Standard Optional Standard Optional

irHegral 12" 80125 640x325 5.25" 2nd 320K RS-232 MS-DOS 19" on 320K drive. port. ponable) drive 10Mb Cernronics monochrome WinCh<!S\IU port CRT

12" mono- 80/25 or 960x240 2 5.25" 5Mb 2 RS-232/ sullset of UCSD chrome 132/25 400K Winchester 423 pons RSX-11M p-Svstem CRT drives dr1ve CPIM standard, color CRT optional

12" 80/24 or 800x240 2 5.25" 5Mb RS-232 RS-423 CP/M-!:16· MS-IJUS detached 132/24 4001< Winchesl!!r POl\. port, 80 monochrome drives drive, up RS-423 RS-422 CRT to 4 5.25" port port standard 400K drives

12" mono- 80/25 640x400 2 5.25" RS-232 CP/M 2.2, ' chrome 380K port, TPM II CRT drives serial port, st~ndard parallel

port

separate 80/25 320x200 6.25"" up to 2 RS-232 20m A MS-DOS ononochromO:l 14 color I, 3601< 320K port current IPC-DOSI or color 640x200 drive. driVO:lS. 2 loop CP/M-86. CRT 8&W 20Mb 20Mb UCSD or TV Winchester Winchester p.$y-;WIII

drives

built-in g·· 80/24 160x100 5.25" 2 RS-232 CP/M 2 2 mono- 392K ports, chrome drive, parallel CRT 10Mb primer

Winchester port. drive light pen

Interface ---

separate 80/25 5.26'" up to 4 3 RS-232 3 CP/M 2.2 MICI"OIIIX 12" mono- 400K drive drives ports, additionol I Uno~ chrome 10Mb ~nd 4 p~r~llel parullel 11~€1 CRT Winchester Winchester pr.ntllr ~UrtS

drive drives pen, S-100 bus

-Integrated 80124 680x240 single 8'" "'"'to 4 2 RS-232 TRS DOS CP1M 3 0 12"" mono- 40/24 optional 1.25Mb 1.25Mb »urts. proprietury chrome dflve drives. 4 parall!!l CRT lOMb purt

W•nct•est<lr Ur~ves

--·--inreerated 80/24 680x240 single 8" up to 4 2 sen a I XU111X CP.'M 3.0 12'" mono- 40/24 upt•onal 1.25Mb 1.25Mb ports. IU11iX• chrome dr1v~ drives, 4 par~llel Ilk<! I, CRT 12Mb port TRS-DOS

Winchester drives

80/25 720x300 5.25"' ---c-::=-

sGparate w tu 4 RS-232 MS-IJOS. mono- 320K 3201< port. CP·M-86. chrorne or drivl.f drives. JOystick/ LJCSD color CRT 5Mb or light fll!!l J.J·SVS!<'"'

10Mb port Winch~ster

dr1ve --------

96

Sl.N31NNl::I3AOEl 1'11:::101 1::10:1

Sl::IOON3A 3l::l'o'Ml.:IOS l::I3J.nd1NO:::l0l::I:JIIN

LOCAL GOVERNMENT MICROCOMPUTER SOFTWARE

This Appendix contains the names, addresses, and telephone numbers of organizations providing software on microcomputers for governmental units. This list is far from exhaus­tive, if for no other reason than the rapidity of change in the microcomputer field and because new vendors of microcomputer software for governmental organizations are almost constantly appearing. Nevertheless, the list should be valuable to the interested local government.

The vendors appearing here were compiled by the author and Mr. Robert Hober from a variety of sources. These included vendors known to the author, names provided by other parties, and a list supplied by the Southwest Innovation Group, Inc., Anaheim, CA. In all cases, Mr. Hober contacted the vendor organization by telephone to confirm vendor address, software offerings, language(s) in which the software is written, and operating system for which the software was developed. This information appears on the table.

No effort was made to evaluate any of the software offerings as such an undertaking was beyond the scope of this project. Hence, the ancient advice, caveat emptor, is once again in order.

Two conclusions may be drawn from the compilation of this list. First, as recently as two years ago, many of the vendors listed either did not exist or did not write local government software for micros. Thus, the development of this particular vertical market is relatively recent. Second, several vendors on the original list were found not to be in business or to have software that will not be available until some unspecified future date. Thus, the survival of at least a certain proportion of vendors in this market can be said to

be precarious, and not all announced software is really developed.

97

LOCAL GOVERNMENT MICROCOMPUTER SOFTWARE VENDORS

Vendor Available Software Language Operational System

American Fundware Broad range COBOL AFOS Box 773028 MS-DOS Steamboat Springs, CO 80487 AOS (303) 879-5770

Arizala and Associates Broad range BASIC AOS Box 1906 AOSVS Ann Arbor, MI 48106 (313) 769-6270

Big Sky Data Systems Broad range BASIC Alpha Micro 1201 Grand Avenue, Suite 3 Billings, MT 5 9102 (406) 252-2299

Joe R. Chance Payroll, utility billing, BASIC TRS DOS Box 1096 licenses Livingston, AL 35470 (205) 652-2844

Charter Micro Application Broad range COBOL CP/M 215 Piedmont Avenue N .E. (MUNIS package) Pascal MS-DOS Atlanta, GA 30308 UNIX (404) 881-1785

Civilsoft Traffic and transpor- Compiled in MS-DOS 290 S. Anaheim Boulevard tation, coordinate machine code PC-DOS Anaheim, CA 92805 geometry, and storm CP/M-80 (714) 774-5740 drain analysis

Community Systems and Services Broad range Pascal UCSD 8300 Greensborough Drive McLean, VA 22102 (703) 448-0606

Computer Business Systems Broad range dBase II CP/M Box 389 BASIC CP/M-86 Phillipsburg, KS 67661 MS-DOS (913) 543-2216

Computer Center Broad range RMCOBOL ALTOS 366 U.S. Rt. 1 (MUNIS package) XENIX Falmouth, ME 04105 CP/M (205) 781-2260 MS-DOS

Consulting Group Lincoln Electric utility BASIC TRSDOS Stewart Building, Suite 1055 load monitoring MS-DOS Lincoln, NE 68508 (402) 475-1511

98

Vendor Available Software Language Operating System

Executive Data Systems Broad range COBOL CP/M-80 290 Interstate N., Suite 116 (association management) MS-DOS

Atlanta, GA 303 39 (404) 955-3374

FairField Graphics mapping, graphics, FORTRAN p-System 1923 First Avenue, Suite 300 and spreadsheet Pascal CP/M Seattle, WA 98101 BASIC Apple DOS 3.3 (206) 682-2879

Gemunis Broad range Pascal MS-DOS 5001 W. 80th Street, Suite 1030 Bloomington, MN 55437 (612) 835-5521

HMS, Inc. Broad range COBOL AOS 2700 Delk Road, Suite 200 Marietta, GA 30067 (404) 953-4863

Innovative Decision Systems Broad range dBase II CP/M 1109 East Carmen Street MS-DOS Tempe, AZ 85283 (602) 838-3659

Integrated Computers Broad range BASIC IMOS Box 1767 COBOL CP/M Grand Island, NE 68802 MS-DOS (308) 381-1228 CPDOS

] orgenson Maintenance and Parks and BASIC MS-DOS 2.1 Management Systems grounds maintenance

110 Ryan Court, Suite 5 San Ramon, CA 94583 (415) 838-2088

Kapner, Wolfburg and Associates Maintenance dBase II CP/M 7120 Hayvenhurst Avenue management MS-DOS Van Nuys, CA 91406 (818) 781-8851

LWFW, Inc., Group Work management dBase II MS-DOS 12700 Park Central, Suite 1805 Dallas, TX 75251 (214) 233-5561

Mark Systems, Inc. Data manipulation Pascal p-System 750 Welch Road, Suite 305 programs Corvus Concept Palo Alto, CA 94304 (415) 368-6161

99

Vendor Available Software Language Operating System

Morse Data Processing Broad range COBOL CMS 914 West 4th Street BTOS Hastings, NE 68901 (402) 462-4311

Planning Data Systems Mapping FORTRAN PC-DOS 1601 Walnut Street, Suite 1524 Assembler Philadelphia, P A 1910 3 (215) 665-1551

Sammanish Data Systems Data base management dBase II CP/M Box 70382 and mapping Compile BASIC MS-DOS Bellevue, WA 98007 (206) 644-2442

Technomics Utility billing BASIC TRSDOS 100 Ardmore Street Pascal p-System Blacksburg, VA 24060 (703) 552-5609

100

ORGANIZATIONS TO CONTACT REGARDING MICROCOMPUTER SOFTWARE FOR GOVERNMENTAL UNITS

Organization

International City Management Association 1120 G Street, N .W. Washington, DC 20005 (202) 626-4600

Lincoln Institute of Land Policy 1000 Massachusetts Avenue Cambridge, MA 02138 (617) 661-1152

Public Technology, Inc. 1301 Pennsylvania Avenue, N.W. Washington, DC 20004 (202) 626-2400

U.S. General Services Administration Federal Software Testing Center, and Federal Software Information Exchange Office of Software Development and

Information Technology 5203 Leesburg Pike, Suite 1100 Falls Church, VA 22041 (703) 756-6156

U.S. Departmen ~ of Transportation MTP Support Center DOT/Transportation Systems Center DTS-62 Kendall Square Cambridge, MA 02142

101

Services Offered

Municipal government software Microcomputer software newsletter Training programs

Land use software Training programs

Local governmental software Training programs Technical assistance

Governmental software Information about software Newsletter

Transportation related software Transportation planning users' group Newsletter Acquisition and user manuals

8-bit 13,14,15,19,21,23 16-bit 13,14,15,19,21,23 32-bit 13,15,23

Apple computer 1,2,15,19 AppleDOS 19 Apple Macintosh 15 application programs 19,20 applications, microcomputer 22 arithmetical and logical unit 13 assistance 34 AT&T 20

backup 16 BASIC 20,21 batch oriented 23 binary digit 13 binary property 1l bit 13,18 bum-in 31 byte 13,18

Center for Applied Urban Research 2,21 COBOL 20,21 communication software 37 competition 40 computer system 12 consulting assistance 34 contract 30 control unit 14 cost 27,28,30 cost/benefit analysis 27 CP/M (control program for microcomputers) 19,37 CP/M-86 20 CPU 9,12,13,14,15,16,18,19,23,36 CPU capacity 36 CPU memory 36 CRT (cathode ray tube) 8,9,12,15,20,23

data base management 7 data ftles, creation of 31 data processing 5 dBase II 7 DBMaster 7 disk drive 9,16,18 disk, floppy 16,18 disk, hard 16,18 disk, magnetic 16 decision making activities 6,7 Digital Equipment Corp. 18 disk storage 3 9 documentation software 37 dot matrix printer 16,17 duplication 40

INDEX

102

ENIAC 7 Epson QX-10 19 evaluating RFP's 29

feasibility 28 financial management 2,6 floppy disk 16,18 FORTRAN 20,21

Griesemer, James R. 22

hand-holding 33 hard disk 16,18 hardware 3,12,19,28,29,32 hardware compatibility 37 hardware expandability 36 hardware maintenance 29 Hoff, Ted 1l housekeeping activities 6, 7

IBM 2 IBM PC 37 ICMA-Intemational City Management

Association 1,2,21,22 information 5,6 information management 25 information n:quircments 26 input 9,15 integrated circuits 8 Intel Corporation 13 interactive 23 interfaces 18

jobs,Steve 1

K (kilobyte) ll,14,15,18 Kaypro II 19 keyboard 15

languages, programming 20 letter quality printer 16,17 limitations of microcomputers 38

Macintosh 15 magnetic disk 16 maintenance 33 maintenance contracts 33 management purposes 5,6 mass storage 16 MB (megabyte) 16 memory 13,18,39 memory size 3 6 microcomputer applications 22 microcomputer stores 32

Microcomputers in Local Government 22 microcomputers, limitations 38 microcomputers, perceptions of 3 9 microcomputers, policies of 41 microcomputers, speed of 39 microcomputers, technical change 40 microprocessor 12,13 modem 18,37 monitor 18 monitoring performance 31 mouse 15,23 MS-DOS 19,37 Multiplan 7 multiprocessing 23 multiprogramming 23 multi-user 23 mulri~user micros 41

NEG 8800 19 negotiating contract 3 0

OEM 2,3,20,32 off-line 23 on~line 23 on-site maintenance 3 3 office automation software 20 off~the-shelf programming 20 off~the-shelf software 28 operating in parallel 31 operating systems 19 Osborne 40 output 9,15

packaged software 2,3,28 parallel port 18 payment 31 PC-DOS 19 perceptions of microcomputers 3 9 peripheral devices 14 policies on microcomputers 41 political feasibility 27 port, parallel 18 port, serial 18 printers 9,16,18 processing 9 processing modes 23 procurement guidelines 24,30 programmers 28 programming 19,28 programming, off-the-shelf 20 programs, running 31 proposal, request for 29

Radio Shack 2,19 RAM (random access memory) 14,16 real time 23

103

request for bid 29 requirements, determination of 24 requirements analysis 29 RFP 29 ROM (read only memory) 14 running programs 31

sales and support 32 screen 15,16 Scully, John 2 selection of system 30 single user -3 9 software 3,9 ,12,15 ,19 ,20,23,28,29 ,30,32,37 software adaptability 36 software documentation 3 7 software, off-the-shelf 28 software, office automation 20 software, packaged 2,3,28 software support 33 software transportability 36 source code 38 speed of microcomputers 39 spreadsheet programs 7 standardization, lack of 39 storage 9,18 storage mass 15,16 system costs 27,28,30 system expandability 29 system implementation 30 system manufacturers 3 2 system selection 30 system usability 40

tape, magnetic 16 technological change 40 terminal 9,15 Texas Instruments 40 training 31,36,38 transistors 8 turnkey vendors 3 2 TRSDOS 19

University of Nebraska at Omaha 2,21 UNIX 20 user-friendly 23

vacuum tubes 7,8 vendor organizations 29,30 vendors 29,30,32,33,34 vendors, turnkey 32 VisiCalc 7 VLSI (very large scale integration) 8

warranties 32 word processing 2,6,20 Wozniak, Steve 1

TRANSPARENCY SECTION

The following section contains pages for use in making overhead transparencies. They are numbered to correspond to the places they are to be used.

PI OS auore sJa~ndwoooJ~ 000'000'0 ~

PIOS sp !)i ue JO sJa~ndwoo 000'009

91.6~ - 9176~

0

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • FOUR COMMON THEMES

Microcomputers

1. are inexpensive

2. sales growing rapidly

3. are easy to use --

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

• • • • • • • • • • • • 4. have tremendous capabilities • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

1982 ICMA STUDY

·-

13% of city governments had micros

1983 UNO STUDY

7% of small cities and counties

had micros

CD

1982 ICMA STUDY

35% of all city governments

planned to buy micros

·-

1983 UNO STUDY

11% of small cities and counties

planned to buy micros

0

l) OEM - original equipment manufacturer

tJ Turnkey vendors - sell complete system

l) Packaged software - programming written and

sold for specific function

8

CD

PURPOSES OF THE HANDBOOK

1. Provide overview

2. Introduce microcomputers

Uses

Limitations

3. Provide procurement guidelines

0

-· ,,jSJ.~3t:JX3 J-NVJ..~N I

ON

. DATA PROCESSING

Collection

Compilation

Manipulation

of facts to produce information

8

INFORMATION

Coherent ) Events

data to provide knowledge about Activities

Organized ) Phenomena

8

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HOUSEKEEPING ACTIVITIES

~ Budgetary accounting

Accounts payable

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Cash Management I Accounts receivable

Payroll --L

Personnel management -

Utility billing and accounting

Department record keeping .

Word processing

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TECHNOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES

THE OLD VS. THE NEW

Speed

Accuracy

Efficiency

Equipment

Complexity

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HARDWARE

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CPU

Storage device

disk (floppy, hard)

tape

Terminal (CRT)

Printer

Modem

SOFTWARE (PROGRAMMING)

Operating systems

Application programs

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3ZIS 118

Dot matrix printers ·form character~

within a specified matrix. These printer

bills, chec,(s, budget repo~ts, and other

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Letter quality printers get their

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for correspondence, narrative reports,

Although letter qualit_. ~ij·-< C

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COMPUTER -LANGUAGES

BASIC-

Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instructional Code • • • • • COBOL-

COmmon Business Oriented Language • • • • • FORTRAN-

FORmula TRANslation • • • • •••

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PROCUREMENT STEPS

_UATE

'OSALS

3 PREPARE RFP

2 ESTABLISH FEASIBILITY

1 DETERMINE REQUIREMENTS

6 NEGOTIATE CONTRACT

5 SELECT A SYSTEM

7 IMPLEMENT &MONITOR

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TOTAL SYSTEM COSTS

Hardware

Operating system - - --

Application programs -

Hardware maintenance Software support

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Furniture

Data conversion

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POINTS TO EVALUATE

0 RFP requirements

0 Hardware

0 System expandability

0 Hardware maintenance

0 Software support

0 Vendor organization

0 Additional capabilities

0 Cost

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SYSTEM IMPLEMENT AT ION

Burn-in period

Install programming

Training

Create data files

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Run programs

Monitor performance

SOURCES OF MICROCOMPUTERS

~Rj Microcomputer stores

Discount chains Department stores

Audio and video stores Farm co-ops

System manufacturers -

Mail order firms

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