metro train prototype

1

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION & COMPONENTS

INTRODUCTION

This project is designed so that students can understand the technology used in the now a day’s driver less metro train which is used in most of the developed countries like Germany, France, and Japan etc. These trains are equipped with the CPU, which control the train. The train is programmed for the specific path. Every station on the path is defined; stoppage timing of the train and distance between the two stations is predefined. This is very wonderful project to control the working of the train without driver. These train are equipped with the CPU which control the train. 1. 8051 Microcontroller 2. ULN 2003 3. Stepper motor 4. LCD In this project we try to give the same prototype for this type of trains. We are using ATMEL microcontroller 8051 to control all the function as CPU. Microcontroller controls the rotation of motor. First the motor is controlled and name of each station is displayed over LCD and accordingly the different delay for each station is provided. So this project works for metro train without driver. The motion of the train is controlled by the Stepper Motor, for displaying message in the train we are using Intelligent LCD Display of two lines. The train is designed for three stations, named as New Delhi, Noida, and Greater Noida. The Stoppage time is of 3 Sec and time between two consecutive stations is 6 sec. There is a LCD display for showing various messages in the train for passengers. There are indicators, which are used to show the train direction i.e. UP path and down path. Before stopping at station the train blows the buzzer. It also includes an emergency brake system due to which the train stops as soon as the brakes are applied and resumes journey when the emergency situation is over.

WHAT IS EMBEDDED TECHNOLOGY

Embedded technology is software or hardware that is hidden embedded in a large device or system. It typically refers to a fixed function device, as compared with a PC, which runs general purpose application. Embedded technology is nothing new. It all around us and has been for years. An early example of embedded technology is the engine control unit in a car, which measures what setting to give the engine. Your coffee maker has embedded technology in the form of a microcontroller, which is what tells it to make the coffee at 6 a.m. the vending machine has it too. Overall, billions of devices woven into everyday life use embedded technology. In the past embedded technology existed in standalone device vending machines and copiers that did their jobs with little regard for what went on around them,. But as technology has learned to connect device to the internet and to each other, embedded technology potential has grown. Suddenly it is and what actions those connections let them perform. Cell phone companies figured that out a long time ago, which is why cell phones are cheap and the service, plans are expensive. It is not the phone itself that matters, but the connectivity to a vast network of other phones, other people and the internet. Until you download software that lets you find a local restaurant or mange your finances. Let say you make freezers the big, expensive kind that grocery stores buy. You sell ne and you are done with that customer. When it brakes the customer calls a service person, who probably comes from somewhere other than your company. But let us say that freezer knows that it is about to go on the fritz. Let say three refrigerator alerts the customer before it breaks. Better yet, let us say the freezer alerts the manufacturer and you are able to send a service person to do preventative work and save a lot of haagen- dazs from melting. Embedded technology allows all of that to happen. You, the freezer company have

transformed yourself from a product company to product and services company. The possibilities go beyond that programming device to communicate with businesses can eliminate the need for costly call centers. Copy machines that can order their own replacement cartridges will save businesses time and money. Remember, the fact the technology is embedded is not what important, and neither is the device

APPLICATIONS

Telecom

Mobile phone systems (handsets and base stations), modems, routers

Automotive application Braking system, Traction control, Airbag release system,

Management units, and Steer-by-wire systems.

Domestic application

Dishwasher, television, washing machines, microwave ovens, Video recorders, Security system, Garage door controllers, Calculators, Digital watches, VCRs, Digital cameras, Remote Controls, Treadmills

Robotic

Fire fighting robot, Automatic floor cleaner, robotic arm

Aerospace application

Flight control system, Engine controllers, Autopilots, Passenger entertainment system

Medical equipment

Anesthesia monitoring system, ECG monitors, Pacemakers, Drug delivery systems, MRI scanners

Defense system

Radar systems, Fighter aircraft flight control system, Radio system, Missile guidance systems

Office automation

Laser printers, Fax machines, Pagers, Cash registers, Gas pumps, Credit /Debit card readers, Thermostats, Grain analyzers.

COMPONENTS

LIST OF COMPONENTS USED

Table No. 1.1 List of components

Sr. no Equipment Quantity

1 IC 8051 MC 1

2 IC ULN 2003 1

3 TRANSFORMER 1

4 VOLTAGE REGULATOR 7805

1

5 2 LINE LCD DISPLAY 1

6 STEPPER MOTER 1

7 CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR 1

8 SWITCH 2

9 LED 2

10 RESISTER(220Ω,4.7kΩ,10kΩ)

10

11 CAPACITOR (33pf,ceramic disk)

2

12 DIODE 2

13 BUZZER 1

COMPONENT DESCRIPTION

1)MICRO-CONTROLLER 8051 DESCRIPTION

The IC 8051 is a low-power; high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcomputer with 4K bytes of Flash programmable and erasable read only memory (PEROM). The device is manufactured using Atmel’s high-density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry-standard MCS-51 instruction set and pin out. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel IC 8051 is a powerful microcomputer which provides a highly-flexible and cost-effective solution to many embedded control applications. The IC 8051 provides the following standard features: 4K bytes of Flash, 128 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O lines, two 16-bit timer/counters, a five vector two-level interrupt architecture, full duplex serial port, on-chip oscillator and clock circuitry. In addition, the IC 8051 is designed with static logic for operation down to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port and interrupt system to continue functioning.

Figure No. 1.1: Pin Diagram of 8051

PROCESSOR

A processor is an electronic device capable of manipulating data in a way specified by a sequence of instructions.

INSTRUCTIONS

Instructions in a computer are binary numbers just like data. Different numbers, when read and executed by a processor, cause different things to happen. The instructions are also called opcodes or machine codes.

Different bit patterns activate or deactivate different parts of the processing core. Every processor has its own instruction set varying in number, bit pattern and functionality.

PROGRAM

The sequence of instructions is what constitutes a program. The sequence of instructions may be altered to suit the application.

ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE

Writing and understanding such programs in binary or hexadecimal form is very difficult ,so each instructions is given a symbolic notation in English language called as mnemonics. A program written in mnemonics Form is called an assembly language program. But it must be converted into machine language for execution by processor.

ASSEMBLER

An assembly language program should be converted to machine language for execution by processor. Special software called ASSEMBLER converts a program written in mnemonics to its equivalent machine opcodes.

HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGE

A high level language like C may be used to write programs for processors. Software called compiler converts this high level language program down to machine code. Ease of programming and portability.

PIN DESCRIPTION

VCC (Pin 40)

Provides voltage to the chip . +5V

GND (Pin 20)

Ground

XTAL1 (Pin 19) and XTAL2 (Pin 18)

Crystal Oscillator connected to pins 18, 19.Two capacitors of 30pF value. Time for one machine cycle:11.0592/12=1.085 µ secs

RST (Pin 9)

RESET pin

1.Active high. On applying a high pulse to this pin, microcontroller will reset and terminate all activities.

2.INPUT pin

3.Minimum 2 machine cycles required to make RESET

4.Value of registers after RESET

External Access: EA 31

•Connected to VCC for on chip ROM

•Connected to Ground for external ROM containing the code Input Pin

Program Store Enable: PSEN 29

•Output Pin

•In case of external ROM with code it is connected to the OE pin of the ROM

Address Latch Enable: ALE 30

• Output Pin. Active high

•In case of external ROM ,ALE is used to de multiplex (PORT 0) the address and data bus by connecting to the G pin of 74LS373 chip

I/O Port Pins and their Functions:

•Four ports P0,P1,P2,P3 with 8 pins each, making a total of 32 input/output pins

•On RESET all ports are configured as output. They need to be programmed to make them function as inputs

PORT 0

•Pins 32-39

•Can be used as both Input or Output

•External pull up resistors of 10K need to be connected

•Dual role: 8051 multiplexes address and data through port 0 to save pins .AD0-AD7

•ALE is used to de multiplex data and address bus

PORT 1

•Pins 1 through 8

•Both input or output

•No dual function

•Internal pull up registers

•On RESET configured as output

PORT 2

•Pins 21 through 28

•No external pull up resistor required

•Both input or output

•Dual Function: Along with Port 0 used to provide the 16-Bit address for external memory. It provides higher address A8-A16

PORT 3

•Pins 10 through 17

•No external pull up resistors required

PROCESSOR ARCHITECTURE

Figure No. 1.3: Block Diagram of Microcontroller

ALU

The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) performs the internal arithmetic manipulation of data line processor. The instructions read and executed by the processor decide the operations performed by the ALU and also control the flow of data between registers and ALU. Operations performed by the

ALU are Addition , Subtraction , Not , AND , NAND , OR , NOR , XOR , Shift Left/Right , Rotate Left/right , Compare etc. Some ALU supports Multiplication and Division. Operands are generally transferred from two registers or from one register and memory location to ALU data inputs. The result of the operation is the placed back into a given destination register or memory location from ALU output.

REGISTERS

Registers are the internal storage for the processor. The number of registers varies significantly between processor architectures.

•WORKING REGISTERS

Temporary storage during ALU Operations and data transfers.

•INDEX REGISTERS

Points to memory addresses.

•STATUS REGISTERS

Stores the current status of various flags denoting conditions resulting from various operations.

•CONTROL REGISTERS

Contains configuration bits that affect processor operation and the operating modes of various internal subsystems.

Memory Organization

Program Memory

Data MemoryThe right half of the internal and external data memory spaces available on Atmel’s Flash microcontrollers. Hardware configuration for accessing up to 2K bytes of external RAM. In this case, the CPU executes from internal Flash. Port 0 serves as a multiplexed address/data bus to the RAM, and 3 lines of Port 2 are used to page the RAM. The CPU generates RD and WR signals as needed during external RAM accesses. You can assign up to 64K bytes of external data memory. External data memory addresses can be either 1 or 2 bytes wide. One-byte addresses are often used in conjunction with one or more other I/O lines to page the RAM. Two-byte addresses can also be used, in which case the high address byte is emitted at Port 2.

Internal data memory addresses are always 1 byte wide, which implies an address space of only 256 bytes. However, the addressing modes for internal RAM can in fact accommodate 384 bytes. Direct addresses higher than 7FH access one memory space, and indirect addresses higher than 7FH access a different memory space. Thus, the Upper 128 and SFR space occupying the same block of addresses, 80H through FFH, although they are physically separate entities. The lowest 32 bytes are grouped into 4 banks of 8 registers. Program instructions call out these registers as R0 through R7. Two bits in the Program Status Word (PSW) select which register bank is in use. This architecture allows more efficient use of code space, since register instructions are shorter than instructions that use direct addressing.

Programming Status Word:

The Instruction SetAll members of the Atmel microcontroller family execute the same instruction set. This instruction set is optimized for 8- bit control applications and it provides a variety of fast addressing modes for accessing the internal RAM to facilitate byte operations on small data structures. The instruction set provides extensive support for 1-bit variables as a separate data type, allowing direct bit manipulation in control and logic systems that require Boolean processing. The following overview of the instruction set gives a brief description of how certain instructions can be used.

Program Status WordThe Program Status Word (PSW) contains status bits that reflect the current state of the CPU. The PSW, shown in Figure 11, resides in SFR space. The PSW contains the Carry bit, the Auxiliary Carry (for BCD operations), the tworegister bank select bits, the Overflow flag, a Parity bit, and two user-definable status flags. The Carry bit, in addition to serving as a Carry bit in arithmetic operations, also serves as the “Accumulator” for a number of Boolean operations.

The bits RS0 and RS1 select one of the four register banks shown in Figure 8. A number of instructions refer to these RAM locations as R0 through R7. The status of the RS0 and RS1 bits at execution time determines which of the four banks is selected. The Parity bit reflects the number of 1s in the Accumulator: P=1 if the Accumulator contains an odd number of 1s, and P=0 if the Accumulator contains an even number of 1s.

Thus, the number of 1s in the Accumulator plus P is always even. Two bits in the PSW are uncommitted and can be used as general purpose status flags.

Addressing Modes The addressing modes in the Flash microcontroller instruction set are as follows.

Direct Addressing

In direct addressing, the operand is specified by an 8-bit address field in the instruction. Only internal data RAM and SFRs can be directly addressed.

Indirect Addressing

In indirect addressing, the instruction specifies a register that contains the address of the operand. Both internal and external RAM can be indirectly addressed. The address register for 8-bit addresses can be either the Stack Pointer or R0 or R1 of the selected register bank. The address register for 16-bit addresses can be only the 16-bit data pointer register, DPTR.

Register Instructions

The register banks, which contain registers R0 through R7, can be accessed by instructions whose opcodes carry a 3- bit register specification. Instructions that access the registers this way make efficient use of code, since this mode eliminates an address byte. When the instruction is executed, one of the eight registers in the selected bank is accessed. One of four banks is selected at execution time by the two bank select bits in the PSW.

Register-Specific Instructions

Some instructions are specific to a certain register. For example, some instructions always operate on the Accumulator, so no address byte is needed to point to it. In these cases, the opcode itself points to the correct register. Instructions that refer to the Accumulator as A assemble as Accumulator-specific opcodes.

Indexed Addressing

Program memory can only be accessed via indexed addressing. This addressing mode is intended for reading look-up tables in program memory. A 16-bit base register (either DPTR or the Program Counter) points to the base of the table, and the Accumulator is set up with the table entry number. The address of the table entry in program memory is

formed by adding the Accumulator data to the base pointer. Another type of indexed addressing is used in the “case jump” instruction. In this case the dest ination address of a jump instruction is computed as the sum of the base pointer and the Accumulator data.

•SRAM

Volatile, fast, low capacity, expensive, requires lesser external support circuitry.

•DRAM

Volatile, relatively slow, highest capacity needs continuous refreshing. Hence require external circuitry.

•OTP ROM

One time programmable, used for shipping in final products.

•EPROM

Erasable programmable, UV Erasing, Used for system development and debugging.

•EEPROM

Electrically erasable and programmable, can be erased programmed in- circuit, Used for storing system parameters.

•FLASH

Electrically programmable & erasable, large capacity, organized as sectors.

BUSES

A bus is a physical group of signal lines that have a related function. Buses allow for the transfer of electrical signals between different parts of the processor

Processor buses are of three types:

•Data bus

•Address bus

•Control bus

CONTROLLER LOGIC

Processor brain decodes instructions and generate control signal for various sub units. It has full control over the clock distribution unit of processor.

I/O Peripherals

The I/O devices are used by the processor to communicate with the external world

•Parallel Ports.

•Serial Ports.

•ADC/DAC.

2)ULN 2003 7805

Figure No. 1.4: ULN 2003

FEATURES

- Output current 500mA per driver (600mA peak) - Output voltage 50V - Integrated suppression diodes for inductive loads - Outputs can be paralleled for higher current - TTL/CMOS/PMOS/DTL Compatible inputs - Inputs pinned opposite outputs to simplify Layout

DESCRIPTION

The ULN2001, ULN2002, ULN2003 and ULN2004 are high voltage, high current Darlington Arrays each contain seven open collector Darlington pairs with common emitters. Each Channel rated at 500mA and can withstand peak currents of 600mA. Suppression diodes are Included for inductive load driving and the inputs are pinned opposite the outputs to simplify board

MAXIMUM RATING

Table No. 1.2: Maximum Rating of ULN

Table :-1 Absolute max ratings

Symbol Parameter Value Unit V₀ Output voltage 50 V Vi Input voltage 30 V Ic Countinuous

collector current 500 Ma

Ib Countinuous base current

25 Ma

Ta Operating ambient tempreture range

-20 - 85

Tstg Storage tempreture range

-55 - 155

Tj Junction tempreture

150

Table :-2 Thermal Data

Symbol Parameter Dip -16 So -16 UnitR th.ra Thermal

resistance junction ambient - max

70 120 C/w

WHY WE USE ULN 2003?

Digital system and microcontroller pins lack sufficient current to drive the relay. While the stepper motor’s coil needs around 10ma to be energized, the microcontroller’s pin can provide a maximum of 1-2 mA current. For this reason, we place a driver.

3)VOLAGE REGULATOR

Voltage regulator ICs are available with fixed (typically 5, 12 and 15V) or variable output voltages. The maximum current they can pass also rates them. Negative voltage regulators are available, mainly for use in dual supplies. Most regulators include some automatic protection from excessive current (over load protection) and overheating (thermal protection). Many of fixed voltage regulator ICs has 3 leads. They include a hole for attaching a heat sink if necessary.

Figure No. 1.5: 7805 Voltage Regulator

DESCRIPTION

These voltage regulators are monolithic circuit integrated circuit designed as fixed voltage regulators for a wide variety of applications including local, on card regulation. These regulators employ internal current limiting, thermal shutdown, and safe-area compensation. With adequate heat sinking they can deliver output current in excess of 1.0 A. Although designed primarily as a fixed voltage regulator, these devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable voltage and current.

FEATURES

•Output current in Excess of 1.0 A

•No external component required

•Internal thermal overload protection

•Internal short circuit current limiting

•Output transistor safe-area compensation

•Output voltage offered in 2% and 4% tolerance

•Available I n surface mount D2PAK and standard 3-lead transistor packages

•Previous commercial temperature range has been extended to a junction temperature range of -40 degree C to +125 degree C.

4)STEPPER MOTOR

Identification of Stepper Motor

There are several types of stepper motors, these cannot be driven in the same way. In this application note, we have chosen to drive a unipolar stepper motor For more information you will find schemes to identify the other types of stepper motors. Unipolar Stepper Motor Unipolar stepper motors are characterised by their center-tapped windings.

Unipolar Stepper Motor

Bipolar Stepper Motor Bipolar stepper motors are designed with separate coils.

Bipolar Stepper Motor

Variable Reluctance Variable reluctance stepper motor (also called hybrid motors) are characterised by one common lead.

Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor

Driving Unipolar Stepper Motors

There are three ways to drive unipolar stepper motors (one phase on, two phase on or half step), each one has some advantages and disavantages.

There are two stages to sorting out which wire is which in a 5- or 6-wire unipolar stepper motor:

1. Isolate the Common Power wire(s) by using an ohmmeter to check the resistances between pairs of wires. The Common Power wire will be the one with only half as much resistance between it and all the others. This is because the Common Power wire only has one coil between it and each other wire, whereas each of the other wires have two coils between them. Hence half the resistance.

2. Identify the wires to the coils by supplying a voltage on the Common Power wire(s) and keeping one of the other wires grounded while grounding each of the remaining three wires in turn and observing the results. Select one wire and ground it Assume it's connected to coil 4. Keeping it grounded, ground each of the other three wires one by one Grounding one wire should make the rotor turn a little clockwise. That'll be the wire connected to Coil 3. Grounding one wire should make the rotor turn a little anticlockwise. That'll be the wire connected to Coil 1. Grounding one wire should do nothing that’ll be the wire connected to Coil 2.

GENERAL INFORMATION

A stepper motor system is an electro-mechanical rotary actuator that converts electrical pulses into unique shaft rotations. This rotation is directly related to the number of pulses. Motion Control, in electronic terms, means to accurately control the movement of an object based on speed, distance, load, inertia or a combination of all these factors. There are numerous types of motion control systems, including; Stepper Motor, Linear Step Motor, DC Brush, Brushless, Servo, Brushless Servo and more. Stepper motors are ideally suited for precision control. This motor can be operated in forward/reverse with controllable speed from a BASIC Stamp or any other microcontroller through a transistor driver circuit. Some of the applications for this motor include educational experimentation, robotics and precision mechanical control the #27964 is a Unipolar (4 phase) 12 VDC, 150 mA motor that takes 3.6 degrees per step.

TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS

· Phase resistance (Ohms): 75 · Current (mA): 150 · Phase Inductance (mH): 39 · Detent torque (g-cm): 80 · Holding Torque (g-cm): 600 · Mounting hole space diagonal (in.): 1.73 · Mounting hole (in.) 0.11 · Shaft diameter (in.): 0.197 · Shaft length (in.): 0.43

· Motor

Diameter (in.): 1.66

·Motor

height (in.): 1.35

· Weight: 0.55 lbs.

5)LCD DISPLAY

DESCRIPTION OF LCD DISPLAY

This is the first interfacing example for the Parallel Port. We will start with something simple. This example doesn't use the Bi-directional feature found on newer ports, thus it should work with most, if not all Parallel Ports. It however doesn't show the use of the Status Port as an input. These LCD Modules are very common these days, and are quite simple to work with, as all the logic required to run them is on board.

Interfacing 7-Seg Display to Microcontroller :

7 Segment displays are basically 7 LED's.

Basically there are two types of 7-Seg display's:

Common Cathode where all the segments share the same Cathode.

Common Anode where all Segments share the same Anode.

Here we will be only discussing the Common Anode type. In common Anode in order to turn ON a segment the corresponding pin must be set to 0. And to turn it OFF it is set to 1.

Figure 2

Controller 7-seg display

P2.0 A

P2.1 B

P2.2 C

P2.3 D

P2.4 E

P2.5 F

P2.6 G

Figure 1 shows how to interface 7-seg display to a microcontroller. Now we create a lookup table containing the seven segment pattern to display the

corresponding hex digits. e.g. consider we have to display '1' from the above figure we come to know that turning ON segment B & C will show '1' on the 7-seg display so P2.1 & P2.2 should be LOGIC 0 whereas rest of the pins should be

LOGIC 1. FIGURE 2 shows the lookup table for CA display.

Figure 3

Figure 3 shows the circuit for interfacing two 7 segment displays

We can now interface a single 7-Seg to the microcontroller but for interfacing multiple 7-seg's we use Scanning Principle where One 7-seg is displayed after another but this process is very fast hence the flickering cannot be seen by human eye.

.

When interfacing more than one 7-seg display the segment's (A-G) of all displays are connected together whereas their ANODE (Cathode in case of CC displays) are switched ON one after another. Consider we have to display '31' on the above 7-seg display so we TURN ON the first transistor by setting its corresponding pin to 1 & then give the 7-seg equivalent code for '3' which is 4fh. Then we TURN OFF the first transistor & TURN ON the second & output its corresponding 7-seg equivalent code of '1' i.e. 06h.Then we again go back to display '3'

this is a never ending loop.

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

Figure No. 1.8: Schematic Diagram of LCD Display

CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

Above is the quite simple schematic. The LCD panel's Enable and Register Select is connected to the Control Port. The Control Port is an open collector / open drain output. While most Parallel Ports have internal pull-up resistors, there is a few which don't. Therefore by incorporating the two 10K external pull up resistors, the circuit is more portable for a wider range of computers, some of which may have no internal pull up resistors. We make no effort to place the Data bus into reverse direction. Therefore we hard wire the R/W line of the LCD panel, into write mode. This will cause no bus conflicts on the data lines. As a result we cannot read back the LCD's internal Busy Flag which tells us if the LCD has accepted and finished processing the last instruction. This problem is overcome by inserting known delays into our program. The 10k Potentiometer controls the contrast of the LCD panel. Nothing fancy here. As with all the examples, I've left the power supply out. You can use a bench power supply set to 5v or use an onboard +5 regulator. Remember a few de-coupling capacitors, especially if you have trouble with the circuit working properly. The 2 line x 16 character LCD modules are available from a wide range of manufacturers and should all be compatible with the HD44780. The diagram to the right shows the pin numbers for these devices. When viewed from the front, the left pin is pin 16 and the right pin is pin 1.

Figure No. 1.9: LCD Display

Figure 1 shows how to inte ace 7-seg display to a microcontroller. Now we create a lookup table containing the seven segment pattern to display the corresponding hex digits. e.g. consider we have to display '1' from the above figure we come to know that turning ON segment B & C will show '1' on the 7-seg display so P2.1 & P2.2 should be LOGIC 0 whereas rest of the pins should be LOGIC 1. FIGURE 2 shows the lookup table for CA display.

6)POWER SUPPLY

BRIDGE RECTIFIER

Bridge rectifier circuit consists of four diodes arranged in the form of a bridge as shown in figure.

OPERATION

During the positive half cycle of the input supply, the upper end A of the transformer secondary becomes positive with respect to its lower point B. This makes Point1 of bridge Positive with respect to point 2. The diode D1 & D2 become forward biased & D3 & D4 become reverse biased. As a result a current starts flowing from point1, through D1 the load & D2 to the negative end. During negative half cycle, the point2 becomes positive with respect to point1. Diodes D1 & D2 now become reverse biased. Thus a current flow from point 2 to point1.

7)TRANSFORMER

Transformer is a major class of coils having two or more windings usually wrapped around a common core made from laminated iron sheets. It has two cols named primary and secondary. If the current flowing through primary is fluctuating, then a current will be inducted into the secondary winding. A steady current will not be transferred from one coil to other coil.

Transformers are of two types:

1.Step up transformer

2.Step down transformer

In the power supply we use step down transformer. We apply 220V AC on the primary of step down transformer. This transformer step down this voltages to 6V AC. We Give 6V AC to rectifier circuit, which convert it to 5V DC.

8)DIODE

The diode is a p-n junction device. Diode is the component used to control the flow of the current in any one direction. The diode widely works in forward bias.

Diode When the current flows from the P to N direction. Then it is in forward bias. The Zener diode is used in reverse bias function i.e. N to P direction. Visually the identification of the diode`s terminal can be done by identifying he silver/black line. The silver/black line is the negative terminal (cathode) and the other terminal is the positive terminal (cathode).

APPLICATION

•Diodes: Rectification, free-wheeling, etc

•Zener diode: Voltage control, regulator etc.

•Tunnel diode: Control the current flow, snobbier circuit, etc

9)RESISTORS

The flow of charge through any material encounters an opposing force similar in many respects to mechanical friction .this opposing force is called resistance of the material .in some electric circuit resistance is deliberately introduced in form of resistor. Resistor used fall in three categories , only two of which are color coded which are metal film and carbon film resistor .the third category is the wire wound type ,where value are generally printed on the vitreous paint finish of the component. Resistors are in ohms and are represented in Greek letter omega, looks as an upturned horseshoe. Most electronic circuit require resistors to make

them work properly and it is obliviously important to find out something about the different types of resistors available. Resistance is measured in ohms, the symbol for ohm is an omega ohm. 1 ohm is quite small for electronics so resistances are often given in kohm and Mohm.

Resistors used in electronics can have resistances as low as 0.1 ohm or as high as 10 Mohm.

FUNCTION

Resistor restrict the flow of electric current, for example a resistor is placed in series with a light-emitting diode(LED) to limit the current passing through the LED.

TYPES OF RESISTORS

FIXED VALUE RESISTORS

It includes two types of resistors as carbon film and metal film .These two types are explained under

1. CARBON FILM RESISTORS

During manufacture, at in film of carbon is deposited onto a small ceramic rod. The resistive coating is spiraled away in an automatic machine until the resistance between there two ends of the rods is as close as possible to the correct value. Metal leads and end caps are added, the resistors is covered with an insulating coating and finally painted with colored bands to indicate the resistor value

Figure No. 1.15: Carbon Film Resistors

Another example for a Carbon 22000 Ohms or 22 Kilo-Ohms also known as 22K at 5% tolerance: Band 1 = Red, 1st digit Band 2 = Red, 2nd digit Band 3 = Orange, 3rd digit, multiply with zeros, in this case 3 zero's Band 4 = Gold, Tolerance, 5%

3.METAL FILM RESISTORS

Metal film and metal oxides resistors are made in a similar way, but can be made more accurately to within ±2% or ±1% of their nominal vale there are some difference in performance between these resistor types, but none which affects their use in simple circuit.

WIRE WOUND RESISTOR

A wire wound resistor is made of metal resistance wire, and because of this, they can be manufactured to precise values. Also, high wattage resistors can be made by using a thick wire material. Wire wound resistors cannot be used for high frequency circuits. Coils are used in high frequency circuit. Wire wound resistors

in a ceramic case, strengthened with special cement. They have very high power rating, from 1 or 2 watts to dozens of watts. These resistors can become extremely hot when used for high power application, and this must be taken into account when designing the circuit.

TESTING

Resistors are checked with an ohm meter/millimeter. For a defective resistor the ohm-meter shows infinite high reading.

10)CAPACITORS

In a way, a capacitor is a little like a battery. Although they work in completely different ways, capacitors and batteries both store electrical energy. If you have read How Batteries Work , then you know that a battery has two terminals. Inside the battery, chemical reactions produce electrons on one terminal and absorb electrons at the other terminal.

BASIC

Like a battery, a capacitor has two terminals. Inside the capacitor, the terminals connect to two metal plates separated by a dielectric. The dielectric can be air, paper, plastic or anything else that does not conduct electricity and keeps the plates from touching each other. You can easily make a capacitor from two pieces of aluminum foil and a piece of paper. It won't be a particularly good capacitor in terms of its storage capacity, but it will work.

In an electronic circuit, a capacitor is shown like this:

Figure No. 1.17: Symbol of Capacitor

When you connect a capacitor to a battery, here’s what happens:

•The plate on the capacitor that attaches to the negative terminal of the battery accepts electrons that the battery is producing.

•The plate on the capacitor that attaches to the positive terminal of the battery loses electrons to the battery.

TESTING

To test the capacitors, either analog meters or specia

l digital meters with the specified function are used. The non-electrolyte capacitor can be tested by using the digital meter.

Multi – meter mode : Continuity Positive probe : One end Negative probe : Second end Display : `0`(beep sound occur) `OL` Result : Faulty OK

11)LED

LED falls within the family of P-N junction devices. The light emitting diode (LED) is a diode that will give off visible light when it is energized. In any forward biased P-N junction there is, with in the structure and primarily close to the junction, a recombination of hole and electrons. This recombination requires that the energy possessed by the unbound free electron be transferred to another state. The process of giving off light by applying an electrical source is called electroluminescence.

LED is a component used for indication. All the functions being carried out are displayed by led .The LED is diode which glows when the current is being flown through it in forward bias condition. The LEDs are available in the round shell and also in the flat shells. The positive leg is longer than negative leg.

BUZZER

Buzzer is a device used for beep signal. This will help us to make understand information or message. A buzzer is usually electronic device used in automobiles, household applications etc.

It mostly consists of switches or sensors connected to a control unit that determines if and which button was pushed or a preset time has lapsed, and usually illuminates a light on appropriate button or control panel, and sounds a warning in the form of a continuous or intermittent buzzing or beeping sound. Initially this device was based on an electromechanical system which was identical to an electrical bell without the metal gong. Often these units were anchored to a wall or ceiling and used the ceiling or wall as a sounding board. Another implementation with some AC-connected devices was to implement a circuit to make the AC current into a noise loud enough to derive a loudspeaker and hook this circuit to a cheap 8-ohm speaker. These buzzers do not make a sound or turn on a light, they stop a nearby digital clock, briefly fire two smoke cannons on each side of the stage exit and open the exit. However, at the end of the Heartbreaker in Viking, the buzzer is replaced with a sword that, when removed, causes two contacts to touch, closing the circuit and causing the latter two actions above to occur.

Interfacing Matrix Keypad to 8051:

As you have seen in the article for interfacing switches to microcontroller normally the port pin is high but when a switch is pressed the controller pin gets a Low signal and we come to know that a switch has been pressed. One end of switch is connected to the port pin whereas the other end is connected to the Ground.

In case of matrix Keypad both the ends of switches are connected to the port Pin. Over here we have considered a 4x3 matrix keypad i.e. four rows and three columns. So in all twelve switches have been interfaced using just seven lines. The adjoining figure shows the diagram of a matrix keypad and how it is interfaced with the controller.

As you can see no pin is connected to ground, over here the controller pin itself provides the ground. We pull one of the Column Pins low & check the row pins if any of the Pin is low then we come to know which switch is pressed.

Suppose we make column 1 pin low and while checking the rows we get Row 3 is low then we come to know switch 7 has been pressed.

ALGORITHM:1. Start.2. Make All Pins High.3. Make Column 1 pin low.4. Check if Row 1 is low, if yes then Switch 1 has been pressed.5. Check if Row 2 is low, if yes then Switch 4 has been pressed.6. Check if row 3 is low if yes then Switch 7 has been pressed.7. Check if row 4 is low if yes then Switch 10 has been pressed.8. Make Column 1 Pin high & Column 2 Pin Low. 9. Check if Row 1 is low, if yes then Switch 2 has been pressed.10. Check if Row 2 is low, if yes then Switch 5 has been pressed.11. Check if row 3 is low if yes then Switch 8 has been pressed.12. Check if row 4 is low if yes then Switch 11 has been pressed.13. Make Column 2 Pin high & Column 3 Pin Low. 14. Check if Row 1 is low, if yes then Switch 3 has been pressed.15. Check if Row 2 is low, if yes then Switch 6 has been pressed.16. Check if row 3 is low if yes then Switch 9 has been pressed.17. Check if row 4 is low if yes then Switch 12 has been pressed.18. Make column 3 pin high

19. Stop

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

PREHISTORY: 8048

In fact, it should have started with chapter -2, the invention of microprocessor. Intel introduced a single-chip processor, the 4004, in 1971. It was a 4-bit microprocessor, with whopping processing speed of 100 thousand operations per second, and was meant for an electronic calculator. There is a lot of 4-bit processing in calculators, especially if the software is based on BCD arithmetics. Later Intel introduced the 8-bitter 8008 and it's grown-up brother - the famous 8080 (which then was perfected by an ex-Intel employee as Zilog Z80, one of the best 8-bit microprocessors of all times). In 1976, Intel introduced its first microcontroller, 8048. It integrated the processing core with code and data memory and certain peripherals. The code memory was a 1kB mask ROM (defined by the last metallisation mask during the chip processing) or EPROM (after all, Intel invented EPROM), the data memory was 64 bytes of RAM (including the 8-level stack and two pages of eight general purpose registers). Besides general-purpose I/O (see below), peripherals included a timer and an external interrupt (plus the necessary interrupt system). Although the 8048 is clearly an 8-bit architecture, it is said to be an ancestor of the 4-bit 4004 rather than the 8080. Also it is said to bear remarkable similarities to Fairchild F8 microprocessor. Today, it is hard to say whether something of this is true, but one thing is sure, the 8048 has a couple of strange features. Using four of its general purpose input/output ports, and adding one or more 8243-type chip - and the I/O expand into another four 4-bit ports. This expansion has not only support in the hardware - dedicated pins on 8048 - but also in the instruction set, having dedicated instructions for I/O operations (including AND and OR(!)) via the expander.

The 8048 already had a lot of useful features known well to 8051-users: external code memory support; external data memory support (inherently only 256 bytes addressed indirectly by R0 and R1 as there is no 16 bit pointer register such as the DPTR in 8051 - the 8051 inherited this 8-bit external data access); quasibidirectional I/O ports. Maximum clock is 11MHz, but an instruction cycle takes 15 oscillator clocks. The "A" version (advanced) introduced powerdown mode There were multiple variations of the 8048 around, mostly with different numbering, but generally denoted as the MCS-48 family. 8048 itself denoted a

mask-ROM part, 8748 an EPROM part - windowed (CERDIP - erasable) for development, and unwindowed (PDIP) OTP. The romless part was a bit surprisingly marked 8035 (probably most of the parts sold as romless were parts with unusable ROM, due to error in the "programmed" firmware). There was a low-cost version with reduced pin count and omitted some of the features as 8021, and versions with more ROM and RAM as 8049 (2kB ROM/128B RAM) and 8050 (4kB ROM/256B RAM); with ROMless versions as 8039 and 8040; and 8049 had also an EPROM version 8749 (the funny thing is, that 8749 came in 1981, one year after 8051/8751). 8048's were second sourced by a number of manufacturers, including NEC, Toshiba, and were cloned also behind the then iron curtain in Czechoslovakia (Tesla MHB8048/8035) and USSR. Application specific versions of 8048 were also built quite early, with adding of various peripherals, such as 8-bit ADC in 8022 and a parallel-bus slave interface in 8041/8042. The MCS-48 family was used in a quite wide range of applications. One of the first applications of 8048 was in a gaming console (Magnavox Odyssey2), but there were also more "serious" applications, for example in one of the first car engine "computerized" control units. But the biggest hit came when IBM decided to use 8048 in its original PC keyboard. Although in the AT keyboard IBM used the (presumably cheaper) 6805, it used 8042 as a co-processor on the mainboard, communicating with the keyboard. The 8042 is still present in almost each and every PC even today, but don't search for a chip with "8042" on it - it is integrated in the chipset. It may come as a surprise to somebody, but thanks to this fact the 8048 with its derivatives is most probably the most widespread microcontroller at all.

As in the 70s there were no pdf-s and no world-wide web, datasheets and other documentation is hardly available over the internet. I believe Intel will give out a copy if one really wants it (there is a "literature request" form at their "museum" pages). However, there seems to be a couple of enthusiastic people, one of the maintaining a wonderful document called “Grokking the MCS-48 System” at http://home.mnet-online.de/al/mcs-48/mcs-48.pdf .

8051: THE CLASSICS

In 1980, Intel introduced the successor to 8048, the 8051. Intel made sure that the transition from the already successful model will be as smooth as possible. Architecturally, the 8051 is an extension to 8048. Almost every feature and resource of 8048 is present in 8051 in same or superior form. 4kB ROM and 128B RAM on chip. Pin compatibility was not maintained, but it was not a real issue. Software compatibility is not binarywise but source-wise, but that is also acceptable. The preliminary datasheet read: "Enhanced MCS-48 Architecture". The extensions included code and data memory extended to 64kB with appropriate support in instruction set and registers (DPTR), relative conditional and unconditional jumps (conditionals and DJNZ were constrained within a 256-byte page in 8048), four register banks instead of two, "unlimited" stack (8048 had stack limited to 16 bytes), multiple and divide instructions. As for peripherals, second timer was added and both were extended to 16 bits with multiple modes (including 8-bit autoreload mode), and an UART (which was a luxury that many lower-end microcontrollers didn't have even a couple of years ago). The raw clock frequency did not increase considerably, being 12MHz, but an instruction cycle is 12 clocks now. Similarly to 8048, also the 8051 had variants, but there was no cut-down "low-cost" version (presumably because of the cost of ROM/RAM and the DIP40 package went low enough). The romless version was 8031 and the EPROM version was 8751. The "extended" version - 8052 (with 8032 and 8752) came 3 years later and featured besides 8kB ROM and 256B RAM also an extra 16-bit timer. An unusual chip was the 8052AH-BASIC, which according to Intel was "software-onsilicon version of the 8052 microcontroller with a BASIC interpreter on-chip in 8K ROM". The whole family was eventually called MCS-51 and was manufactured in NMOS, since 1986 in CMOS. Intel provided all the needed initial tools and support with the 8051 - assembler, application notes, example software, in-circuit emulator. Some of the appnotes and software still can be found on Intel's webpages and are of excellent quality. The basic datasheet set - dubbed in the community as "the bible" - is still THE reference source of information on 8051 and its derivatives, even today. So, Intel did its job, providing everything needed to make 8051 successful, and the rest is history.

THE BIRDS ARE OUT OF

THE NEST

Similar to 8048, also the 8051 has been licensed to various manufacturers worldwide. Some of the early adopters include Philips, Signetics, MHS (Matra) and Siemens. Most of these companies don't exist any more, some have been taken over, others have been renamed; but most of them still manufacture some derivative of 8051. The licensees started to make fully compatible models. Naturally, they took over also the datasheets, for example the "bible" is better used in the Philips version, which is a verbatim copy of the Intel version, except that it is a true searchable pdf, while the Intel is a scanned copy of paper document, unsearchable. More than that, the manufacturers took over the annoying practice of Intel to include in datasheets only the specific differences to the "bible", very confusing for the newbies (but there are opinions on this, some of the users consider this arrangement better than having huge datasheets containing all the “common” details). The manufacturers published their own appnotes, which all together form a huge knowledge base and code library, but... due to competition it is scattered across the manufacturers' sites, an another confusing fact for the newbies. Later, the manufacturers rolled out their own derivatives and variants with varying marking - there is no real standard in it (although there are some idiosyncrasies present in the marking of most manufacturers). All types of modifications described in the following chapters were applied; but the compatibility to the original 8051 was usually maintained. This, together with the availability of second-, third-,...,35th-,...-source of 8051 is the true source of its immortality.

EMBEDDED IN EMBEDDED

Intel and the licensees soon realized that 8051 is a nice core that can be embedded in various ASIC chips to perform setup and control tasks. Typically, the resources of the ASIC are mapped as external data memory, as if the ASIC would be connected to a conventional 8051 chip. This approach allows to use an

unmodified core, which speeds up the chip development and decreases the chance for error; also the ASIC could be breadboard-prototyped in this form easily. As an example, Intel produced 80C51SL, a descendant of 8042. Philips has a line of 8051-based teletext controllers. In a particular USB webcamera, the chip interfacing the CCD and USB was controlled by an embedded 8051. There are probably much more examples around, but most of them never get public. In spite of this, the 8051 in this form is produced probably in much higher volumes than as general-purpose microcontrollers.

EXTRAS

Besides application-specific, also general purpose derivatives have been introduced by Intel and the licensees, with enhanced features and increased code and data memories. In contrast with the ASICs mentioned above, these chips tend to implement the extra features in the core itself, acces allows faster code as SFRs are accessed by all the instructions using direct addressing (mov, logic), and some of them by the bit-manipulation instructions, too. One of the first such derivative by Intel was the 80C51FA, which introduced the programmable counter array (PCA) (and was a 8052 otherwise). It was intended for automotive applications (brake control). Soon, FB and FC continued, with more and more code memory. 80C51RA/RB/RC followed, with added "internal external" data memory. These were the basis for the today's 89C51RD2 "sub-family", produced by Philips, Atmel (as ex-Temic), SST and Winbond.

FAT BOYS: 16-BIT EXTENSIONS

When the 8051 was accepted widely enough, some of the applications started to grow and soon required more power than the 8051 even with enhancements could provide. There were 16-bit microcontrollers around (e.g. Intel had it's 80C196 line), but it seemed a good idea to provide a more natural migration path by creating a 16-bit version of 8051. Intel addressed the problem by introducing 80C251. It went all the way to achieve compatibility - it was able to run 8051

binary code (being able to switch to native 16-bit 251-mode) and had a package pin-compatible with 8051. It was not a big success, most probably for bad market timing (although it is second sourced by Temic/Atmel). Philips on the other hand employed source-compatibility for its XA family, which seems to be adequate for most of the applications, where legacy code has to be maintained or parallel development with 8051 is needed; and poses little constraint on the chip design itself. All in all, the 16-bit versions of 8051 gained far less popularity than the 8051 and are less widespread.

FLASH FOR THE MASSES

In the 90s, Atmel introduced a derivative of 8051 with Flash code memory, enabling fast erasure and reprogramming. It enabled to use the production-grade chip in development, and enabled the chips used in the product to be reprogrammed when upgrade or a bugfix was needed, cutting down costs. It brought down the 8051 to the masses - the small "garage" companies and hobbyists. Besides that, Atmel introduced also 89C2051 with decreased pin count (and price).This was a smart move, the chip proved to be extremely popular in many small applications. Today, virtually all manufacturers produce 8051 derivatives with Flash, most of them able to be programmed via some few-pin serial interface (called in-situ programming (ISP), SPI-style or UART-style) and the higher-end versions also able to reprogram themselves (in-application programming, IAP). MaskROM and EPROM - windowed or OTP - seems to become extinct, at least in the mainstream applications.

NEED FOR SPEED

The need for higher processing power, addressed unsuccessfully by the 16-bit versions, has been solved by introducing the high speed derivatives of 8051. The original 12-clock instruction cycle scheme is obviously inefficient and also the

technology progressed enough to achieve higher clock rates than the original 12MHz. The first derivative addressing this in a radical way is the now legendary Dallas DS80C320. It featured a 4-clocker core with incompatible timing, and could be clocked as high as 33MHz. Unfortunately, it was produced as ROMless only. The following step was taken by Cygnal, where a single-clock core has been developed. In the top-range models, the clocking is as high as 100MHz, being the fastest 8051s around.

Today, there are many 8051 derivatives with sped-up cores available. They can be divided into two groups: the 6-clockers (e.g. the 8xC51RD2) and 2-clockers (Philips LPC9xx) have the same number of instruction cycle per instruction as the original; while the 4-clockers and singleclockers are incompatible in this way, requiring recalculation of timing loops if used.

WHERE IS IT GOING?

The 8051 is a sound mcu core with rich history. However, it seems that it is already over its peak, although it might take quite a lot of time until it will be completely replaced by most modern microcontrollers. So we now have superfast 8051 derivatives with loads of internal FLASH and RAM. ISP and IAP seems to be the standard these days. There are the 8051s built around advanced analog circuits, mainly high resolution ADC. There are derivatives suitable for extreme applications – high temperature, radiation hardened. There are softcores around, tuned up, and even open source. There is a wealth of knowledge and experience, however, it is scattered around and the newbies tend to get the easier path - competing 8-bit microcontrollers usually do have a single-stop information resource site, so this knowledge and experience seems to die out as the "old boys" retire gradually. The price difference between the high-end 8-bitters and the much more powerful low-end 32-bit RISCs (such as the ARMs) seems to decrease rapidly and will change eventually, as the 32-bitters are becoming the standard in all but the least demanding applications.So there is

perhaps still a need for the 8051s, but this need is decreasing and 8051s life cycle is slowly approaching its end.

CHAPTER 3

P.C.B. DESIGNING & WORKING

1) P.C.B. DESIGNING

P.C.B. LAYOUT

The entire circuit can be easily assembled on a general purpose P.C.B. board respectively. Layout of desired diagram and preparation is first and most important operation in any printed circuit board manufacturing process. First of all layout of component side is to be made in accordance with available components dimensions. The following points are to be observed while forming the layout of P.C.B.

1.Between two components, sufficient space should be maintained.

2.High voltage/max dissipated components should be mounted at sufficient distance from semiconductor and electrolytic capacitors.

3.The most important points are that the components layout is making proper compromise with copper side circuit layout. Printed circuit board (P.C.B.s) is used to avoid most of all the disadvantages of conventional breadboard. These also avoid the use of thin wires for connecting the components; they are small in size and efficient in performance.

PREPARING CIRCUIT LAYOUT

First of all the actual size circuit layout is to be drawn on the copper side of the copper clad board. Then enamel paint is applied on the tracks of connection with the help of a shade brush. We have to apply the paints surrounding the point at which the connection is to be made. It avoids the disconnection between the leg of the component and circuit track. After completion of painting work, it is allowed to dry.

DRILLING

After completion of painting work, holes 1/23inch(1mm) diameter are drilled at desired points where we have to fix the components.

ETCHING

The removal of excess of copper on the plate apart from the printed circuit is known as etching. From this process the copper clad board wit printed circuit is placed in the solution of FeCl with 3-4 drops of HCL in it and is kept so for about 10 to 15 minutes and is taken out when all the excess copper is removed from the P.C.B. After etching, the P.C.B. is kept in clean water for about half an hour in order to get P.C.B. away from acidic, field, which may cause poor performance of the circuit. After the P.C.B. has been thoroughly washed, paint is removed by soft piece of cloth dipped I thinner or turbine. Then P.C.B. is checked as per the layout, now the P.C.B. is ready for use.

SOLDERING

Soldering is the process of joining two metallic conductor the joint where two metal conductors are to be join or fused is heated with a device called soldering iron and then as allow of tin and lead called solder is applied which melts and converse the joint. The solder cools and solidifies quickly to ensure is good and durable connection between the jointed metal converting the joint solder also present oxidation.

SOLDERING AND DESOLDERING TECHIQUES:

These are basically two soldering techniques.

•Manual soldering with iron.

•Mass soldering.

SOLDERING WITH IRON

The surface to be soldered must be cleaned & fluxed. The soldering iron switched on and bellowed to attain

soldering temperature. The solder in form of wire is allied hear the component to be soldered and heated with iron. The surface to be soldered is filled, iron is removed and joint is cold without disturbing.

SOLDER JOINT ARE SUPPOSED TO

1.Provide permanent low resistance path.

2.Make a robust mechanical link between P.C.B. and leads of components.

3.Allow heat flow between component, joining elements and P.C.B.

4.Retain adequate strength with temperature variation. The following precaution should be taken while soldering:

1.Use always an iron plated copper core tip for soldering iron.

2.Slightly for the tip with a cut file when it is cold.

3.Use a wet sponge to wipe out dirt from the tip before soldering instead of asking the iron.

4.Tighten the tip screw if necessary before iron is connected to power supply.

5.Clean component lead and copper pad before soldering.

6.Apply solder between component leads, P.C.B. pattern and tip of soldering iron.

7.Iron should be kept in contact with the joint for 2-3 seconds only instead of keeping for very long or very small time.

8.Use optimum quantity of solder

2) WORKING OF PROJECT

METRO TRAIN PROTOTYPE is a microcontroller based device. It is used in driverless metro train, which is used in most of developed countries. These trains are equipped with CPU, which control the chain. The train is programmed for the specific path. Every station on the path is defined; stoppage timing of the train and distance between the two stations is predefined. Basically it has four parts

1.POWER SUPPLY

2.8051 IC

3.DISPLAY UNIT

4.STEPPER MOTOR The 230 AC supply is converted into 9 volts by the power supply section in which 4

Elements are used.

1.TRANSFORMER

2.7805 REGULATOR

3.DIODES 4007 (in bridge shape)

4.CAPACITOR OF 100 MICRO FARADS & 470 MICRO FARAD The 230 volts is attenuated by 9 volts by transformer. Then it is rectified by the bridge rectifier made up of diodes. Then the 9 v is regulated by 7805. 1000 micro farad capacitor is used to filter the DC voltage. The LED attaches to check the correctness of power supply. In this project we try to give the same prototype for this type of trains. We are using microcontroller 8051 as CPU. The motion of the train is controlled by the Stepper Motor, for displaying message in the train we are using Intelligent LCD Display of two lines. The train is designed for three stations, named as Aligarh, Ghaziabad and New Delhi. The stoppage time is of 3 Sec and time between two consecutive stations is 6 Sec. There is a LCD display for showing

various messages in the train for passengers. There are indicators, which are used to show the train direction i.e. UP path and Down path. Before stopping at station the train blows the buzzer.

BLOCK DIAGRAM

SHCEMATIC DIAGRAM:

CHAPTER 4 COST ANALYSIS & TROUBLESHOOTING

COST ANALYSIS OF COMPONENTS USED

Table no. 4.1: Cost AnalysisSr. no Equipment Quantity RATING COST

1 IC 8051 MC 1 ------

2 IC ULN 2003 1 ------

3 TRANSFORMER 1 9-0-9

4 VOLTAGE REGULATOR 7805

1 7805

5 2 LINE LCD DISPLAY 1 ------

6 STEPPER MOTER 1 ------

7 CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR

1 12mhz

8 SWITCH 2 ------

9 LED 2 ------

10 RESISTER(220Ω,4.7kΩ,10kΩ)

10 220Ω,4.7kΩ,10kΩ

11 CAPACITOR (33pf,ceramic disk)

2 33pf,470µf,100µ

12 DIODE 2 ------

13 BUZZER 1 ------14 PCB 1 ------15 VARIABLE

RESISTANCE 1 10k

16 40 PIN IC BASE 1 -----

PROBLEM FACED •First problem that was in making the circuit of METRO TRAIN PROTOTYPE that, it is difficult to match time with rotation of stepper motor & LCD.

•Second problem is faced due to redundancy in handling the rotation of STEPPER MOTOR

•We have to take extra care while soldering 2 line LCD

•During soldering, many of the connection become short cktd. So we desolder the connection and did soldering again.

•A leg of the crystal oscillator was broken during mounting. So it has to be replaced.

•LED`s get damaged when we switched ON the supply so we replace it by the new one.

TROUBLESHOOT

•Care should be taken while soldering. There should be no shorting of joints.

•Proper power supply should maintain.

•Project should be handled with care since IC are delicate

•Component change and check again circuit

CHAPTER 5 CONCULSION

AREA OF APPLICATIONS

The theme of the project when merged with certain established technologies can be quite effective in number of countries like Germany, France & Japan etc. which control the train . The project when used with an improved sensitivity. The train is programmed for the specific path. Every station on the path is defined; stoppage timing of the train & distance between the two stations is predefined.

The circuit diagram is shown in the figure. Here LCD display is connected with the P1 of the MC. Control lines are connected with port 3 of the microcontroller. The contrast of the LCD is controlled by 10K variable resistor. Unipolar Stepper motor is used for running of the train. This motor has 5 wires, which are named as A1, B1, B2, and COM. Common line is given at +5V. The other lines can be connected with port 2 of microcontroller. The stepper motor is derived by the ULN 2003 chip. This Chip includes Darlington pairs, so that motor can get enough current to for its running. This chip required pull ups at inputs.

FUTURE SCOPE

This Project is useful in dveloping conturies & this project has a bright future as it is being used in countries like Germany, France & Japan. This project helps us to control train without a driver and the stations are shown on the LCD so the passenger doesn’t has any difficulty. This

project will lead to increase in technological trends & this will help the people in many ways.

REFRENCES

1.Collins, J.; Pymm, P, “Replacement of the station data logger at Hunterston B nuclear power station”,

‘Retrofit and Upgrading of Computer Equipment in Nuclear Power Stations, IEE Colloquium’ on 11 Mar 1991 Page(s):11 - 15.

2.Engel berg, S.; Kaminsky, T.; Horesh, M.;

“Instrumentation notes - A USB-Enabled, FLASH-Disk-Based DAS”Vol. 10, Issue 2, April 2007 Page(s):63 – 66.

, Instrumentation & Measurement Magazine, IEEE,

3.Erdem, H, “Design and implementation of data acquisition for fuzzy logic controller

” ‘Industrial Technology, 2002. IEEE ICIT '02. 2002 IEEE International Conference’ on 11-14 Dec. 2002 Page(s):199 - 204 vol.1.

4.Kuchta, R.; Stefan, P.; Barton, Z.; Vrba, R.; Sveda, M, “Wireless temperature data logger”,

‘Sensors and the International Conference on new Techniques in Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Research, 2005 Asian Conference’ on 5-7 Sept. 2005 Page(s):208 – 212.

5.Lee Tat Man, “Recording power demand characteristics and harmonic pollution by a general-purpose data logger”,

‘Advances in Power System Control, Operation and Management, 1991. APSCOM-91., 1991 International Conference’ on 5-8 Nov 1991 Page(s):737 - 743 vol.2.

6.Luharuka, E.; GAO, R.X., “A microcontroller-based data acquisition for physiological sensing

”, ‘Instrumentation and Measurement Technology Conference, 2002. IMTC/2002. Proceedings of the 19th IEEE’, 21-23 May 2002 Page(s):175 - 180 vol.1

WEBSITES

www.atmel.com

www.seimens.com

www.philipsemiconductors.com

www.howstuffworks.com

www.alldatasheets.com

www.efyprojects.com

www.thomson.com/learning

www.google.com

APPENDIX

CODING

Program for a stepper having connected & to show message on the LCD

$mod51

data equ p1 ;p0

busy equ p0.7 ;p0.7

rs equ p3.2

rw equ p3.1

en equ p3.0

org 400h

show0: db 'Welcome To All','0'

show1: db 'Current Station','0'

show2: db 'Next Station','0'

show3: db 'Aligarh','0'

show4: db 'Ghaziabad','0'

Show5: db 'New Delhi','0'

org 0000h

here:

mov p2,#00h

acall ini

mov dptr,# show0

acall read

clr p3.3 ;p1.0

acall delay

mov a,#01h

acall command;

Now make memory clear cursor home

mov dptr,#show1

acall read

mov a,#0c0h

acall command

mov dptr,#show3

acall read

acall delay ;

Stopage1 time 3 sec new delhi

acall delay

acall delay

mov a,#01h

acall command

mov dptr,#show2

acall read

mov a,#0c0h

acall command

mov dptr,#show4

acall read ;

acall delay ;Stopage1 time 3 sec new delhi

acall stepperf

mov a,#01h

acall command

mov dptr,#show1

acall delay

;Stopage2 time 3 sec greater noida

acall delay

acall delay

setb p3.3

; p1.0 ;off led at p1.0 for forward journey

clr p3.4 ; p1.1

; 0n Led for back ward journey

mov a,#01h

acall command

mov dptr,#show2

;display ne noida

acall read

mov a,#0c0h

acall command

mov dptr,#show4

acall read

acall stepperb

mov a,#01h

acall command

mov dptr,#show1

acall read

mov a,#0c0h

acall command

mov dptr,#show4

acall read

acall delay

;Stopage2 time 3 sec noida

acall delay

acall delay

mov a,#01h

acall command

mov dptr,#show2 ;display ne new delhi

acall read

mov a,#0c0h

acall command

mov dptr,#show3

acall read ;

acall delay

acall stepperb

mov a,#01h

acall command

mov dptr,#show1

acall read

mov a,#0c0h

acall command

mov dptr,#show3

acall read

setb p3.4 ;p1.1

ljmp here

;routine for stepper motor

; Delay Routine

delay:

push acc

push 00h

push 01h

push p0

push p1

mov r0,#0eh

loopr:

mov a,#0ffh

loopb:

mov b,#0ffh

loopa:

djnz b,loopa

djnz 0e0h,loopb

djnz r0,loopr

pop p1

pop p0

pop 01h

pop 00h

pop acc

ret ;

dlay stepper delays:

push acc

push 00h

push 01h

push p0

push p1

mov a,#0ffh

loopa1:

mov b,#0ffh

loopb1:

djnz b,

loopb1

djnz 0e0h,

loopa1

pop p1

pop p0

pop 01h

pop 00h

pop acc

ret

;++++++++++++Routine to read data from prog mem

read:

nex: clr a

movc a,@a+dptr

cjne a,#'0',aga

sjmp down

aga: acall display

;acall delay

inc dptr

sjmp nex

down:

;acall delay

ret

;================ stepper routine

stepperf:

push acc

push p1

mov a,#88h

; mov p2,a

mov r0,#0e0h

mov r1,#01h

loop:

mov p2,a

acall delays

rr a

dec r0

cjne r0,#00h,

loop

dec r1

cjne r1,#00h,

loop

pop p1

pop acc

ret

stepperb:

push acc

push p1

mov a,#88h

; mov p2,a

mov r0,#0e0h

mov r1,#01h

mov p2,a

acall delays

rl a

dec r0

cjne r0,#00h,

loop1

dec r1

cjne r1,#00h,

loop1

pop p1

pop acc

ret

end