A le ze b D esert Jam b i K oli M abel Koki K entefin W eynm a A ses G om e r D ond Ye rg in M ar W ole d M arkum a W ege dad Y ayshal D anp Belim a Bu reafe r A rabag el W azengis W ogereb H eret Agam im a Sab adir A bana K alo C hira r G alab ed Dafm Sham bla W eb o Legese m a Diend Sh indi Bo lade n Shin diT ow n N E W S 4 0 4 8 Kilom eters O RO MIA SO M A LI AM HARA AF AR TIGR A Y SO UT H ERN NA T IO N NA TION ALITIE S A ND PE O P LES BENISHANGUL GUMz G AM B E LLA DIR E DAWA HARARI AD DIS A B E BA ERITREA SUDAN SUDAN KEN YA KEN YA S O M A L IA S O M A L IA D JIB O U T I WEST GO JJAM W om berm a K e bele B oundary S tu dy K ebe le s Town Legend 240000 255000 270000 285000 1140000 1155000 1170000 1185000 ETH IO PIA 1185000 1170000 1155000 1140000 240000 255000 270000 285000 A m hara R e g ion W e st G ojjam Z o na l B o u nd a ry W om beram W oreda Legend 200 0 200 400 Kilom eters
This document is posted to help you gain knowledge. Please leave a comment to let me know what you think about it! Share it to your friends and learn new things together.
Transcript
Alezeb Desert
J ambi
Koli Mabel
Koki
Kentefin
Weynma Ases
Gomer Dond
Yergin
Mar Woled
Markuma
Wegedad Yayshal
Danp Belima
Bureafer Arabagel
Wazengis Wogereb
Heret Agamima
Sabadir Abana Kalo
Chirar Galabed
DafmShambla
Webo Legesema
Diend Shindi Boladen
Shindi Town
N
EW
S
4 0 4 8 Kilometers
OROMIA
SOMALI
AMHARA
AFAR
TIGRAY
SOUTHERN NATION NATIONALITIES AND PEOPLES
BENISHANGULGUMz
GAMBELLA
DIRE DAWA
HARARIADDIS ABEBA
ERI TREA
SUDAN
SUDAN
KENYA KENYA
SOMALIA
SOMALIA
DJ IBOUTI
WEST GOJJAM
Womberma
Kebele Boundary
Study Kebeles
Town
Legend
240000 255000 270000 285000
1140
000
1155
000
1170
000
1185
000
ETHIOPIA
1185
000
1170
000
1155
000
1140
000
240000 255000 270000 285000
Amhara Region
West Gojjam Zonal Boundary
Womberam W oreda
Legend
200 0 200 400 Kilometers
CHAPTER ONE1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Statement of the problem
Eucalyptus is an exotic species of tree that was introduced to Ethiopia from Australia in
1895. The main reason was to overcome a fuel wood shortage and construction demand
around newly established capital city (Pohjonen and Pukkala, 1990b). The expansion of
Eucalyptus in Amhara region (North western Ethiopia) has been observed in the last 50
years where aforestation and re-aforestation have been undertaken to a significant extent
in the rural areas (Poschen - Eiche, 1987). Eucalyptus is a fast growing species which can
be harvested within 4-5 years. It satisfies the need of construction and fuel wood demand
within the available capital and labor of poor farmers (Jagger and John, 2000; Raintree
1991; Hubby 1990, Nair, 1980). Currently Eucalyptus is becoming a dominant tree
species with in the existing agro-forestry system of Womberma woreda. Some farmers
are planting eucalyptus to the extent of replacing Cereal crops (Amare, 2001).
The overall expansion of eucalyptus in the food crop producing area of Womberma
woreda has occurred without the active involvement of extension programmes or
government institutions. However, this species has been a major issue for debate
nowadays. Even some regional states, like the Tigray region have placed a ban for
planting eucalyptus in farm lands (Jagger and John 2000). This is due to the notion that
eucalyptus takes up a high amount of water and nutrients and it exerts possible
competitive effect on the adjacent crops (Jagger and John, 2000). Much of the criticism
for eucalyptus is as a result of the inappropriate selection of species to match specific site
conditions.
The only obvious impact of eucalyptus planting could be in occupying the proportion of
land that would have been allocated to food crops like maize, teff, etc, which are in short
of supply. In fact, the reasons for planting eucalyptus or not in the agro-forestry system
under study differ among farmers. It may depend on socio-economic factors such as
availability of land, cultural perceptions and the social status of farmers (Saxena, 1994).
1
Most of the past studies conducted on eucalyptus in Ethiopia focused mainly on its
financial and ecological implications (Amare, 1999; Sexena, 1992; Pohjonen and
Pukkala, 1988; Ahmed, 1989). Limited attention was paid to the socio economic aspects.
Thus there is a lack of information with respect to why so many farmers prefer
eucalyptus more than indigenous species. The perception of extension workers and
farmers also has not been adequately studied. Moreover the socio economic factors that
encourage eucalyptus planting, the specific niche where eucalyptus is planted and its
relative abundance in the farm holdings in relation to social status have not been
sufficiently studied.
Therefore, this study is intended to fill this gap of socio economic information by
investigating in to the socio-economic factors related to eucalyptus planting, the
perception of farmers and extension workers about eucalyptus planting and its relative
abundance in the farmers holding. This study aims at providing information for extension
agents, policy makers and other institutions responsible for planning forest development
strategies.
1.2. Objectives of the Study
The general objective of the study is to investigate how farmers plant and use eucalyptus
in the food crop based agricultural system as practiced in womberma woreda in a context
of which no external actor or institution support of eucalyptus planting. Hence in this
study an attempt is made what socioeconomic factors favor or disfavor some farmers to
plant eucalyptus while others do not.
The study has four specific objectives
1. To describe the historical development of eucalyptus planting in Ethiopia with
particular reference to Womberma woreda
2. To investigate the main socio-economic factors that relate to eucalyptus planting
3. To identify the specific niche of eucalyptus planting within the farm holding and
its relative abundance.
4. To investigate farmers perception about eucalyptus and to link these to the
perception of extension workers.
2
1.3. Research Questions
From the above objectives four research questions are developed.
1. When, how and why did the farmers in Womberma woreda start planting
eucalyptus.
2. What are the main socio-economic factors that influence the farmers’ decision to
grow eucalyptus or not.
3. How perennial bio-diversity is related to eucalyptus planting in Womberma
woreda
4. Do extension workers in the study area give technical advice and seedlings to the
farmers during eucalyptus planting?
1.4. Significance of the study
The fact that no comprehensive study has so far been made the socio-economic aspects of
farmers in eucalyptus planting practices of the study area has provoked this study. Thus it
can be useful for planners, extension workers and other concerned bodies in providing
relevant information in order to design appropriate strategies and programs to enhance
development of farmers in the woreda.
1.5 Methods and Materials
1.5.1 Preliminary Survey
An initial discussion was held with Kebele Peasant Adminstration (KPA) leaders to
explain the purpose of the study and to get permission to conduct the study in the area. A
meeting with village elders and development agents was also held. Then farmers and key
informants were selected based on their long stay in the study area and their specific
knowledge of the area, which is better than other residents. After the introductory
meetings and the identification of the key informant, an explanatory survey was made
with in the key informants throughout the study area. This helped to get an overview.
There was also informal interviewing, with key informants to develop formal
questionnaires and to test the validity of pre formulated, semi-structured and structured
questionnaires and to check whether it would be appropriately focused on the area with
respect to the topic of the study.
3
1.5.2 Selection of Interviewers
For household interviews, research assistants were selected on the basis of their education
and duration of stay in the study area. They were 10 th grade graduates and some were
diploma holders.
1.5.3 Wealth Ranking System
In each Kebele Peasant Administration sample households are classified based on income
category that is rich, medium and poor household. This classification is based on the size
of the farm land and relative to the economic status of the local people in terms of live
stock type and number. According to the key informants of the small holders of the area.
The criteria for rating or classifying farmers in different wealth status are described
below.
1. the rich households are those who have more than a pair of farming oxen, 5 cows,
5 to 6 sheep, 4 goats and 12 'timad' farm land (4 timad=1 hectare.
2. The medium households are those who have a pair of oxen, 2 cows, 2 to 3 sheep 2
to 3 goats, 6 to 8 “timad” farm lands.
3. the poor households are those who have less than a pair of oxen, 2 to 4 “timad”
farm land and mostly those that rent their land to the others due to lack of oxen
for farming.
Normally rich households take the land from those who have no oxen in exchange of
their oxen, or by renting in cash or through the system of share cropping. There fore a
large amount of land has been owned and cultivated by rich households.
1.5.4 Stratified Random Sampling
In wealth classification one key informant from each social stratum was selected together
with one KPA leader in each KPAs. These four people were asked to rank the households
according to their wealth status. Male and female headed households in the selected
Kebeles were selected and names were written down on a 3cm by 5cm card and key
informants were asked to sort these cards according to their wealth status based on the
already set criteria for classification. Accordingly, they categorized the heads of the
households into 3 wealth classes namely rich, medium and poor. This stratum was used
4
for in depth formal and informal surveys. After categorizing the household based on the
three wealth classes respective households from each wealth category were selected
randomly. The sampling technique employed was therefore stratified purposive random
sampling. Thus sample households in each KPAs are selected purposefully to make the
number of respondents equal in each KPAs across all wealth categories.
The sample size was decided on the basis of time and resource available for the study.
The study was conducted on 120 households for the socio-economic interviews and the
inventory of wood species. From each KPAs 30 households out of which 10 households
were selected randomly to represent each wealth category: rich, medium and poor.
Table 1.1 House hold population of the surveyed KPAs
KPAs Distance from the
center
Total number of households
living in KPAs
Proportion of
households sampled
Marwoled 25 1428 30 (25%)
Wogedad yayshal 17 1269 30 (25%)
Markuma 8 1130 30 (25%)
SebadarabanaKalo 5 1237 30 (25%)
Total 5064 120(100%)
Source: WOARDO (2007)
Focus group discussion which includes young, women and agricultural experts of the
woreda also conducted to asses different problems related with tree planting which
comprises 6-9 people in the selecting four KPAs, with a total of 31 people.
In addition to this 10 forest extension workers were also interviewed on their perception
of eucalyptus plating. Totally 161 respondents participated in the study.
1.5.5 Data collection Methods
Structured household interviews were conducted for the collection of basic socio-
economic data and people's perception of eucalyptus planting for the survey households.
In this method, household size, age, land size, income source, attitude to tree planting and
labor availability data were collected. The head of the household was contacted for the
interviews because he/she could give much information on the households’ affairs.
5
The focus group discussion was conducted with women, young community group and
agricultural experts of the woreda, to collect information on their perception of
eucalyptus planting. Moreover, it helped to line farmers' perception about eucalyptus
planting with that of agricultural experts. In this interview constraints encountered with
extension workers in eucalyptus planting in relation to livelihoods of farmers were
carried out. Key informant interviews were also held with older people, from different
wealth strata and KPA leaders who know the history of the area, in each village to know
the historical trend of eucalyptus expansion in the respective study KPAs. In each KPAs
respondents from different social status and age group were interviewed to discuss the
historical time at which eucalyptus was introduced to the study area. Interviews were also
carried out with extension workers of the Woreda to know their view about eucalyptus
plantation and the relationship between eucalyptus trees and food crops.
Inventory forms were prepared to record the detailed information of the type of species
present per KPAs. A total census was carried out to record perennial woody species in
each farm or niche. The species identification was made on the site by using key
informants. Eucalyptus tree inventory was taken in separate forms. The eucalyptus
diameters were measured to know the eucalyptus diameter distribution across wealth
categories. The total enumeration was taken for farm boundary and live fence. For wood
lots five percent of the total area of wood lots area was measured.
Direct observation were made to assess current land used patterns, geographic features
and agro forestry practices in each study site, approximation of distance of the observed
place from the main town Shendi was registered.
The review of available information such as demographic data map and the socio-
economic condition of the study area and Regional forestry policy were collected from
different institutions.
1.5.6 Methods of Data Analyses
To analyze the various data collected: the study used both quantitative and qualitative
techniques. Qualitative techniques were used to describe and substantiate data acquired,
through observations group discussion and some socio-economic data and characteristic
6
of the rural households through questionnaire. The quantitative data were analyzed using
descriptive statistic, mean percentages etc...) Pearson correlation and Analysis of variance
(ANOVA) were also employed using SPSS 14 and accessories to see the relation that
exists between/with in different variables.
1.6 Scope and Limitations of the study
This micro level study is limited to Wombema Woreda. In addition to this it was based
on about 120 randomly selected households from the specified area. On the other hand
Ethiopia has a wide variation in agro-ecological and socio-economic conditions. There
fore it is difficult to make generalization from the study made in such small area.
However, the area selected for the study is the representative of the areas in which
eucalyptus tree became dominant over the other woody species. Hence it is hoped that the
result could be applicable to some locations having similar circumstances. The other
problem related to this study is the wealth classification may be biased because it varies
with people’s perception about wealth. However, maximum effort was made to get
optimum and fair classification of wealth categories by taking detail information from the
key informants.
1.7 organization of the thesis
This thesis is divided in to six major chapters. The first chapter covers the introduction
part which includes background of the study, objective of the study, significance of the
study, methodology, thesis organization and scope and limitation of the study. The
second chapter is devoted to the conceptual framework and general literature review of
eucalyptus plantation which covers the historical development of eucalyptus in Ethiopia
and debates on ecological, economic and social aspects of eucalyptus trees. The third
chapter deals with the general back ground of the study area which covers the physical
and social settings of the Woreda. The fourth chapter comprises the analysis result on the
major factors related with eucalyptus plantation in the study area and the fifth chapter
deals with the different methods and management practices of eucalyptus plantation
taken by farmers in the study area. The last chapter concludes the study by detail
summaries and recommendations.
7
CHAPTR TWO
REVIEW OF LITREATURE
2.1 Conceptual Framework
A critical factor related to tree planting is land availability. Eucalyptus is one of the cash
generating trees for many households. However there is an argument that although the
sales of cash crops generate income, this source of income may not necessarily foster self
reliance. In addition cash crop production reduces the area of land available to grow food
crops which are needed. As a result more land is needed to produce food crops.
Otherwise more cash is needed for buying food from the market. Farmers are also
motivated to engage in off-farm employment (Arnold, 1992).
A study in Rwanda Biggelaar,( 1996) indicates that there is a positive correlation between
land size and tree density. When farm size declines farmers plant few numbers of species
and they also shift planting locations (Bigalaar, 1996). A study in Babati district,
Tanzania (Alriksson and Ohlsson, 1990) stated that eucalyptus wood plots were either
located on the land around or in the direct vicinity of the homestead, and also sometimes
they can be planted as wind breaks to save crops from high wind on the farms. Thus they
may be classified as one of the agro-forestry practices Alrikson and Ohlsson,( 1990).
Aronold (1987) argued that small farmers often intensify the home garden by food and
agricultural cash crops when the farm size diminishes below the level of which they
cannot meet their basic household food needs. Hence, the area that exceeds the size of
land needed for food production by family labor could be normally used for tree planting.
This implies that when the size of the farmland diminishes below a certain level tree
planting will be given less priority than agricultural crops.
It was stated that economic environment for tree growing exists where trees are used
clearly for the ultimate benefit of those who plant them or for gift to their children.
Conversely the absence of land tenure security or control over the use of land resources is
often a major constraint to tree growing (FAO, 1985). Patterns of tree tenure can be quite
complex, but generally involve the right to own or inherit trees, the right to plant them,
8
the right to use them and the right of disposal (FAO, 1985). For instance, in India and
Nepal commercially valuable tree species largely belonged to the government regardless
of on whose ever land they grew (FAO, 1985). The state ownership of forest resource has
been severe constraint on conducive economic growth and enhancing the responsibility
of private entrepreneurs and farmers in managing and conserving natural resources. This
has discouraged the private sector and individual farmers’ participation in forest
resources management and utilization of agro- foresting (FAO, 1999).
Labor availability is another factor to tree planting. Trees need to be planted at the same
season when there are peak demands for agriculture labor at their highest (FAO, 1985).
The main operations in eucalyptus planting are digging, planting and thinning. Digging of
marginal lands may be done in the summer months when other fields do not require
labor. When planting on arable lands, digging and planting are done together. The
planting season for both eucalyptus and crops is generally common and one has to
consider the peak for labor demand. The total labor requirement is much less for
eucalyptus than for annual crops (Saxena, 1994). As a study made in India (Arnold,
1987) indicated, farmers prefer tree planting because of its low labor requirement and
thus reducing dependency of hired labor. However, the farmer may use hired labor at the
peak period when agricultural activities coincide with tree planting. This mainly depends
upon the socio-economic status of the farm households.
Household characteristics are the fourth factor affecting tree planting decision. There are
many well developed indigenous tropical agro-forestry systems and it is necessary to
assess their comparative contributions to the households in particular and the rural
economy in general with the view of promoting similar systems elsewhere. However the
socio economic benefits of agro-forestry systems are difficult to estimate due to intra-and
inter-household relations (Stocking et al 1989; Nair, 1980). According to a survey in
Thailand,Phantum Vanit et al (1990) found that eucalyptus planters were, on average,
younger, more educated and more experienced and motivated for progress in growing
trees than those who did not plant eucalyptus. A study in Rwanda showed that when the
head of the household of a large family holding is getting old, the size of farm land would
be small. This is because of the portion of land left to each of his children (Biggelaar,
9
1996). However a study in Niger state of Nigeria Adegbehin and Omijeh (1993) found
that tree planting is more linked to farmers’ awareness than to age, family size and farm
size.
Factors such as species, type and location or habitation affect the rate of tree growth and
consequently, have a significant bearing on whether or not communities and small
holders will invest in tree planting. For example, small holders living at higher elevations,
where trees are grown slowly may not find it attractive to invest in tree planting ( Jagger
and John 2000). Trees with very slow growth rates or low mean annual increment will
not give benefit within a short time span and hence, are not preferred by small holders
(Jagger and John, 2000). Species, which are easy for management, withstand adverse
climatic and marginal condition; need low management skills, high market demand or
whose products are demanded by local people for different uses etc… are important
aspects to be considered by community (Raintree, 1991; Nair, 1980).
The choice of species differs among different categories of people. Categories, such as
women, the poor landless, common resource users and ethnic minorities differ with
respect to species preference. Farmers may not select species on the basis of high yield
replacement value or any aesthetically appealing concept but they base their selection on
tradition, immediate need and experience (Barker, 1990).
Gender relations in tree planting are important for designing an effective extension
method for afforestation and re-aforestation activities. The role of women in tree planting
activities is different in different countries. It depends on cultural practices and the socio-
economic development of the society. For instance, in Kenya and Rwanda women are
forbidden to plant or cut trees because land belongs only to men, who can plant perennial
species in their holdings that ensures land ownership (FAO, 1989). As a study in Rwanda
indicates, local customs do not allow women to plant trees. An exception is made for fruit
and medicinal trees, both of which increase household food security and wellbeing. By
considering that fruit trees are food crops instead of saleable trees women have been able
to gain an advantage over the traditional ban on tree planting (Biggelaar, 1996). A case
study in Gujarat, India, showed that women are involved in weeding and transportation of
10
the seedling while men participate in digging holes for planting (Rorison, 1989). All
negotiations for selling the harvested tree poles are settled by men. On the other hand, the
transportation of the wood for domestic use from the field to the house is the task of the
women (FAO, 1989).
Men and women often have different views on the importance of various tree resources.
A woman’s concern may be to find enough trees and forest products to satisfy her
immediate family needs, particularly fire wood and fruit collection, whereas men’s first
concern may be for tree types with products that are primarily sources of cash,
particularly timber (Alriksson and Oholssun, 1990; Huby, 1990; FAO, 1989). Although
women are interested in cash in some areas they may not be allowed to participate in tree
based income generation activities. Men mostly sell products that could generate a higher
income, for instance, timber, whereas women sell minor tree products such as fruit and
berries, whose return is less than for the timber (FAO, 1989).
Marketing is important in tree planting. A higher output of a particular product may be
the result of a high yield or an increased market price, or both. The qualities and
quantities of the production or distribution over the year often affects market price. A
study in Kenya showed that one of the reasons for planting eucalyptus on farm lands was
that eucalyptus gave high investment returns for a given input and needed less initial
investment cost. The other reason was that the price of wood is decided at the local
market while the price of tea or coffee and many other cash crops strictly follows
international or external factor market price. Moreover, it is easier to predict the price of
wood because it is related to population growth and the lack of alternative sources of
energy. This makes the planting of eucalyptus a safe investment (Gustavson and Kiemu,
1992). As a study in Thailand suggests the price of tree products is correlated with tree
planting (Shively, 1999).( Alriksson and Ohlsson 1990) also argued that proximity and
accessibility to market are determinants to the type and form of agro-forestry practices.
The above fact tells that the increase in demand of a forest product and its price have
accelerated the intervention of trees on the farmlands (Shively, 1999).
11
To sum up, there are several concepts in agro-forestry that need clarification so as to
make clear the distinction between different agro-forestry practices along with socio-
economic factors such as land, capital and labor are key factors affecting tree planting.
The household characteristics like age, gender household size, attitude and perception of
farmers etc… determine the labor availability and awareness of farmers towards tree
planting. The species characteristics is also an important factor because species that grow
fast ,need low input and low initial investment along with quicker return of investment
are highly preferred by farmers. Eucalyptus is one of the fast growing species and is
preferred by the communities. Gender differentiated preferences of species depends on
immediate need, culture and past experience. Marketability of a particular product is
determined by its local and international market price. Thus eucalyptus planting is
affected by market and other socio economic factors.
12
Socio economic factors-Availability of land-Availability of labor-Personal factors (age, gender. education etc..)-Economic status-Distance from the market center
Impact on: -perception-attitude/view to tree planting
-Nature and type of tree species Response:
Lack of interest or motivation to tree palpating
Impact on: farmer’s decision to plant or not to plant trees
Activities of extension workers:-providing seedlings-giving training and other facilities
2.2.1 Eucalyptus Debates
2.2.1.1 The Historical Development of Eucalyptus in Ethiopia
During the time of Emperor Minilik II, a fuel wood shortage was one of the main driving
forces behind the deliberate shift of capital town from Ankober to the Entoto hills, in
1881. At the time the Emperor found that his people did not have sufficient wood for fuel
and construction, and decided to start reforestation and a forestation activity. He
discussed the issue with his cabinet repeatedly and requested Mondon-vidolillet, a French
railway engineer and philologist (one of his expatriate advisors) to assist him in the
introduction of some exotic tree species .Minilik’s intention was to get some kinds of tree
species which could rather grow faster and sustain in Ethiopian soil and climatic
conditions. He also preferred that such trees could provide both fuel and construction
wood. Accordingly, Mondom-vidolillet brought in 1895 seeds of 15 eucalyptus species,
including E-amgadalina, E-bicolor, E-camaldulensis, E-clado Cladocalyx, E-cornuta, E-
divers, patent, E-resinifera, E-ridis, E-salubris, E-tereticornis and Acacia species from
Australia to Ethiopia.
He also brought other species, e.g. pines from Portugal, Italy and Greece (Pohjoner and
Pukala, 1990b). Out of the introduced species of trees, the local people preferred
E.Camaldulensis, E-Citriodora, E-globulus, E-Saligna and E-tereticornis and their
cultivation gradually expanded slowly throughout the country (Friis, 1995). Currently,
about 55 species of eucalyptus are reported from cultivation in Ethiopia, of which
between five and ten species are widely planted (Friis, 1995).
The period from 1895 to 1898 is held to be the period of eucalyptus introduction around
Addis Ababa. But half a century the rate of eucalyptus expansion was slow. However,
during 1960 – 1974 its expansion was rapid on both private and government lands. In a
worldwide context eucalyptus investments were made for the use of paper and saw mills.
These extensive uses of wood in industrial matter attracted even external funding
agencies like SIDA and FAO and forced them to involve in providing aid for the forestry
sector and also forestry was visualized as an important segment of industrial development
(Anonymous, 1995). Until the revolution of 1974, the source of forest products in rural
areas of Ethiopia was limited to natural forest exploitation with limited planting of
13
eucalyptus in homesteads. Thus up to the mid 1970s most rural people were used to
exploring natural forests and wood for various needs. However such continued reckless
exploitation without any planting and a forestation led to chronic shortage of fuel as well
as construction wood particularly around the expanding cities and larger villages. More
particular that arose the so called fuel wood crisis in several parts of Ethiopia as well as
southern and central parts of Africa (Anonymous, 1995)
From 1975 to 1984 about 175,000 hectares of land were covered by eucalyptus
plantation. This was mainly done under soil and water conservation projects that were
sponsored by the World Food Programme. On the other hand, large scale plantation on
private land started declining during this period due to land reform of 1974 which
nationalized private lands to state ownership. In 1978, the World Bank led a powerful
worldwide campaign for private forestry sector in a forest policy paper focused on “forest
by the people for the people”. The aim was to enable small farmers to increase food
production along with planting trees and thereby conserving soil land and the
environment. Following this the FAO World Conference on agrarian reform and rural
development was arranged in 1979 (Arnold, 1992). In 1984 and 1988 the Sudano-
Sahelian of the United Nation led to the establishment of 900 hectares of fuel wood
plantation in Ethiopia (Stiles et al, 1991). This was the result of the 1981 UN conference
on New and Renewable Sources of Energy. The FAO also prepared a fuel wood map that
focused on energy needs of the world (Arnold, 1992). Altogether during 1974 to 1991 a
total of 200,000 hectares of plantation was established, usually on hill tops and slopes to
conserve soil and water sources. Planting activities were organized all over Ethiopia on
working days by Peasant Associations (PAS) (Poschen-Eiche, 1987).
Recent estimates put the figure of eucalyptus plantation in Ethiopia to be around 250,000
hectares. According to Amare (1999a) that may be an underestimation, but it still places
Ethiopia amongst the top ten countries in the world producing large eucalyptus wood
sources. Ethiopia is also the only country that produces and uses large hectares of E-
camalulensis while other popular species E-globulus is grown in Spain, Portugal and
China (Amare, 1999a). The overall expansion of eucalyptus has been observed in the last
14
3-4 decades, where aforestation and reaforestatoin have been under taken to a significant
extent in rural areas (Poschen-Eiche, 1987).
Different NGO workers visualized a significant increase in tree planting on privately
controlled lands in central and southern Ethiopia in 1990/95 immediately after the Derg
regime abandoned key features of the agrarian reform and relaxed control over the
private sector (Hoben, 1996).
2.2.1.2. Social Aspects
The issue about who benefits from a particular tree planting is an important debate at the
heart of eucalyptus debate. Much of the early debate centered on the idea that only large
scale farmers were benefiting from eucalyptus farm forestry. However, information on
the actual adoption pattern soon revealed that even the relatively small farmers are
establishing eucalyptus wood lots and get good benefits from them (Raintree, 1991). It is
also assumed that an increasing number of technically and economically viable
commercial tree growing innovations will benefit more rural poor and disadvantaged
(marginal) farmers. Jagger and John (2000) argued that small holders benefit from tree
planting by producing timber and non timber forest products from the household
consumption as well as cash from sale. This would increase household incomes and
improve their livelihoods. In contrast to this idea Malla and Fisher (1988) and
phentumvaint et al. (1990) support the general belief that tree planting is usually a
business for relatively wealthy farmers. These large farmers have enough land holding
and capital to diversify their farming activity and experiment with new crops and are
ready to undertake risks of adopting new crops. While small farmers find it difficult to
adopt tree planting because of the trees extended production period, a high establishment
cost and lack of large land holdings.
The landscape in Ethiopia at least in some areas is often dominated by eucalyptus
established, to a very large extent by farmers (Turnbull, 1991). Eucalyptus is so inter
woven with the life of Ethiopian society that it is difficult to dissociate it from the people
(Turnbull, 1991). It has different social benefits for rural people. The good smell of
eucalyptus is usually used to eliminate bad odor. It is also used to sprinkle water on the
15
deceased in order to clean the corpse before burial. E- citroidora has an attractive odor
and is used in making perfume. Traditionally some people chew and throw away
Eucalyptus- globules leaves to control bad breath. There are also some other medicinal
uses, such as people use it’s young leaves in boiling water and take lung breaths to be
cure from cold and sneezing
Eucalyptus is also found to be relatively non labor intensive. Although one of the
constraints in the tree planting is availability of labor during annual agricultural activities
as they coincides with tree planting time (FAO, 1985), yet labor requirements of
eucalyptus for planting, thinning and harvesting are spread throughout the year and hence
require much less overall labor input. A study made in North Gonder, Ethiopia, revealed
that farmers established eucalyptus woodlots using the “tangua” methods of plantation
establishment (Amare, 2001). In this method, the land cultivated for crops is also used at
the same time for eucalyptus planting, without an allocation of extra labor for land
preparation exclusively for the eucalyptus.
From a gender point of view eucalyptus assists women by saving time for fuel wood
collection, but the cash sell of eucalyptus poles belongs to men (Robison, 1989). This
shows that financial income that could be generated from the sell of eucalyptus more
benefits the male than female.
In summary, eucalyptus planting is mainly visualized as benefiting the rich farmers rather
than the poor. However the poor farmers also benefit in satisfying their fuel wood and
construction needs. Additionally eucalyptus needs low labor inputs and saves the time of
women for fuel wood collection.
2.2.1.3. Ecological Aspects
The ecological debate of eucalyptus in Ethiopia has begun since the time of King Lej
Eyasu (1913-1916). He ordered that 2/3 of eucalyptus plantation that have been
established around Addis Ababa should be up rooted and replaced by mulberry species
for silk production. This issue was taken more seriously when an Egyptian minster of
work, who visited Ethiopia in 1913, said that the case for the drying up of the springs in
Ethiopia was the eucalyptus introduction. Despite this, eucalyptus gained popularity
16
among the local people and its planting was expanded (Kinfe, 2000). The perception that
eucalyptus has a negative impact on crop production to the determinant of food security
and livelihood still persists in some regions of Ethiopia. This is due to the belief that
eucalyptus takes more water and nutrients so that it also depletes the soil. The debate has
covered the silvicultural and social forestry literature during the last 30 years and no
consensus has yet been reached. But it is surprising that nobody seems to criticize the
depletion of agricultural lands that are continually being planted without the addition of
fertilizer.
The negative ecological effect of eucalyptus is the result of inappropriate choice of the
species. Eucalyptus should not be heralded as a wonder species that will bring immediate
solutions to local wood crises and erosion problems. The blame should then not fall on
the eucalyptus purse rather than bad forestry practices (Poore and Fries, 1985).
A study in India revealed that most of the critics of eucalyptus relate the promotion of
eucalyptus planting by private farmers as high as cash crop for sell (Raintree, 1991).
While most critics argue that social forestry programs should have been concentrated as a
variety of multipurpose trees instead of planting eucalyptus exclusively on the farm land
only, others recommend that eucalyptus should be planted in integration with other useful
multipurpose species, as woodlots in commons and waste land for fuel wood, medicine
and other subsistence needs. Phantumvanit et al (1990) stated that most farmers in
Thailand complained about the negative environmental impacts of eucalyptus such as
indirect damage to their crops and a reduction in soil moisture and water supply in the
vicinity of the eucalyptus plantation. However they thought that the land used for
planting eucalyptus could still be used for other crops after the stump had been removed.
Moreover, a study made in north west India (Ahmed, 1989) concludes that loss in wheat
production due to eucalyptus was nil in the first two years, 8.2% of the total output in the
3rd and 4th years, 13.6% in 5th and 6th year and went up to 26.4% in the 7th and 8th year.
After this the loss increased rapidly to 48.8% for the 9th and 10th year. However, in this
study the method of estimation was not indicated. Saxena (1992) argues that losses might
depend on the spacing between trees, the number of rows in which trees were planted,
water applied and management practices. It is generally assumed that eucalyptus
17
plantation provides good shelter belts across the wind direction side against high winds
and there by benefit crops to some extent, but over all there is a significant loss in
production due to shade cast by the tree and this loss increase with the growing size and
foliage of the tree.
Advocates of agroforestry often cite the fact that leguminous tree contributes nitrogen to
the soil, enhancing crop productivity, and better suitability to soil. In contrast, non-
leguminous trees such as eucalyptus may compete with agricultural crops in utilizing the
scarce soil nutrients. There is significant support from the literature for the assertion that
fast growing tree crops deplete the nutrients on the site regardless of whether or not the
trees are leguminous (Poore and Friis, 1985). A study made in Australia on the nutrient
up take of eucalyptus revealed that the amount of nitrogen taken up by the cereal crop
was two and half times more than the amount taken by eucalyptus plantation. In contrast
the phosphorus uptake of eucalyptus was fifteen times more than cereal crops because the
sapwood contains 33 times more phosphorus. The study also showed that nutrients
removed in the native forest were 20 times less than in the short rotation eucalyptus
plantation (FAO, 1988). This is because in the native forest, the leaves, branches and bark
were left on the site. The rate of water uptake by eucalyptus could reach between 20 and
40 liters per tree each day, depending on the size of the tree to produce equal proportion
biomass to the amount of water consumed.
The nutrient uptake of eucalyptus is inherently site specific, highly dependent upon tree
and crop interaction being considered and the soil under which tree and food crops is
established. Research in Nigeria on three agricultural crops under neem, prosopis and
eucalyptus trees described that the mean crop yield were 13.99 g/plant, 8.32 g/plant and
6.8 g/plant respectively, to be comparable to a control test of 4.76 g/plant respectively.
The research suggested that although eucalyptus soils are superior to the control, they do
not lead to strong crop growth even when a leguminous agricultural crop is planted
(Jagger and John, 2000). In India farmers are now planting Eucalptus-Camaldulenss,
along farm boundaries. This is because the elongated crowns and vertical roots of
eucalyptus do not noticeably reduce crop yields, and also because the farmers can use or
sell the produce from the trees (Conroy, 1993). A study conducted in southern Ethiopia
18
Legesse, (1994) found that eucalyptus plantation up to 6m away from the tree shelterbelt
has a significant competitive effect on sorghum and maize crops. The study concludes
that growing Eucalyptus- camaldulensis closer to the field of food crops should be
discouraged and replaced with multipurpose tree species. There is also evidence that after
planting eucalyptus on previously treeless sites, soil fertility increases through the
development of humus, which may be slightly on some soils (Pore and Fries, 1985). In
addition to fertility maintenance in a treeless site the root system contributes to the soil
conservation and reduces mass wastage of slopes. Jagger and John (2000) also suggested
that in regions where rainfall is sufficient to sustain trees, the soil conditions conducive to
tree growth and perhaps less appropriate to the input of fertilizers, tree planting might be
environmentally suitable and an alternative land use practice.
The plantation of eucalyptus may result in new habitats by changing the ground flora, the
structure of the vegetation and the land use. It substitutes the existing species to occupy
the dominant place in the community. This has certain social and environmental
implications (Poore and Fries, 1985). Jagger and John (2000) conclude that it is not
advisable to make decision about the use of eucalyptus on the basis of considering only
the negative or the positive impacts. The reason why poor households choose to plant
these trees and the economic inputs that trees may have on the welfare of the households
should also be considered.
2.2.1.4. Economic Aspects
The eucalyptus tree provides a range of timber and non timber products to rural
households in Ethiopia. The farmers use very small areas of land, often as small as 0.1ha
to plant Eucalyptus- globules. They often use a very close spacing up to 60,000 seedlings
per hectare. Subsequently the plot may be managed in a form of a coppice with a
standard to yield a variety of products (Turnbull, 1991). Timber products are several
poles, fuel wood, fodder and charcoal. Products obtained from non timber products
include medicine, tannin, resin, honey and bee wax. Farmers in the high land part of
Ethiopia plant large numbers of eucalyptus, particularly Eucalyptus- globulus and mange
small branches for fuel wood, and poles and posts for building and other uses. Farmers
who have insufficient land to have a wood lot often grow a few trees, which can be
19
harvested and sold when cash is required to buy additional stocks from the market when
they experience food shortages (Turnbull, 1999). Many scholars have stated that no other
species, be it indigenous or exotic, could replace eucalyptus in the near future to bridge
the ever-widening gap between supply and demand of wood (Turbull, 1999; Pukkala and
Davidson, 1989).How ever, indigenous trees like Cordia africana,Croton macroslycs and
Albizia gumufera gives greater advantage in the study area by providing fuel wood and
construction purpose to the people.
One economic aspect, with respect to eucalyptus planting is whether to invest in
agricultural crops or planting eucalyptus on a given unit of farmland. A study made in
Ethiopia by Amare (1999) shows that the production cost to establish and manage
eucalyptus wood is minimal in the way farmers do it. According to the study, one hectare
of eucalyptus wood lot with 40,000 trees/ha only costs ETB 2,500 until harvest at the end
of five or six years from planting. Successive coppice rotations do not involve labor
beyond wood harvests. It is also indicated that annual income from agricultural crops is
ETB 529/ha. On the other hand, woodlot containing 10,000 and 40,000 trees/ha annual
income is calculated to be ETB 43,813 and 207, 389 respectively. In other words the net
income from 10,000 and 40,000 trees per hectares woodlot would be ETB 783,360 and
2,631,540 at 8% discount rate within 20 years while agricultural crops would make only
ETB 10,580 (Amare, 1999). One must also note that the farmer is freed from hard work
in woodlot farming as well as the uncertainty of the rains and weather. A study made by
Asaye (2001) in Gonder, Ethiopia, indicated that the net present value of a Eucalyptus-
Camaldulensis wood lot in a planting density of 20,000 trees per hectare was four times
higher than teff and sorghum crops in the best and medium site conditions. In the same
manner, the net present value of a planting density of 1000 trees per hectare was nearly
two times more than growing teff and sorghum crops in the best and medium site
conditions at a 10% interest rate. Additionally, the study conducted by Tesfaye (1997) in
Tigray in northern Ethiopia, found that eucalyptus growing is four to five times more
financially profitable than barley production at 15% rate of return (farmers received 15
unit profit per hundred units they invested). Pohjonen and Pukkala’s (1988) study in the
20
central high lands of Ethiopia found that profitability of forestry as compared to
agriculture is higher at a lower discount rate.
In order to utilize fertile land for agricultural production, the farmers use marginal land or
land with no other productive use for tree planting. Trees are also capable of growing
when they are planted as plot boundaries, on-household compounds or as live fences,
which occupy small, previously uncultivated areas. These lands may also have a lower or
no opportunity cost (Jagger and John, 2000). A study conducted in Tigray region showed
that E-globules dominate other species in both village and community woodlot (Jagger
and John, 2000). In this study it was stated that 100% E-globules and E-camaldulensis
plantings are on hillsides or waste land rather than on cultivate land. It was also stated
that under most circumstances, planting eucalyptus trees yielded a higher rate of return
(above 20%) than agricultural crops. Further Daba (2000) made a study in the central
highlands of Ethiopia, to compare E-globules growing with financial return from
agricultural use of lands. This study showed that growing E-globules is ten times higher
in financial return than from growing agriculture crops at a discount rate of 10%. He
concluded that plantation of E.globulus is economically more profitable than agricultural
use of land.
2.2.1.5. Farmers Interest of Eucalyptus Planting
Much has been said about eucalyptus planting by different authors but neither
environmentalists nor foresters seem to have consulted farmers on the issue (Saxena,
1992). Evans (1988) also argues that successful tree planting programs on small farm are
achieved when villagers perception and hopes are looked into assessed and not when
others ideas are imposed. Farmers may not see eucalyptus planting only in terms of cash
profitability because they may be interested in producing tree products for the household
use such as construction, posts, poles and fuel wood, and in other cases, for soil and crops
protection as wind breakers also. Hence cash profitability is not necessarily a good
predictor of the adoption of tree planting (Current and Scherr, 1995).
Eucalyptus species are really loved and purposely used by Ethiopians. Indeed removing
eucalyptus from this country means deforesting highlands and cutting the remaining high
forest (Evans, 1988). Farmers in Ethiopia are planting eucalyptus to the extent of even
21
replacing enset (staple food), and other tree including fruit trees growing in the
homestead in the south, again because of the high cash return, low labor requirements and
low input demands (Amare, 2001). Crop farms are being converted to farm woodlot
using the “tanguya” method of establishment that further reduces labor requirements,
enabling farmers to extend the crop-growing period too (Amare, 2001). A survey
conducted in north Gonder zone, Ethiopia revealed that farmers reasons for planting
eucalyptus included (in the order listed) cash income, fear of future shortage of wood,
tree growing experience/knowledge acquired /and MOA project extension and technical
assistance. Those few farmers that did not plant eucalyptus gave land shortage as the
main reason (Amare, 1999). Similarly, a study conducted in Eastern Guajrat, India
showed that the reason that farmers were enthusiastic to plant eucalyptus was to obtain a
good price. Another is that, unlike many farmers in other semi-arid areas most of them do
not appear to have experienced a reduction in the yields of annual crops adjacent to their
eucalyptus plants (Conroy, 1993). In India trees are even beginning to be used as security
for consumption loans from the banks. Moreover, trees that can be cut and sold are good
savings banks and insurance for poor rural people (Chambers and Richards, 1986).
Farmers in Thailand were in great controversy with the government on the time of
Eucalyptus planting and farmers’ interest to use the land for other uses. For instance,
there was strong protest against the planting of eucalyptus, in the east Thailand
particularly in 1985 (Puntasen et al. 1992). Two thousand people moved into eucalyptus
plantation, pulling up young trees, burning eucalyptus, nurseries and government offices.
The protest demanded the withdrawal of subsidy given to private planters by the
government. However the protest was not against eucalyptus planting. It was because of
the illegal issuing of licenses to investors for planting eucalyptus. Again in 1987 people
of another district pulled up young eucalyptus trees and began confiscating government
tractors. They demanded that natural forest be maintained, as it was originally, so that
people could use its products to supplement their daily survival. The natural forest at this
time was about to be cleared for eucalyptus plantation by the government (Puntason et al.
1992). The protest was against clear cutting of natural forest for eucalyptus planting.
22
To sum up the chapter, eucalyptus was introduced to Ethiopia in the late 19 th century. The
main reason for its introduction was to alleviate fuel and contraction wood problems
around Addis Ababa. Its expansion was aggravated during 1960 – 1970 in private lands
whereas its expansion increased on government land from 1970 – 1990 and relaxed
control over land in 1990/1991 eucalyptus expanded on private lands. However
eucalyptus has been a major species of debate in Ethiopia as well as other parts of the
world. Social aspects of the debate focused on the issue that eucalyptus benefited those
who have access to resources but not to the resource poor farmers. The study by scholars
on this issue indicates that both the rich and the poor benefit, except that the degree of
benefit may be varied. Another contradicted issue is on the ecological aspect of
eucalyptus tree. The main issue is its competition for water and nutrients with adjacent
crops. A study finding indicates that eucalyptus has a competitive impact on land up to
10m away from the tree shelter belt. Financial analysis of eucalyptus as compared to
agricultural crops showed that eucalyptus is more profitable than the use of land for
agricultural crops at a certain interest rate. Despite all of these arguments farmers plant
eucalyptus for different reasons; and they state that currently, no species could replace
eucalyptus for their immediate needs. Thus, if eucalyptus is planted in the appropriate
site, it will provide multiple benefits with out affecting agricultural production.
23
CHAPTER THREE
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY AREA
3.1 Physical Setting
3.1.1 Location and Size
Womberma Woreda lies in the South Western parts of West Gojam zone in Amhara
National Regional State. It is bordered by Bure Woreda in the East and Northeast,
Awizone in the North and Northwest and Oromiya (East Welega) in the south.
Astronomically the Woreda is located between 100 18' 30'' N to 100 35' N latitude and 360
30' E and 370 00' 3''E longitude It covers an area of 12170 hectare, that can make the
Woreda the third largest in the zone. It has twenty Kebele Peasant Adminstrations(KPAs)
24
Alezeb Desert
J ambi
Koli Mabel
Koki
Kentefin
Weynma Ases
Gomer Dond
Yergin
Mar Woled
Markuma
Wegedad Yayshal
Danp Belima
Bureafer Arabagel
Wazengis Wogereb
Heret Agamima
Sabadir Abana Kalo
Chirar Galabed
DafmShambla
Webo Legesema
Diend Shindi Boladen
Shindi Town
N
EW
S
4 0 4 8 Kilometers
OROMIA
SOMALI
AMHARA
AFAR
TIGRAY
SOUTHERN NATION NATIONALITIES AND PEOPLES
BENISHANGULGUMz
GAMBELLA
DIRE DAWA
HARARIADDIS ABEBA
ERI TREA
SUDAN
SUDAN
KENYA KENYA
SOMALIA
SOMALIA
WEST GOJJAM
Womberma
Kebele Boundary
Study Kebeles
Town
Legend
240000 255000 270000 285000
1140
000
1155
000
1170
000
1185
000
ETHIOPIA
1185
000
1170
000
1155
000
1140
000
240000 255000 270000 285000
Amhara Region
West Gojjam Zonal Boundary
Womberam W oreda
Legend
200 0 200 400 Kilometers
Fig 3.1. The study area
Source: Womberma Woreda Agricultural and Rural Development Office.
25
3.1.2 Climate
The Woreda has a variety of terrains ranging from 1660m to 2600m in height above sea
level. It is characterized by distinct dry and wet season. Most of the Woreda falls within
the Woynedega zone (2300 to 2600m) above sea level. The mean annual and monthly
rainfall for the Woreda at Shendi metrological station is 1430 mm and 116.23 mm
respectively. The "small rains" occurs in January and December and the big rains occur
during the period May to October.
The mean annual temperature of the Woreda is 26.570C. The maximum and minimum
daily temperature recorded was 20C in January and 34.50C in April over the previous 5
years. Mostly the hottest and the coldest months in the Woreda are December and April
respectively.
Fig 3.2. Seasonal Patterns of Rainfall (mm) distribution at Shendi Meteorological station.
050
100150200250300350400
Mean Monthly Rainfall
Months
Seasonal Patterns of Rainfall (mm) distribution at
Shendi Meteorological station.
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug sep Oct Nov Dec
Apr May
26
3.1.3 Soil, Vegetation and land Features
The soil of the flat land is darkish in color with a clay loam texture and that of the hillside
is whitish in color and has a coarse texture. The soil is shallow and barely deep. The top
soil has been subjected to severe sheet erosion and is also exposed to the action of wind
erosion. High and medium sized stone pieces cover about 3% of the area of the ground.
The topography of the Woreda varies from roiling plains to slopes of mountain masses.
However the area includes extensive area of cultivated lands probably originating from
grassland derived from clearing and burning forests within the past. The area also
includes patches of grasslands, which is seasonally waterlogged, especially in the valley
bottom and on plains with insufficient drainage. Shrubs of different varieties are also
found along eroded hillsides. Some indigenous tree species are also found scattered in the
farmlands. However, currently eucalyptus tree species are widely planted by small
holders as a woodlot, farm boundary and as live fences.
3.2 Cultural Setting
3.2.1 The People
Population is an asset. But if its size goes much beyond the required resources or existing
resources; it becomes a burden. Rapid population growth and absolute size are the driving
forces for the destruction of forests all over the country (Davidson, 1988). Massive
destruction of forest is also leading to drastic change in land use/ land cover and
livelihood strategies in the highlands of Ethiopia (Selamyihun, 2003). Among the
woodlots gone currently, exotic tree species like eucalyptus trees are integrated into the
crop production system of the small land holders. Thus it is well known that the size,
growth and spatial distribution of population influence the degree of utilization of natural
resources, the level of economic development and the level of socioeconomic services.
According to the 1994 Population and Housing census of Ethiopia the total estimated
population of Womberma Woreda is about 109,276. The rural population accounts for
91% and the urban population is 8.9%. Male female ratio is estimated at almost 100:104.
Due to adverse climate condition and prevalence of disease in the lowlands, about 90% of
27
the population is concentrated in the highlands whereas 10% of the total population is
estimated to live in the low lands. Average family size and annual growth rate are about
6 persons and 3% respectively. The growth rate is lower than the national average which
is 3.1% per annum (CSA 1995). The age structure of the population shows that 56% of
the populations are below 15 years of age, 42% are between 15 and 64. The remaining
2% are older than 64.
3.2.2 Culture and Tradition
About 97% of the people in the area are ethnically "Amhara" sharing the same culture
and tradition. Agriculture is found to be the major occupation of nearly all people. The
most dominant farm technology is an age-old ox-drawn system. Land is the basic source
of wealth. The larger the size of the land holding, the higher is the social status of an
individual in the community. The numbers of cattle have also a great contribution to the
position of a person in the social ladder. The people of the Woreda are famous for their
Orthodox Christianity. They are very diehard in their Orthodox faith and they used to
observe celebrating different holidays named after "Angels" and martyrs at least fifteen
full days in a month without working. Those that do not celebrate holidays will be
condemned by the clergy of the church. Thus religious binding continuous to grater
obstacle in production of agricultural output and resource development keeping the
people too poor and short of even food
3.2.3 Household and Social Organization
In Womberma Woreda a household (local language "Beteseb") is defined as those
persons that live in the same house, cook and eat together, share the same farm and are
administered normally under the head of the household e.g. father if he is alive. In other
words, a household includes the mother and father living together with their children and
other dependents in the same household and own the same farm holding. Grown up
children could also live in the same compound or in different villages. The head of
household has access and right to control over the land. He can also decide about all
issues regarding family affairs.
28
In Amhara culture the women could not be the head of the family, if the husband is alive
and could not decide on family affairs, but she may have access to the use of land
resources. If the husband dies, the wife will be the head of the household, unless she
maries another man.
According to the informants there are different social organization like "Ekub" "Edir"
and "Mahiber" within which the people in each village of the woreda are used to solve
their variety of social problems. The social organizations play vital role by resolving
social conflicts including conflicts in land through the elected village leaders called
"Shimagiles". The village leaders (“Shimagiles”) are usually elected on the basis of their
local status, age and family background. The main duties and responsibilities of the
village leaders are to arrange agreement when conflict arises between husband and wife,
neighbors and relatives etc.. within the village.
The elders also can mobilize people when there is a need to construct ones house,
cultivate and harvest crops (usually called "Tirota"). This is usually done when an
individual in the village faced health problem or his oxen are sick or stolen by a thief.
3.2.4 Land Use Pattern , Land Tenure and Landholding Size
The main economic activities of the people in the Woreda are crop production and
livestock rearing. Land utilization in general is a reflection of this mode of production.
According to the Agricultural and Rural Development of the Woreda records, arable land
takes the largest share of 78%of the total land. The remaining land is classified as grazing
land (10%), settlement (5%) forest and bush land (5%) and marginal land (2%). Because
of increasing population, the grazing land, forest and bush land have been shrinking in
size from time to time. In high land areas even very steep mountain sides are used for
cultivation which leads to the greater vulnerability of the area to erosion hazards.
Land redistribution was conducted two times during the Derg regime and once under the
present government. The Amhara National Regional State (ANRS) redistributed land to
the rural community in 1998 with the sense of equity consideration. The Woreda also
followed the regional government and implemented the redistribution of land in 1998.
But the interview result and focus group discussion with key informants indicated that
29
there is still greater difference in land holding size. Accordingly, the largest land holding
size is 3 hectares while the smallest is 0.5 hectare. The land redistribution in the Woreda
is mainly based on family size except for those people who were privileged and
politically active during the Derg regime, in which case only 1 hectare is given to them
without considering their family size as a sort of revengeful political action.
3.2.5 Farming System
Mixed farming is the major economic activity in the rural part of Ethiopia. Farmers'
livelihood directly depends on subsistence base of crop production and livestock rearing.
Crop production
Crop production is confined mostly to the rainy season i.e. Meher. This is probably due to
Mono-modal nature of rainfall in the area. According to the data obtained from the
Woreda Agricultural and Rural Development Office, greater portion of the land is
allocated for the cultivation of maize, wheat, teff and millet. Of all the crops grown in the
area maize crop gives the highest yield per unit area (42qt/ha) followed by wheat (35
qt/ha) (WWARDO 2007). In addition to these, pepper, beans, peas are also produced on
different patches and smaller quantities.
Livestock production
Livestock production is one of the major economic activities in the Woreda after crop
production. Farmers use their cattle for ploughing, threshing the harvested crops and
assisting the crop production. The major constraint of the production of the sector is
shortage of feed. The rapidly growing population pressure and associated demand of the
newly married couples for land, land redistribution to the landless and tree plantation
have resulted in sharp declining of common grazing land, to woodland and grassland.
30
CHAPTER FOUR
EUCALYPTUS PLANTING IN FOOD CROP PRODUCING AREAS
4.1 Socio-economic Profile of the Study Area
Among the surveyed households of the study area the average household size is the
highest in Marwoled with an average of 7 persons /household followed by
Wogedadyayshal 6.6 Markuma 6.3 and Sebadarabanakalo 6 across all wealth categories.
This implies that a little higher availability of human labor for eucalyptus planting may
be found in Marwoled than in other KPA
Table 4.1 Average proportion of land allocated to different farm practices in surveyed
KPAs
KPAs
Socio -economic Attributes
Wealth Categories Average
Household
Average
Age
Average Land
Size in hectares
Marwoled
Rich 10 66 3
Medium 7 49 1.96
Poor 4 51 0.95
Mean 7 55.3 1.97
Wogedad yayshal Rich 9 56 37
Medium 7 60 1.97
Poor 4 56 0.92
Mean 6.6 57.3 1.96
Markuma
Rich 8 60 2.72
Medium 6 58 1.67
Poor 5 50 0.74
Mean 6.3 56 1.71
SebadarabanaKalo
Rich 8 59 2.95
Medium 6 50 1.88
Poor 4 54 0.87
Mean 6 54 1.90
Source: Household survey (2008)
As table4.1 shows above, the household size increases on average with increase in wealth
status. Thus the rich farmers have (8.7 persons /household), medium (6.5 person/
31
household), and poor (4.25 person/ household) in all KPAs. Rich farmers that have better
source of income, able to produce more food, and sustain their large household have
larger number of children compared to the medium and poor farmers.
Moreover many rich farmers in the study area who have better source of income and are
able to produce more marry widowed women in order to get additional farm land, and
through polygamous arrangement, they can also be get more children. Thus rich farmers
are endowed with more land and larger family labor for farm work and planting
eucalyptus. Woldeamlak (2003) also found that the current forestland holding size of the
study area reveals a general trend of "More people more trees".
The average land size per household also varies with 1.97 ha/household for Marwoled,
1.96 ha/household for Wogedadyayshal, 1.90 ha/household for SebadarAbanakalo and
1.71 ha/household for Markuma. This indicates that better conditions for eucalyptus
planting are available in Marwoled and Wogedadyayshal than in SebadarAbanakalo and
Markuma KPAs.
Besides, the average land holding size also varies with varying wealth status in all sample
KPAs. Thus, rich farmers have 2.92ha/household, the medium farmers 1.87 ha/household
and the poor farmers 0.87 ha/household. This shows that rich and medium farmers have
greater land resources and opportunity to plant eucalyptus than poor farmers in terms of
availability of land.
4.2 Introduction and Expansion of Eucalyptus in Womberema Woreda
According to the information obtained from the respondents eucalyptus plantation in the
study area started in the late 1950s.But the trend of expansion and number of planters
were very low at the beginning i.e from 1955to1965 and rose during 1965-1975 and
again declined from 1975to1985. The highest number of eucalyptus planters was
recorded from 1990 onwards. This variation in the number of eucalyptus planters is
mainly related to the land tenure policy of the country. For instance the time from
1975to1985 was the period in which private land was nationalized as a state ownership.
32
This led to the declining of private planters. But in 1990s private planters increased when
the agrarian reform by the Transitional Government of Ethiopia (TGE) fully relaxed the
private sector to participate in it.
Table 4.2. Number of farmers involved in eucalyptus plantation
KPAs
Numbers of farmers involved in eucalyptus panting during different periods
1955-1965 1965-1975 1975-1985 1985-1995 1995-2005 Total
Punatasen.,et al.(1992).Political Economy of eucalyptus: Business,Bureaucracy and the
Government.Jornal of contemporary Asia Vol.22(2) 187-206.
Raintree, J.B.(19870, An Introductory to Agroforestry Diagnosis and design:D and D
user Manual International Council in Agroforestry. ICRAF.Nairobi,Kenya.
____________(1990).Theory and practice of Agroforestry.Diagnosis and Design.In
Agroforestry: classification and Management.Kenneth G.MacDicken and
Napoleon T.Vergara (eds.).John Willey and sons,New York.
Raintree. (1991). Socio economic attributes of trees and tree planting practices. Food
and agricultural organizations of the United Nations, Rome.
Rorison.(1989). Acase study of farm Forestry and Wasteland Development in
Guajirat,India Kathlen Rorison(ed).Food and Agricultural Organization of the
United Nation,Bangkok.
Saxecna, N.C. (1992). Crop Losses and their economic Implications due to Growing
of Eucalyptus on Field Bands A pilot study. In financial and economic analysis
of agroforestry system workshop paper described as proceedings. Oxford
University, South Parks Road, Ox1 3rb, United Kingdom.
(1994). Indian’s eucalyptus craze. The God that Failed. Sag
publication. New Delhi. Thousand Oaks. London.
76
Selamyihun Kidane (2004). Using eucalyptus for soil and water conservation on the
highland Vertisol of Ethiopia: A PhD dissertation. Wageningen University, the
Netherlands.
Shively, G.E (1999). Prices and tree planting on hillside farms in Palawan. World
Development V. 27(6) 937-949.
Stiles,et al.(1991). Reforestation: The Ethiopian Experience, 1984-1989. Technical
support Division of UNSO (United Nation Sdano Sahlian Office), New York,
UNSO.
Stocking,et al.( 1989). Financial and Economic Analysis of Agroforestry: Key Issue.
Discussion Paper 212, Stockholm. /87
Tesfaye Teklay(1997).Problems and Prospects of tree growing by smallholder
farmers. A case study in Feleghe-Hiwot locality,eastern Tigray, Ethiopia. Msc in
Forestry Programme thesis Works,Report No 1996:7 Skinnskatteberg,Sweden.
Turnbull, J.W.(1991).Future use of eucalyptus: Opportunities and Problems.In:
Symposium on Intensive Forestry: The Role of eucalyptus A.P.G Schnau(ed.).
Procedings-Volume1, International Union of Forestry Research
Organaization,Durban,South Africa
-------------.(1999). Eucalyptus Plantations. New Forests 17: 37-52
Woldeamlack Bewket (2003). Household Level Tree Planting and its implication for
Environmental Management in the Northwestern high lands of
Ethiopia:Acase study in the Chemoga Watershade ,Blue Nile Basin. Land
Degradation and development. In press.
WWARDO(Womberma Woreda Agricultural and Rural Development Office)
2007.Agriculture annual Report. Unpublished.
Zikre Hig (Proclamation No.46/2000). Proclamation issued to determine the
administration and use of the rural land in the Amhara National Region.
77
Abstract
The main objective of the study is to examine how farmers plant and use eucalyptus in the cereal crop producing area of Womberma woreda by investigating the key socio- economic factors favoring and disfavoring the farmers in eucalyptus plantation. To achieve the intended objectives, a questionnaire survey was conducted for 120 sample hold in four KPAs by categorizing them into 3 wealth category namely rich, medium and poor. In addition to this the view of group discussion participants and key informants as well as measurement and direct observation were incorporated. The data collected were analyzed using qualitative and various statistical tools such as percentage, mean correlation and variance analysis (F-ratio) test. The finding of the study show that eucalyptus tree plantation which was introduced in the late1950s become well known in Womberma Woreda passing through the problems related to land tenure policy in different government systems. At present farmers of the study area actively planting eucalyptus trees mainly on the expense of grazing land and in some extent on teff and maize fields. However, the expansion of eucalyptus trees in the woreda has been done by the effort of the farmers with out the support of extension workers and other concerned bodies.
The study also demonstrate that eucalyptus tree planting in the study area practiced differently by farmers depending on their wealth status, proximity to the town, access to land, sex, availability of alternative income source and interest. Thus density of eucalyptus and area allocated for eucalyptus plantation per household between the kPAs located far and near to the market center were significantly different. As the result we can get greater density of tree and more land allocated for eucalyptus plantation as we go far away from the market center and vice versa. This was mainly due to the reason that farmers near to market center sought alternative source of income that have shorter rotation period and does not need more land like eucalyptus. Moreover due to cultural constraints, shortage of land and labor, women in the study area are not directly involved in eucalyptus plantation.
78
Acknowledgement
First and for most “Glory be to God” who helped me to carry all the burdens throughout
my study and research completion.
Next, I would like to thank my advisor professor KN.Singh, who has been with me all
the way through this study, more importantly, his expert advise, guidance, comments,
suggestions and pain staking corrections were extremely valuable.
I would also like to express my indebtedness to the workers of Womberma Woreda
Agriculture and rural development office workers. Especially Ato Belayneh Kassa,
Temesgen Hailu, Ato Mulualem Ayalew who have always been with me when ever I
need assistance during my field survey. They provide me with all necessary equipments
and assisted me in data collection. I also thanks all who assisted me in data collection.
My sincere appreciation also goes to the informants for their openness and enthusiastic
response and provision of information and hospitality during the study.
My gratitude also extends to my family, friends and colleagues, who in one way or an
other shared my pains during the course of the study. Special thanks go to my father Ato
Anteneh Wubie, and my mother W/ro Enat Mekonnen and my brother Agumasie
Anteneh for their special advice moral support starting from my childhood till now.
Last but not least. I would like to thank my lovely W/ro Getenesh Dejene for her
unreserved moral and material support.
79
ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES
DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
Appendix 1
Questionnaire
Dear respondents, I am doing a research as a part of MA Program in Addis Ababa
University. This questionnaire is designed to assess the socio-economic aspects that
affect the farmers in eucalyptus planting practices in Womberma Woreda. Hence I would
like to thank you in advance for giving me your valuable time to fill this questionnaire
and discussion about it.
Part I
Household Socio-economic Survey
Interview Date PA Social Class Code
1. Family status
1.1. Household number Male Female
Age younger (under 30) Older (over 30)
Education level (tick)
Can read and write 1 - 6 grade
Can’t read and write 7 – 8 grade
9 – 12 grade
Training if any
1.2. Income
What are the main sources of cash for the household?
Off-farm employment Sale of livestock products such as milk
Gift or remittances Sales trees of tree products such as wood
Sale of cash crops (paper) Other specify
80
2. How does the household cop up with food shortage? Is there any insurance crop (trees)
to be consumed or sold?
There is no insurance crop
There is donation to the community by the government
The farmers sale eucalyptus and other trees to buy food
Migration to other resource rich area
Other means specify
2.1. Is eucalyptus tree planting affect your farming practices?
Yes No
If yes in what way
2.1.1. Is eucalyptus planting replacing the families’ food and cash crops?
Yes No If yes how
3. Attitude to tree planting
Have you planned to plant trees on your farm?
Yes No If yes which species
-If not, why not because of ________________________
Inadequate knowledge to tree planting Lack of tree seedlings
Lack of labor Lack of land
Low survival rate of the seedlings others specify_____________
4. Livestock
4.1. Which kind of livestock does the household have?
Animals Number owned by this household
CattleGoatsSheepAss HorsePoultry Other
81
5. Land
5.1. What is the total size of your farm land? (Estimate) (Hectare or” timad”)
5.2. What proportion of land is allocated for: Wheat?
Maize
Millet
Teff_______________________
Fruit trees(Vegetables)__________
Eucalyptus_________________
5.3. Does the household have access to other land outside the farm?
Yes No
-If yes where is it (Location?)
-What it is used for (crops, tree planting, grazing, other uses?)
-How is it obtained? Communal rented
Borrowed Given by higher government bodies
5.4. Tree tenure right
5.4.1. Can you cut and sell your own tree any time?
Yes No
If not what is the problem
5.4.2. Are there restrictions on the type of trees you may plant and/or harvested on
your holdings? Yes No
6. Labor availability
6.1. How many people work on the farm full-time?
Male older than 30 years old younger than 30 years old
Female older than 30 years old younger than 30 years old
6.2. Is labor hired or family labor?
If hired for what operation
How long?
What costs?
82
PART II
Questionnaire on Historical Trend and Reason for Eucalypts Planting
Interview Date K PA Social Class Code
1. Past and present residence
1.1. How long have you lived here? Years
2. Do you have eucalyptus tree Yes No
- If yes, when did you plant it for the first time in 19 E.C.
2.1. How did you know about this tree?
From development agent from my friend from my children
From neighbor NGO’s specify
Other specify
2.2. Who brought eucalyptus to your farm?
Husband Son/daughter
Wife others specify
3. Did you remember when eucalyptus was introduced in this area?
Yes No
-If yes, when (year) by whom
4. Why do you plant eucalyptus rather than indigenous trees? Because
It is fast growing it needs less labor
It is good for both fuel wood and construction it needs less capital
It is profitable to sell it is a multipurpose tree
Others specify
5. Did you ever get eucalyptus seedling from different institutions?
Yes No
- If yes, from which institution_________________ how ________________- . ?
6. What form of land use was practiced for the last fifteen years in this area before you
cover it with eucalyptus?
Maize teff other tree species
Wheat millet other crops specify
83
6.1 What was your reason to convert the land to eucalyptus plantation? ______________