-
MEASUREMENT OF BUBBLE BEHAVIOR
AND HEAT TRANSFER IN A FLUIDIZED BED
HAVING HORIZONTAL HEAT EXCHANGE TUBES
by
Michael Siddoway
A thesis submitted to the faculty of the Department of Chemical
Engineering
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Bachelor of Science
Institute for Combustion and Energy Studies
The University of Utah
May 2006
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Table of Contents
Abstract..............................................................................................................................
iv
1.
Introduction.................................................................................................................
1 1.1. Black Liquor Steam Reforming
..........................................................................
1 1.2. Cold Flow
Modeling...........................................................................................
1 1.3. Objectives
...........................................................................................................
1
2. Literature Review
.......................................................................................................
3
2.1. Flow in Beds with Horizontal Tube
Banks......................................................... 3
2.2. Particle Segregation
............................................................................................
3 2.3. Heat Transfer in Beds with Heating
Tubes.........................................................
4
3. Experimental
Methods................................................................................................
5
3.1. Scaling
Parameters..............................................................................................
5 3.2. Fluidized Bed Description
..................................................................................
6 3.3. Particle
Description...........................................................................................
10 3.4. Minimum Fluidization Velocities
.....................................................................
10 3.5. Bubble Voidage and
Frequency........................................................................
11 3.6. Segregation
.......................................................................................................
16 3.7. Heat Transfer from Heaters to
Bed...................................................................
18
4. Results and Discussion
.............................................................................................
23
4.1. Minimum Fluidization Velocities
.....................................................................
23 4.2. Bubble Voidage and Bubble Frequency
........................................................... 25 4.3.
Segregation
.......................................................................................................
29 4.4. Heat Transfer
....................................................................................................
34
5.
Conclusions...............................................................................................................
41
5.1. Bubble Voidage
................................................................................................
41 5.2. Segregation
.......................................................................................................
41 5.3. Heat Transfer
....................................................................................................
41
6.
References.................................................................................................................
43
7.
Appendices................................................................................................................
44
7.1. Voidage Plots
....................................................................................................
44 7.2. Voidage Tables
.................................................................................................
69 7.3. Segregation
Data...............................................................................................
94 7.4. Heat Transfer
....................................................................................................
96
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iii
List of Figures Figure 3-1 - Rendering and Photo of the Cold
Flow Fluidized Bed....................................6 Figure 3-2
- Diagram of Distributor (Dimensions in inches)
..............................................7 Figure 3-3 - Photo
of Distributor in Empty Bed
..................................................................8
Figure 3-4 - Diagram of Tube Banks (Dimensions in
Inches).............................................9 Figure 3-5 -
Photo of Tube Bank Region of the
Bed...........................................................9
Figure 3-6 - Diagram of Bubble Detector Probe
...............................................................12
Figure 3-7 - Theory Behind the Design of Bubble Detector
.............................................13 Figure 3-8 -
Voidage Calibration Curve for 180 to 250 Micron
Particles.........................14 Figure 3-9 - Photo of Tube
Bank Region with Copper Tubes Installed
............................21 Figure 4-1 - Pressure Drop versus
Velocity for 500 to 750 Micron Particles ...................23
Figure 4-2 - Pressure Drop versus Velocity for 180 to 250 Micron
Particles ...................24 Figure 4-3 - Minimum Fluidization
Velocities versus Particle Diameter..........................25
Figure 4-4 - Three Trials of Weight Percent of Large Particles at
Different Heights
of the Bed without Tube Banks
Installed......................................................31
Figure 4-5 - Weight Percent of Large Particles at Different Heights
in the Center of
the Bed with Tube Banks Installed and Superficial Velocity of
1.07 ft/s.....32 Figure 4-6 - Weight Percent of Large Particles at
Different Heights at the Walls of
the Bed with Tube Banks Installed and Superficial Velocity of
1.07 ft/s.....33 Figure 4-7 - Correlation of Heat Transfer
Coefficients on Middle Tubes with Height.....36 Figure 4-8 -
Average Heat Transfer Coefficients (W/m2·K) at Tubes at velocity
of
1.07 ft/s
.........................................................................................................38
List of Tables Table 3-1 - Operating Conditions in the Real
Gasifier and the Cold Flow Model..............5 Table 3-2 - Thermal
Conductivity Values
.........................................................................19
Table 4-1 - Data used for Calculating
Reproducibility......................................................27
Table 4-2 - Average Heat Transfer Coefficients of Each Tube
Bank................................36 Table 4-3 - Heat Transfer
Coefficient Correlations with Particle
Size..............................37 Table 4-4 - Table of Average
Heat Transfer Coefficients at Different Velocities
............39
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iv
Abstract
To model the University of Utah black liquor gasifier, a cold
flow model was built to
measure several of the properties at a small scale. Several
properties were measured such
as minimum fluidization velocity, void fraction in the tube
bundle region, segregation and
heat transfer. This was done for three different particle sizes,
and three different
superficial velocities. The main conclusions were that most of
the voidage was found to
be in the center of the tube bundles at the bottom, but as they
reached the top, they were
more distributed. It was also found that the total voidage
increased with elevation. It was
found that there was minimal segregation of particle sizes and
operating conditions of the
experiments that were performed. It was found from the heat
transfer experiments that
the heat transfer in the bed was fairly uniform, with the
exception of the second heater
bundle. It was also found that as particles grow, the heat
transfer coefficients decrease.
It is recommended that the findings that were found in these
studies be analyzed
during the maintenance of both the University of Utah and
Georgia-Pacific’s Big Island
Unit. The findings may show that the problems that are being
experienced may be
caused by some of the same phenomena that were seen in the cold
flow model.
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1. Introduction
1.1 Black Liquor Steam Reforming
The University of Utah has designed and constructed a black
liquor steam reformer as
part of a program sponsored by the United States Department of
Energy to provide
technical support for demonstration of the MTCI steam reforming
technology at Georgia-
Pacific’s Big Island unit. The University of Utah unit consists
of a vertical pressurized
fluidized bed into which black liquor and steam are injected.
The fluidized bed has four
horizontal banks of 20 heaters, with each bank oriented
perpendicular to each adjacent
bundle. These heat up the bed, which causes the steam to react
with the black liquor to
form mainly carbon monoxide gas (CO) and hydrogen gas (H2). This
gas is used for
energy production, but the University of Utah gasifier will be
used for experimental and
data collecting purposes only.
1.2 Cold Flow Modeling
The cold flow modeling involved scale down of the University of
Utah gasifier and was
used to study flow properties of the gas and solids and some
heat transfer properties.
Instead of steam, air at room temperature and atmospheric
pressure was used as the
fluidizing gas. There was no modeling of gas production or black
liquor injection in the
cold flow model.
1.3 Objectives
The main objective to doing these experiments with the cold flow
model was to quantify
and visualize some of the flow properties of the bed. Three main
aspects were focused
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on: (1) bubble flow, (2) particle segregation, and (3) heat
transfer. There was a method
devised to measure bubble voidage in the tube bundle region.
This helps us to visualize
if gases tend to flow upward through the tubes, or around them.
There are studies on
segregation of different sized particles. This shows how the bed
performs when there are
different sized solids being fluidized. Finally, there have been
some studies on heat
transfer. These are especially important, because heaters will
transfer heat to the bed,
which will cause the reforming reactions to occur. These tests
will bring much benefit to
quantifying the behavior of the bed. These results can help in
future maintenance and
analysis of the bed. These results can then be compared with
Computational Fluid
Dynamics (CFD) models to see how the bed will perform.
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2. Literature Review
2.1 Flow in Beds with Horizontal Tube Banks
The article by Hull et al. [4] is a comprehensive study of
bubble hydrodynamics in a
fluidized bed with horizontal tubes. There was a semi empirical
study done on the
correlation of bubble size with height, bubble splitting, bubble
velocity, and bubble
fraction. Data was obtained using digital image analysis using a
two-dimensional (thin)
fluidized bed, which can be readily extrapolated to
three-dimensional beds. The
conclusions with bubble growth and splitting will be the most
useful to our experiments.
The studies of bubble behavior within the tube bank region are
very useful to our studies.
Several empirical correlations were developed that could be used
to determine bubble
size, bubble velocity, and bubble fraction from particle size,
and velocities of fluidizing
gases.
2.2 Particle Segregation
The textbook by Kunii and Levenspiel [6] give some calculations
for segregation. It was
shown that the experiments that we performed will not segregate
very well if at all,
because the particles are the same density. There would be more
segregation if the
particles had much different densities, or if the fluidization
velocity was in-between the
two particle sizes’ minimum fluidization velocity.
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4
2.3 Heat Transfer in Beds with Heating Tubes
The article by Borodulya et al. [1] considers the effects of
pressure and temperature on
the heat transfer in a fluidized bed. This article gives
expressions that can be used in
calculation heat transfer in a fluidized bed. Although the
system used in our experiments
will operate at atmospheric pressure, this will be useful
because there will be pressure
drop with the height of the bed. Also the University of Utah
unit will have much higher
temperature and pressure than the cold flow model. This gives
two main equations that
can be used to find the Nusselt Number for a wide range of
temperatures and pressures.
The article by Chandran et al. [2] explains an experimental
study to explore the effects of
horizontal tubes in fluidized beds. Studies were performed using
one horizontal tube and
a bank of ten horizontal tubes. The study involved varying
pressure, particle size, and
flow rates. It was found that heat transfer increased as
pressure increased and particle
size decreased. Heat transfer varies significantly with the
location of the measurements
in the bed. It was found that the heat transfer coefficient at
the bottom of a tube bundle is
significantly lower than an inner-row position. It was also
found that the heat transfer
coefficient depends on circumferential position on the tube,
particle size, gas flow rate,
and system pressure and that there are no real correlations for
them, which is why the
main conclusion from this study shows that some of the existing
correlations for heat
transfer from horizontal tubes need to have a mechanistic model
to measure the heat
transfer coefficients.
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3. Experimental Methods
3.1 Scaling Parameters
To make a model of the fluidized bed, it needed to be scaled
down from the large scale to
a much smaller size. In scaling, four dimensionless parameters
must be kept as similar as
possible between the real unit and the model: Reynolds number,
ρudp/μ, Froude number
pgdu / , density ratio, ρsolids/ρfluid, and geometric
similarity, L/D, where ρgas is the
density of the gas, ρsolids is the density of the solids, dp is
the particle diameter, D is the
column inner diameter, u is the superficial velocity, μ is the
gas viscosity, g is the
acceleration of gravity, and L is the length of the column, or
height of the bed (Kunii &
Levenspiel). Operating conditions of the two units are shown in
Table 3-1. Although
these conditions are not exactly the same, it was assumed that
they were similar enough
to do cold flow experiments with no problems.
Table 3-1 - Operating Conditions in the Real Gasifier and the
Cold Flow Model
Characteristic Gasifier Model Average pressure in bed 290 kPa 42
psia 103 kPa 15 psia Operating temperature 604 °C 1120 °F 20 °C 68
°F Bed diameter 0.254 m 10.0 in 0.164 m 6.5 in. Expanded bed height
1.27 m 50.0 in 0.864 m 34.0 in. Heating tube diameter 0.0173 m
0.680 in 0.0109 m 0.433 in. Particle diameter 300 µm 0.0118 in 215
µm 0.00787 in Particle density 2,275 kg/m3 142 lb/ft3 2,500 kg/m3
156 lb/ft3 Superficial gas velocity 0.396 m/s 1.30 ft/s 0.326 m/s
1.07 ft/s Gas density 0.633 kg/m3 0.0395 lb/ft3 1.222 kg/m3 0.0761
lb/ft3 Gas viscosity (x 105) 3.08 kg/m-s 2.07 lb/ft-s 1.80 kg/m-s
1.21 lb/ft-s Reynolds number 2.44 4.42 Froude number 7.30 7.36
Density ratio 3,595 2,045 Geometric similarity (bed/particle)
10,160 9,906
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3.2 Fluidized Bed Description
The model of the fluidized bed is constructed of a vertical
acrylic tube, 53” high and 6.5”
inner diameter. There are four horizontal bundles of glass tubes
from 14” to 28” from the
bottom of the bed. The tubes have about 7 mm inner diameters, 11
mm outer diameter
and extend all the way through the main vertical tube. Each
bundle consists of four
horizontal offset layers of five tubes. The tubes of each bundle
are perpendicular to the
tubes of the adjacent bundle. The bed is constructed modularly,
so that it can be rotated
and several configurations can be achieved. A rendering and
photo of the fluidized bed
are shown in Figure 3-1.
Figure 3-1 - Rendering and Photo of the Cold Flow Fluidized
Bed
3.2.1 Distributor
At the bottom of the bed, there is a distributor designed to
distribute airflow throughout
the bottom of the bed, rather than just one place. The
distributor is constructed of two
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0.125" thick plates with two layers of high-density fabric
sandwiched in between. Each
plate has 42 holes, 0.5625" diameter each, to evenly distribute
the gas. The 42 holes are
evenly spaced in three rings, which are concentric with the
center of the plate. The first
ring has 8 holes with centers each 1.000" from the center of the
plate. The second ring
has 14 holes with centers each 1.875" from the center of the
plate. The third and final ring
has 20 holes each 2.750" from the center of the plate. In the
center of the plate is a 0.875"
hole connected to a pipe and ball valve for solids removal. This
is representative of the
solids removal system in the real system. A diagram with
dimensions of the distributor is
shown in Figure 3-2. A photo is shown in Figure 3-3.
Figure 3-2 - Diagram of Distributor (Dimensions in inches)
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Figure 3-3 - Photo of Distributor in Empty Bed
3.2.2 Lower Bed Section
Between the distributor and the lowest tube bundle, a straight,
16-inch long acrylic tube
was placed. There are no ports or holes, because this is only a
cold flow model and
liquor injection is not considered.
3.2.3 Tube Bundles
To represent the heater bundles in the real system, four
identical tube bundle sections
were manufactured. Each has 20 horizontal glass tubes (0.43" OD)
running across the
whole bed. In heat transfer experiments, some of the glass tubes
were replaced with
copper tubes. The four sections (3.75" tall each) are stacked on
top of one another, with
each oriented such that the tubes are perpendicular to the
sections above/below. A
diagram with the dimensions of the tube bundle sections is
presented in Figure 3-4. A
photo of the tube section is shown in Figure 3-5.
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Figure 3-4 - Diagram of Tube Banks (Dimensions in Inches)
Figure 3-5 - Photo of Tube Bank Region of the Bed
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3.2.4 Upper Bed Section
The upper bed section is very similar to the bottom bed section,
except the acrylic tube is
24 inches long. On the top of the top acrylic piece is a ring
that seals off the bed and
allows for a filter bag to be placed over the top to keep solids
inside the bed.
3.3 Particle Description
Three sizes of particles were obtained to experiment with in the
bed. The average size of
the particles in the real system is expected to be about 300
microns. This scales to about
200 microns for the cold flow model. Some particles were
obtained in a range of 180 to
250 microns, some in a range of 70 to 110 microns, and some with
a range of 500 to 750
microns. Their mean diameters were approximated by averaging the
maximum and
minimum particle sizes. This method yielded 215 microns, 90
microns, and 625 microns,
respectively for the three mean particle diameters. These
particles were made of soda
lime glass. Their absolute particle density was 2500 kg/m3.
These particles were not
completely transparent, but enough to be able to send a light
signal through from one of
the tubes to the other in the bed. The particles were spherical
and quite uniform in size
and shape.
3.4 Minimum Fluidization Velocities
3.4.1 Theoretical Calculations
The minimum fluidization velocity can be found theoretically
using the equation below.
( ) ( )pmf
mfmfgmf
pmf
mfmfmf
dLu
dLu
p 32
23
2 175.11150ε
ρεε
με −+
−=Δ (3.1)
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11
In this equation, the minimum fluidization velocity, umf, can be
solved by finding the
roots of the equation. The voidage at minimum fluidization, εmf,
is estimated to be about
0.4. The bed height at minimum fluidization, Lmf, is estimated
to be 0.70 meters. The gas
viscosity, μ, and density, ρ, are determined for ambient air.
The pressure drop over the
bed, ΔP, is found using the following equation.
gLP sss ρε )1( −=Δ (3.2)
The slumped bed height, Ls, is estimated to be about .66 meters.
The slumped voidage,
εs, is estimated to be about 0.36, the density of the particles,
ρs, is 2500 kg/m3.
3.4.2 Experimental Methods
The minimum fluidization velocity can be found theoretically by
plotting the pressure
drop of the bed versus the velocity. There is a positive slope
until it gets to the minimum
fluidization velocity. As velocity increases after that, the
slope is still positive, but much
less than before the minimum fluidization velocity.
3.4.3 Comparison of Calculated and Experimental Values
The actual and calculated minimum fluidization velocities can be
compared to each other
to show that the flows are similar and that the particles behave
in an expected manner.
3.5 Bubble Voidage and Frequency
3.5.1 Description of Bubble Detector
To measure bubble voidage and to count bubbles, a device was
developed using light
transmission to measure instantaneous bubble voidage. The device
consists of an
infrared LED that emits infrared radiation at a wavelength of
880 nm, with a sensor of the
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12
same wavelength to detect the transmission. The emitter was a
Fairchild Semiconductor
QEE123 and the sensor was a Fairchild Semiconductor QSE114.
These were chosen,
because they were small enough to fit inside the tubes, but they
had to be powerful
enough to transmit their light from one tube through the solids
and into the sensor. These
also had to emit and detect at 90˚ angles from the standard LED.
These were mounted
sturdily on two flat metal spatulas to assure that they are
aimed at each other at all times.
A diagram of the probe is shown in Figure 3-6.
Figure 3-6 - Diagram of Bubble Detector Probe
This was built so it could be placed in two adjacent glass tubes
and log data at specific
point. The sensor acts as a variable switch. When more of the
specified radiation was
received, more electricity was conducted through the sensor, and
when there was none,
the switch was open. This could then be calibrated to relate the
signal voltage to a bubble
fraction.
3.5.2 Data Acquisition
To gather data from the sensor, a data acquisition device was
needed. The data
acquisition device used for these experiments was a Labjack U12.
This device is USB
compatible and capable of logging data with rates up to 1200 Hz.
The data that was
IR Emitter
IR Sensor
Metal Spatulas
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13
acquired from the Labjack could be exported to a spreadsheet to
perform calculations.
Figure 3-7 is a simple diagram to show the theory of the bubble
detector.
Figure 3-7 - Theory Behind the Design of Bubble Detector
3.5.3 Calibration
Because the signal from the Labjack was not directly
proportional to the bubble voidage,
a calibration curve needed to be set up to translate the signal
to the bubble voidage. To
do this, two tubes that were identical to the tubes in the
fluidized bed were placed at a
distance of 9.8 mm away from each other. They were laid
horizontally in a box. They
were placed so one tube was above the other. Some particles were
placed inside the box
and on the tubes so that the level of particles sloped linearly
from being completely
covered with particles on one end, to just air on the other end.
Because this was linear,
and the distance in the tube was known, the void fraction could
then be determined from
the distance in the tube. This was done assuming that a
completely packed bed meant
zero bubble voidage and a completely empty bed was full bubble
voidage. One particular
challenge was to receive a signal in a completely packed bed,
and yet not to exceed the
+1.3 V
GND
+5 V
AI
Particles Interrupt Light
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14
maximum signal before it was completely void. This goal was
achieved by varying the
power sent to the emitter, by placing resistors in series with
the emitter, until above
described goal was achieved. The calibration curve calculated
seemed to have two parts.
When there was a lot of signal, voltage received was linear when
plotted against void
fraction, but as it got smaller, it suddenly switched to an
inverse polynomial curve. When
these two different parts of the curve were separated, a
calibration curve could be written
for each. When calculating the void fraction of the data taken
in the system, an “if”
statement was written to distinguish which formula to use and
then calculate the data. A
sample of one of these calibration curves may be found in Figure
3-8.
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
12.0
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00
Voltage Signal (V)
Void
spa
ce b
etw
een
tube
s (m
m)
AOEAOSAVESeries4
Figure 3-8 - Voidage Calibration Curve for 180 to 250 Micron
Particles
Bubble frequency was also found using this same detector. This
was simply done by
counting every time that voltage reached above a certain
designated minimum bubble
void fraction. For each different particle size, a new
calibration curve was made, because
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15
the signal for the voidage was not universal for all of the
particle sizes. Each of the
different sizes of glass beads had different transparencies, and
they apparently refracted
the light uniquely.
3.5.4 Procedure of Measuring Bubbles
Data was logged at each of the 16 levels in 16 locations at each
level, which totals 256
data logs per particle size. Because there are five tubes on
each level, there are 4 spaces
between tubes that can be measured. In each of these spaces,
data was measured at 4
lengths along the tube: the center, two centimeters, four
centimeters and six centimeters
from the center of the tubes and symmetry was assumed for the
opposite end of the tubes.
At each of these points, data was taken at a rate of 600 Hz for
30 to 40 seconds. Average
void fraction is calculated by first calculating the void
fraction at each of the data points
in the log. Then this calculated data was integrated with
respect to time using the
trapezoidal rule, and divided by the total time to get the
average void fraction. The basic
equation for calculating this is:
∑−
= +
+
−+1
1 1
11 N
i ii
ii
f tttεε
(3.3)
where tf is the total time of the log or the final time, N is
the total number of data points,
εi is the void at data point i, and ti is the time at data
point, i. This has to be done at each
of the points. A matrix for each level with both average void
fraction and average bubble
frequency can be shown using this data. From this data a three
dimensional surface can
be plotted at each level to further visualize the data. This
procedure was performed with
all three particle sizes, and plots of average bubble void
fraction were created for each
size and each level. Tests were not performed with size
mixtures, because the different
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16
sizes have different transparencies. Because there may be
differences in concentrations
of the different particle sizes, there may not be accurate
measurements from the bubble
detector.
3.6 Segregation
It was thought that when a mix different particle sizes was run,
they might tend to
segregate from each other. A method was devised to test the
extent of segregation
throughout the bed.
3.6.1 Description of Particle Mixture
First, glass beads in two different sizes, specifically 500 to
750 and 180 to 250 micron,
were mixed 50/50 by bulk volume. These solids were then poured
into the fluidized bed
to a packed height of 26 inches. The fluidized bed was run at a
superficial velocity of
1.07 ft/s for approximately 20 minutes to ensure that the
particles had fully established
their flow and had been given a chance to segregate before any
particle sampling was
attempted.
3.6.2 Description of Equipment Used
The sampling device was designed to remove a small sample of bed
particles from any
location in the fluidized bed, except the tube banks, while the
bed was running. The
device consisted of a 60-inch long probe with a bend at the end
approximately 3 inches
long. This was done so sampling could be done in between and
below the tube banks in
the center of the bed without cutting or drilling through the
walls. This device could also
remove a sample of particles against the walls in the tube
regions. The probe was
connected to a hose with vacuum on the other end. This hose was
then attached to a trap
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17
that would collect the particles. This also made the particle
sample easy to remove and
analyze. A simple ball valve was placed in between the probe and
the trap to stop the
flow of particles when inserting the probe and then when
removing the sample from the
trap.
3.6.3 Types of Experiments
There were four main types of segregation experiments.
Measurements were taken while
the bed had tube bundles installed and without. Then
measurements were taken in the
center of the bed and against the wall of the bed at each
height.
3.6.4 Procedure of Removing Samples
To remove a sample of particles, first a hole needed to be
punched in the top filter
material and the probe inserted through the hole. Then sampling
at different locations
could be performed. Sampling is best done by removing particles
from top to bottom. A
sample of about 100-400 grams was collected at each height and
sieved using a 420-
micron sieve. These separated portions were then weighed and
then we could get a ratio
or percentage of each. Samples were collected at 10 heights in
the bed, approximately 4
inches away from each other and in between the tube banks.
Specifically, measurements
were taken at heights of 40, 36, 32, 28, 24, 20, 16, 12, 8, and
4 inches from the bottom
when there were no tubes and heights of 36, 32, 28, 23, 19, 15,
11, 8, 4, and 1 inch from
the bottom when the tubes were in the bed. Three trials of this
were performed at the
center of the bed as well as against the walls of the bed. Each
trial was then plotted on a
“percent weight big particles versus height” graph. In between
each trial, the particles
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18
that were removed from the sampling were remixed so the bed was
at 26 inches and the
bed was run for approximately 20 minutes again to assure proper
mixing and segregation.
3.7 Heat Transfer from Heaters to Bed
Because the real gasifier supplies heat to the bed via the
heater bundles, measurements of
the heat flux with the cold flow model can be very useful. The
data from this experiment
could help the real system by showing how much heat from the
heaters is transferred to
the bed. This could help to solve problems in the future if
there is fouling in the heaters
or if the heaters heat up the bed more or less in certain
locations.
3.7.1 Description of Method
Heat flux measurements were taken by placing a small heater with
a constant power
output inside one of 16 copper tubes that replaced 16 of the
glass tubes in the bed. The
temperature of a thermocouple within the heater was measured and
the heat flux could
then be calculated. This was done while the bed was fluidized at
a superficial velocity of
1.07 ft/s with the 180 to 250 μm particles. A heat transfer
coefficient, h, could be
calculated, assuming there was no axial heat transfer, using the
thermal conductivities of
the materials and the temperature gradient. The general heat
flux equation for this system
is:
cCuh
hp RRR
TTqfIV
++−
== ∞.
** (3.4)
where V is volts supplied to the heater, I is the amperage to
the heater, fp is the power
factor, q is the total energy given to the heater, Th is the
temperature measured from the
heater, T∞ is the temperature of the bed, and R is the
resistances of h, the heater, Cu, the
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19
copper tube, and c, due to heat transfer to the bed. The
resistances of the heat transfer,
tube and heater are as follows:
Lrh
Rc ***2*1
2π= (3.5)
Cu
Cu kLrr
R***2
ln1
2
π
⎟⎠
⎞⎜⎝
⎛
= (3.6)
h
h kLR
***41
π= (3.7)
where h is the heat transfer coefficient, r2 is the outer
diameter of the copper tube, r1 is
the inner diameter of the tube, which is where the heater
contacts the tube, L is the length
of the heater (1 inch), and k is the thermal conductivity, with
subscripts, Cu for the
copper tube and h for the heater. This equation could be
rearranged to find h:
( )⎟⎟⎠
⎞⎜⎜⎝
⎛−−
−=
∞Cuh
p
h RRfIV
TTLr
h
******2
1
2π
(3.8)
The heater was assumed to have a constant thermal conductivity
of 13 W/m2·K. The
heater’s resistance is very small and the temperature drop can
be shown to be negligible,
but the heater’s resistance was still used in the calculations.
The thermal conductivities
of the materials used in the calculations are shown in Table
3-1.
Table 3-2 - Thermal Conductivity Values
kh, thermal conductivity of heater 13 W/m2·K 7.75 Btu/hr·ft2·R
kCu, thermal conductivity of Cu tube 401 W/m2·K 232
Btu/hr·ft2·R
-
20
The measurement would be made at steady state at several
velocities at several locations
in the bed. Symmetry was assumed along the lengths of the tubes,
like was done in the
bubble measurements.
3.7.2 Description of Equipment
The heater used was a cylinder shape of 0.25 inch diameter and 1
inch length. The heater
was custom built by Watlow and contained a K-type thermocouple
in its center. This was
powered by a Variac, which could be set at a constant voltage,
which would supply a
constant power output to the heater. The thermocouple was then
connected to a
thermocouple display. The heater was wired such that voltage and
amperage could be
monitored using a digital multi-meter. The temperature of the
bed would rise slightly as
the bed operated, so a thermocouple was also placed in the bed
to monitor its
temperature.
3.7.3 Difficulties and Solutions
When the Variac was set at a constant power output, its actual
power output would vary
enough to change the heat transfer coefficient calculation. This
problem was solved by
measuring the power at each steady state measurement. Initially,
the measurements were
performed with the original glass tubes. It was found that glass
tubes provided results
that seemed wrong. All of the measurements were very different
from one another and
there were no trends. It was found later that the glass tubes
had non-uniform wall
thickness. More importantly, the glass had such a low thermal
conductivity and the small
variations in wall thickness could significantly impact the
temperature measurements. It
-
21
was decided to replace four tubes of each tube bank with copper
tubes. A photo of the
tube bank region with copper tubes installed is shown in Figure
3-9.
Figure 3-9 - Photo of Tube Bank Region with Copper Tubes
Installed
The two middle top and bottom tubes were used to measure
differences in heat flux from
the top of the heater bundles to the bottom. On the second row
from the top, the middle
and end tubes were used to measure differences in heat flux from
the middle to the sides,
and also the middle to the top and bottom. The copper tubes had
an inner diameter of
0.250 inches and an outer diameter of 0.375 inches. This outer
diameter was slightly
different from the outer diameter of the glass tubes, but it was
assumed that the difference
made to the flow of particles and gases would be negligible.
After using this method
with the copper tubes, there were much better data and trends
could be noticed.
-
22
3.7.4 Heat Transfer with Different Velocities
Other than 1.07 ft/s, heat flux was measured at two other
superficial velocities, 1.57 ft/s
and 0.535 ft/s, which are 1.47 x 1.07 ft/s and 0.50 x 1.07 ft/s,
respectively. These were
not as extensive, though. Experiments at these velocities were
only performed in the
copper tubes in the third tube bank from the bottom. This way
they could be compared to
the same location at different velocities to see if the heat
transfer coefficients change and
how.
3.7.5 Heat Transfer with Different Particle Sizes
In addition to the experiments done with 180 to 250 micron
particles, the heat transfer
tests were run with 70 to 110 micron particles and 500 to 750
micron particles. Similar to
experiments when varying the velocity, measurements when running
different particle
sizes were only done in the copper tubes in the third bank from
the bottom of the bed.
-
23
4. Results and Discussion
4.1 Minimum Fluidization Velocities
4.1.1 500 to 750 Micron Particles
The minimum fluidization velocity calculated using Equation 3.1
is 1.00 ft/s. When
pressure drop was plotted against the velocity the plot in
Figure 4-1 was generated.
7
7.5
88.5
9
9.5
1010.5
11
11.5
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
Velocity (ft/sec)
Pres
sure
Dro
p (in
of H
2O)
Increasing VDecreasing V
Figure 4-1 - Pressure Drop versus Velocity for 500 to 750 Micron
Particles
The experimental data show that the minimum fluidization
velocity for the 500 to 750
micron particles is around 0.81 ft/s, which can be shown by the
cusp in the graph. This is
slightly less than calculated minimum fluidization velocity of
1.00 ft/s.
-
24
4.1.2 180 to 250 Micron Particles
The calculated minimum fluidization velocity for the 180 to 250
micron particles is 0.135
ft/s. When the pressure drop was plotted against the velocity,
the plot in Figure 4-2 was
generated.
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
12.0
14.0
0.000 0.050 0.100 0.150 0.200 0.250
Velocity (ft/s)
Pres
sure
Dro
p (in
of H
2O)
IncreasingVelocity
DecreasingVelocity
Figure 4-2 - Pressure Drop versus Velocity for 180 to 250 Micron
Particles
The experimental minimum fluidization velocity is around 0.13
ft/s. This can be shown
by the cusp on the plot in Figure 4-2. These two values match
very well
4.1.3 70 to 110 Micron Particles
The calculated minimum fluidization velocity for the 70 to 110
micron particles was
about .0317 ft/s. It was found that the minimum fluidization
velocity was too small to
measure. The particles fluidized below the capability of flow
measurement devices. A
plot of minimum fluidization velocity versus particle size may
be seen in Figure 4-3.
-
25
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0 200 400 600 800
Average Particle Diameter (microns)
Min
imum
Flu
idiz
atio
n Ve
loci
ty
(ft/s
) CalculatedExperimental
Figure 4-3 - Minimum Fluidization Velocities versus Particle
Diameter
4.2 Bubble Voidage and Bubble Frequency
All of the results from the bubble voidage experiments which
include the surface plots of
each row’s voidage distribution and tables of the measured
voidage are appended in
Section 7.2. Bubble voidage is defined as the amount of empty
space contained within
the bubbles, ignoring inter-particle voidage in the dense phase,
while total voidage is
defined as the amount of empty space found in the bubble and
within the dense phase of
the particles. The bubble voidage fraction and voidage fraction
are defined by:
Lvi
i =ε (4.2)
where εi is the void fraction at increment i, either total
voidage or bubble voidage, v is the
voidage distance of i, and L is the distance between the
tubes.
-
26
4.2.1 Reproducibility of Bubble Detector
Before the bubble detector experiments were performed, the sixth
and eleventh tube
levels were measured five times, respectively, to make sure that
the results were
reproducible. In these, the surface plots all held the same
general shape. The relative
standard deviation of all the measurements was on average 10%.
This was not perfectly
accurate, but because the shapes of the surface plots were very
close to one another, the
results would be accurate enough for the intents of the
experiments. The reproducibility
data are found in Table 4-1.
-
27
Table 4-1 - Data used for Calculating Reproducibility
Location Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5 Average S.D.
R.S.D. 6L-1-0 35.3% 34.1% 30.8% 34.6% 31.2% 33.2% 0.020 0.0616L-1-2
30.9% 34.7% 29.8% 31.9% 34.5% 32.3% 0.022 0.0676L-1-4 21.6% 24.5%
24.9% 23.5% 22.6% 23.4% 0.014 0.0596L-1-6 13.4% 11.7% 12.6% 12.9%
15.1% 13.2% 0.013 0.0986L-2-0 32.7% 29.5% 30.0% 30.3% 34.9% 31.5%
0.023 0.0736L-2-2 30.0% 31.5% 27.0% 27.9% 27.1% 28.7% 0.020
0.0696L-2-4 23.1% 23.0% 25.9% 25.9% 21.8% 23.9% 0.019 0.0796L-2-6
14.1% 9.5% 11.7% 12.9% 15.2% 12.7% 0.022 0.1746L-3-0 32.4% 29.1%
30.6% 29.9% 33.4% 31.1% 0.018 0.0576L-3-2 34.3% 29.2% 26.9% 26.1%
30.6% 29.4% 0.033 0.1116L-3-4 26.0% 20.7% 32.0% 24.4% 25.2% 25.7%
0.041 0.1586L-3-6 16.6% 11.8% 13.9% 14.3% 14.0% 14.1% 0.017
0.1206L-4-0 24.1% 24.5% 24.7% 25.8% 30.1% 25.8% 0.025 0.0956L-4-2
28.5% 29.1% 24.8% 27.0% 30.4% 28.0% 0.022 0.0776L-4-4 23.3% 24.6%
23.9% 21.2% 21.4% 22.9% 0.015 0.0676L-4-6 10.6% 15.5% 12.0% 13.1%
13.4% 12.9% 0.018 0.14211L-1-0 28.8% 31.1% 33.6% 27.2% 30.9% 30.7%
0.026 0.08611L-1-2 32.6% 23.8% 28.7% 25.2% 33.0% 27.7% 0.041
0.14911L-1-4 23.8% 23.8% 27.8% 24.9% 27.7% 26.0% 0.020 0.07811L-1-6
19.0% 17.1% 17.0% 16.0% 18.7% 17.2% 0.011 0.06511L-2-0 30.0% 26.2%
29.0% 26.7% 27.5% 27.3% 0.013 0.04611L-2-2 30.6% 26.5% 26.8% 30.5%
24.5% 27.1% 0.025 0.09311L-2-4 25.1% 24.0% 21.3% 23.7% 24.8% 23.5%
0.015 0.06511L-2-6 17.3% 17.5% 15.2% 16.8% 24.7% 18.6% 0.042
0.22711L-3-0 31.4% 25.8% 28.6% 26.9% 23.3% 26.2% 0.022 0.08611L-3-2
31.7% 29.5% 23.7% 31.2% 33.8% 29.6% 0.043 0.14411L-3-4 24.6% 27.9%
26.0% 18.9% 24.9% 24.4% 0.039 0.15911L-3-6 19.3% 15.8% 18.6% 18.2%
16.3% 17.2% 0.014 0.08011L-4-0 27.4% 25.1% 27.0% 28.3% 25.9% 26.5%
0.014 0.05211L-4-2 23.7% 21.3% 22.8% 20.5% 26.4% 22.7% 0.026
0.11511L-4-4 21.4% 19.4% 21.4% 24.0% 19.6% 21.1% 0.021 0.10011L-4-6
18.9% 16.7% 15.4% 13.8% 11.6% 14.4% 0.022 0.153
4.2.2 70 to 110 Micron Particles
The voidage plots for 70 to 110 micron particles are presented
in Figures 7-1 to 7-16
from top to bottom. The overall trend of the void fractions of
these was increasing with
elevation. Within each tube bundle, however, the highest voidage
was on the bottom and
-
28
that decreased until it got to the top tube of the bundle. When
analyzing the profiles of
each level, the top tube bundles’ void fractions seemed uniform
across the whole layer.
The middle two tube bundles had void fractions that were fairly
symmetrical, but with the
most voidage in the center of each layer. The bottom bundle’s
voidage profiles showed
that the location with the most voidage was located in the same
direction that the tubes
were biased to, since they were staggered in the vertical
direction. The bottom tube
bundle’s bubble frequency decreased from bottom to top, while
the rest of the tube
bundles’ bubble frequencies increased from bottom to top.
4.2.3 180 to 250 Micron Particles
The voidage plots for 180 to 250 micron particles are presented
in Figures 7-17 to 7-32
from top to bottom. Again, the general trend of the void
fractions was increasing with
elevation. Within each tube bundle, they showed slightly
different patterns. The bottom
bundle’s void fractions were increasing with elevation. The
second, third, and fourth
tube bundles were decreasing with elevation. It seem as though
there is a transition zone
at the bottom of the bed where the large bubbles coming out of
the distributor are broken
up to much smaller bubbles. In each of the layers, generally the
locations with the most
voidage were located near the edge that the layer of tubes was
biased to. When analyzing
the profiles, when transitioning between bundles, the void
fractions from the top layer of
each bundle are almost superimposed upon the voids from the
bottom of the next layer
up. There showed to be a general trend of increasing bubble
frequency throughout the
bed from top to bottom. In the bottom tube bundle it was
increasing with elevation.
Bubble frequency in the second and third tube bundles was
decreasing with elevation.
The top bundle also showed that its bubble frequencies were
increasing with elevation.
-
29
4.2.4 500 to 750 Micron Particles
The voidage plots for 500 to 750 micron particles are presented
in Figures 7-33 to 7-48
from top to bottom. These particles were a lot larger than the
other particles used, and
they showed different trends than the other sizes. The general
trend of the void fractions
was decreasing with elevation. In the bottom three tube bundles,
there were very similar
patterns. The bottom layer showed the greatest void fraction,
the second and third layers
were very close to each other, and the top tube was smaller than
the rest. The top tube
bundle’s void fractions showed that voidage was decreasing with
elevation, but the top
two levels were very similar. There was a general trend of
decreasing bubble frequency
with elevation. Also, within the bottom three tube bundles there
was also decreasing
bubble frequency with elevation. The top bundle showed that the
bottom three layers’
bubble frequencies were very close, but the top layer’s bubble
frequencies were much
higher. When these particles were fluidized with the same
superficial velocities as the
other sizes, the bed did not expand very much. The top of the
fluidized particles was just
over the top of the tube bundles at standard velocity. This is
because the fluidization
velocity was only slightly above the minimum fluidization
velocity.
4.3 Segregation
In all of the segregation experiments, the particles follow
certain patterns, but they stay
essentially well mixed. This agrees with what Kunii and
Levenspiel [6] found. They
have found that when mixing particles of similar densities, but
with different sizes, the
segregation is minimal. However particles with the same size and
different density will
segregate quickly. Particles may also segregate if the velocity
is below the minimum
-
30
fluidization velocity of one fraction of particles. The data
used to generate all the plots
are appended in Section 7.3
4.3.1 Reproducibility of Samples
Before samples were taken from the bed, some experiments were
determined how
reproducible the data would be from these tests. There were four
samples taken from two
places in the bed. At the location in the tube region, the
average large particle fraction
was 49.9% with a standard deviation of 0.42%. At the location
below the tube region the
average was 49.8% with a standard deviation of 0.98%. These
results are reproducible
for the intents of these segregation experiments.
4.3.2 Results without Tubes Installed
When three trials of the above described procedure were
performed, the curve in Figure
4-4 was generated. This plots the percent large particles of
each sample versus the height
at which it was sampled.
-
31
46.0%
47.0%
48.0%
49.0%
50.0%
51.0%
52.0%
53.0%
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
Inches from bottom
% B
ig P
artic
les
Trial 1Trial 2Trial 3
Figure 4-4 - Three Trials of Weight Percent of Large Particles
at Different Heights of the Bed without Tube Banks Installed
4.3.3 Discussion of Results without Tubes Installed
These samples followed a general trend of slightly more large
particles at the top of the
bed than at the bottom. Throughout the bed there is
approximately a 50/50 weight
mixture of the two particles. It was expected that the smaller
particles would segregate to
the top of the bed, but these studies show that is not true.
This could be due to the fact
that there is no bubble breakup and that the bubbles are getting
larger as they rise to the
top. While running the bed at a superficial velocity of 1.07
ft/s and without tubes, the bed
was slugging. Overall there is a very small deviation from a
50/50 weight mixture.
Because the bed is slugging and there is no bubble breakup, this
probably keeps the bed
mixed well, while holding the shown segregation patterns. The
bed was also running
over both of the particle’s minimum fluidization velocities. If
it were running at a
velocity somewhere between the two minimum fluidization
velocities, there may have
been more segregation.
-
32
4.3.4 Results with Tube Bundles Installed in Bed
In the center of the bed, particle samples were removed and
sieved at heights of 36, 32,
28, 23, 19, 15, 11, 8, 4, and 1 inch from the bottom. At the
walls, an additional
measurement at 40 inches from the bottom was sampled. When three
trials of this type
were done in the center of the bed with a superficial velocity
of 1.07 ft/s, the curve in
Figure 4-5 was generated. Three trials of the measurements at
the wall generated the
curve in Figure 4-6. The tube region is from 11 inches from the
bottom up to 28 inches
from the bottom. Each measurement in between 11 and 28 inches
from the bottom of the
bed is between two tube banks.
47.0%
48.0%
49.0%
50.0%
51.0%
52.0%
53.0%
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
Inches from Bottom
% L
arge
Par
ticle
s
Trial 1Trial 2Trial 3
Figure 4-5 - Weight Percent of Large Particles at Different
Heights in the Center of the Bed with Tube Banks Installed and
Superficial Velocity of 1.07 ft/s
|--------Tube Region--------|
-
33
42%43%44%45%46%47%48%49%50%51%52%53%
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
Inches from Bottom
% B
ig P
artic
les
Trial 1Trial 2Trial 3
Figure 4-6 - Weight Percent of Large Particles at Different
Heights at the Walls of the Bed with Tube Banks Installed and
Superficial Velocity of 1.07 ft/s
4.3.5 Similarities of Results at Wall and Center with Tubes
Installed
In both of these tests, it seems that there are three different
forms of behavior. Below the
tube banks, it seems there is a good distribution of both
particle sizes. Measurements
from the tube region show that there is almost a linear
relationship of particle size to
height. There is a larger amount of large particles at the
bottom and then at the top of the
tubes there are a lot less large particles. Above the tube
region, there is a sudden large
amount of particles as height increases. At the top of the bed,
there is the highest
concentration of large particles. At the walls, there is a
slightly lower large particle
concentration than in the center of the bed. The wall and center
measurements follow
almost the same pattern for particle size distribution, in the
respect that in the tube region
there is a drop of concentration of large particles with height
in the tube region, and that
there are three separate circulation zones. While the tubes are
in the bed, there is a lot
|--------Tube Region-------|
-
34
more bubble breakup and there isn’t any slugging. This allows
the bed to establish its
flow patterns similar to the real system.
4.3.6 Differences in Results at Wall and Center with Tubes
In the measurements with tubes, there are three distinct
circulation zones. The
measurements of segregation do not have the distinct circulation
zones as seen in the
measurements with tubes. This must be largely due to the lack of
bubble breakup and the
slugging. The measurements without tubes seem to be a little
more random than the
measurements with tubes. We can conclude through these studies
that the tube bundles
create these circulation zones and they break up the bubbles
quite well. We can also
conclude that there is a little segregation of the particles and
overall, there is a good
mixing of the particles along the full length of the bed. The
most segregation occurs at
the walls while there are tubes in the bed.
4.4 Heat Transfer
The heat transfer results give some conclusions that were
expected and some that were
not. Heat transfer is very dependent upon fluidization state,
particle size, voidage, and
geometry. Much of the data obtained from these experiments are
comparable to similar
experiments performed elsewhere. The expected may not always be
the case, because the
fluidized bed may be unique in its flow patterns. All of the
data and calculations
gathered from the heat transfer experiments, which include the
measurements of steady
state temperature, voltage, amperage, and calculated heat
transfer coefficients, are
appended in Section 7.4.
-
35
4.4.1 Description of Measurements
After the temperature and power were measured, the local heat
transfer coefficients could
be calculated. Unlike the voidage measurements, profiles cannot
be plotted, because only
four tubes per bank had copper tubes that would allow the heat
transfer experiments to be
performed. The tubes were placed in specific locations, so they
could be measured
relative to one another to gather information about the whole
tube region of the bed.
4.4.2 Reproducibility of Measurements and Calculations
Before any measurements were taken, some data was taken to
determine the
reproducibility of the heat transfer measurements. Six trials
were performed at two
different locations, one in the middle of one tube in the bottom
tube bank and one in the
middle of one tube in the third from bottom bank to determine
how well they could be
reproduced. At the bottom the data showed 1.00% relative
standard deviation, and the
measurements from the top bundle showed 0.67% relative standard
deviation.
4.4.3 Comparison of Heat Transfer between Tube Banks
In each tube bank, the results could be averaged to find an
average heat transfer
coefficient for each bank to compare to the others. When this
was done, it was found that
there was about the same average heat transfer coefficient for
the bottom and two top
tube banks. The second tube bank from the bottom was
significantly lower than the rest
of these. The values of the tube bank average heat transfer
coefficients are shown in
Table 4-2.
-
36
Table 4-2 - Average Heat Transfer Coefficients of Each Tube
Bank
Tube Bank
(1=bottom, 4=top) Average Heat Transfer Coefficient (W/m2·K)
1 248 2 216 3 245 4 240
4.4.4 Correlation of Heat Transfer Coefficient with Height
To compare heat transfer coefficients with height, the average
of the measurements were
compared with their height in the bed. This was similar to the
bank averages. A plot of
the average heat transfer coefficients for the center tubes is
shown in Figure 4-7.
200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270
35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 Height from bottom of bed (cm)
Hea
t Tra
nsfe
r Coe
ffici
ent
(W/m
2 K)
Figure 4-7 - Correlation of Heat Transfer Coefficients on Middle
Tubes with Height
All of the tubes along the centerline have similar heat transfer
coefficients, except for
those in the second tube bank, and the lowest tube on the third
tube bank. The top tube
had a slightly smaller heat transfer coefficient than the others
also. In the bottom tube
-
37
bank the top and bottom tubes’ heat transfer coefficients were
very close. In the second
bank, heat transfer decreased with elevation. The third bank’s
heat transfer increased
with elevation. The top bank’s heat transfer coefficients were
increasing with elevation,
except for the top tube. This may be, because on the top of a
horizontal tube, there is
what is called the “Lee Stack Region.” This is where the
particles pile on top of the tube
and do not move. This may occur more on the top tubes where
there are no bubbles
moving around on the top and solids falling down on it from the
adjacent tubes above it.
A picture showing the heat transfer measurements were taken and
their respective
locations may be seen in Figure 4-8.
4.4.5 Particle Size Effects on Heat Transfer
When the temperature measurements were measured using different
particles sizes, the
bed behaved as expected according to Kunii and Levenspiel [6].
At the same velocity the
heat transfer coefficients increased as particle size decreased.
A plot of average heat
transfer coefficient of the bank versus particle size is shown
in Table 4-3. The smallest
particles experience the most heat transfer, because they have a
lot more surface area of
the particle in contact with the tube to transfer heat away from
the tube.
Particle Size (μm)
Average Heat Transfer Coefficient (W/m2·K)
70 to 110 267.8 180 to 250 245.0 500 to 750 242.4
Table 4-3 - Heat Transfer Coefficient Correlations with Particle
Size
-
38
Bank 4Bank 4
Bank 3Bank 3
Bank 2Bank 2
Bank 1Bank 1
241
258
254
234
252
259
223
251
211
212
229
214
249
242
249
249
Figure 4-8 - Average Heat Transfer Coefficients (W/m2·K) at
Tubes at velocity of 1.07 ft/s
-
39
4.4.6 Velocity Effects on Heat Transfer
When the superficial velocities were changed, the average heat
transfer coefficient from
the third bank gave some interesting data. When the bed was
running at 1.07 ft/s, the
tubes had, on average, the lowest heat transfer coefficients.
When the bed was running at
both 1.57 ft/s and 0.54 ft/s, the average heat transfer
coefficients increased. This is
contrary to what was found by Kunii and Levenspiel [6], whose
data shows that the heat
transfer coefficients will increase to a limit asymptotically
with higher velocity. Table
4-4 shows the average heat transfer coefficient from the third
tube bank with their
respective velocities. The reason for the low heat transfer
coefficient at 1.07 ft/s is
unclear.
Superficial Velocity (ft/s)
Average Heat Transfer Coefficient (W/m2·K)
0.54 257.5 1.07 245.0 1.57 258.2
Table 4-4 - Table of Average Heat Transfer Coefficients at
Different Velocities
4.4.7 Voidage Effects on Heat Transfer
Although a heat transfer profile could not be generated from the
few data points that were
measured, the heat transfer coefficients were compared with
their respective locations’
void fractions. It wasn’t observed in every location, but
mostly, if there was more
voidage, there was usually less of a heat transfer coefficient.
As the measurements were
closer to the wall, the correlation between the voidage and the
heat transfer coefficient do
not always hold up. Most of the heat transfer is done by the
solids, but only if they are
flowing well. This can be seen at the wall, because the solids
are flowing slowly, and
there is little voidage in the wall. Two (Banks 2 and 4) of the
wall measurements were
-
40
lower than average and the other two (Banks 1 and 3) were about
average with the rest of
the bundle.
4.4.8 Overall Heat Transfer Parameters
There are several parameters that influence the amount of heat
flux from the tubes to the
bed. The main parameter is how much particles and gas pass by
the tube. If the
measurement is near the wall or the center will influence how
much the solids can flow
near them. Most of the heat transferred from the tubes to the
bed is by solids moving
against the tubes. This is mainly because the solids have higher
thermal conductivity and
specific heat that the fluidizing gases. The voidage greatly
affects the way the tubes can
transfer heat to the bed. If there is more voidage, there are
less solids coming in contact
with the tubes, thus lowering the heat transfer rate.
-
41
5. Conclusions
5.1 Bubble Voidage
It was found that the general trend of all particle sizes was
that the voidage increased with
elevation, except with the larger particles. The experiments
with the larger particles (500
to 750 micron) showed a trend that is decreasing with elevation.
There was also a trend
that the voidage does not stay completely distributed. Usually
there is more voidage in
the middle of the tube banks and sometimes there is more voidage
at the edges. This
occurs mainly at the bottom of the bed and as the bubbles rise,
the voidage distributes
throughout the bed. When going from one tube bank to the next,
the void profiles are
similar, so the void must be in a form of a continuum from the
top to the bottom.
5.2 Segregation
Segregation in the bed is very minimal, although very
repeatable. This may be due to the
fact that we are above the minimum fluidization velocity for
both particle sizes in the
mix. Also, the densities of the two particle sizes are
identical, and Kunii and
Levenspiel [6] indicate that under such conditions there will be
no segregation. In the
real system there will be very minimal density differences, so
there will be minimal
segregation also.
5.3 Heat Transfer
The heat transfer experiments gave some results that were
expected and some that were
not. It was shown that heat transfer basically remained constant
throughout the bed,
except in the second tube bank. As particle size increased, the
heat transfer decreased.
-
42
The velocity effects were contrary to what was expected. The
voidage found in the
previous experiments show that there is an effect of voidage on
heat transfer. In places
where there is higher voidage there is less heat transfer, which
is what was also expected.
This may have an effect on the real system, because the
particles will grow over time as
liquor is injected. This may cause some difficulties of heat
transfer to the bed after the
particles have grown to a size that is too large, or cause
overheating of the bed heaters.
Because of these, the main mechanism for heat transfer is most
likely conduction from
the heater tube to the individual particle. If there are
particles flowing by the tube, heat
will be transferred to them easier than it can be transferred to
air only.
-
43
6. References
1. Borodulya, V.A., Teblitsky, Y.S., Sorokin, A.P., Markevich,
I.I., Hassan, A.F.,
Yeryomenko, T.P., Heat Transfer between a surface and a
fluidized bed:
consideration of pressure and temperature effects. Intermountain
Journal of Heat and
Mass Transfer. 34(4). 47-53. (1991).
2. Chandran, R., Chen, J.C., Staub, F.W., Local Heat Transfer
Coefficients around
Horizontal Tubes in Fluidized Beds. Journal of Heat Transfer.
102(2), 152-157.
(1980).
3. DeNevers, Noel, Fluid Mechanics for Chemical Engineers. 2nd
Ed., McGraw Hill,
San Francisco. (1991).
4. Hull, A.S., Chen, Z., Fritz, J.W., Agarwal P.K., Influence of
horizontal tube banks on
the behavior of bubbling fluidized beds 1. Bubble Hydrodynamics.
Powder
Technology,. 111(3), 192-199 (2000).
5. Incropera, F.P and Dewitt, D.P., Fundamentals of Heat and
Mass Transfer, Fifth Ed.
John Wiley and Sons, New York, p. 480-496, (2002).
6. Kunii, D., Levenspiel, O. Fluidization Engineering. 2nd Ed.
Butterworth—
Heinemann. Boston. 1991.
7. Zenz, F.A. Fluidization and Fluid-Particle Systems. Pemm-Corp
Publications.
Nelsonville, NY. 1989.
-
44
7. Appendices
7.1 Voidage Plots
The following voidage profiles are plotted using the data that
was gathered. One the left
horizontal axis, the numbers 1-7 show the length along the tubes
that the measurement
was taken. The number 1 means the wall closest to the measure
and 7 is the mirror image
of 1. The number 4 is the middle of the tube. The right
horizontal axis is the space
between the tubes, so 1 would be the far left space and 4 would
be the far right space.
The level and particle size used are in the figure description.
The scale is the same for all
measurements with the same particle size, so they can be easily
compared.
-
45
7.1.1 70 to 110 Micron Particles
1 2 3 4 5 6 7S1
S344.0%46.0%48.0%50.0%52.0%54.0%56.0%58.0%60.0%62.0%64.0%66.0%68.0%70.0%72.0%
70.0%-72.0%
68.0%-70.0%
66.0%-68.0%
64.0%-66.0%
62.0%-64.0%
60.0%-62.0%
58.0%-60.0%
56.0%-58.0%
54.0%-56.0%
52.0%-54.0%
50.0%-52.0%
48.0%-50.0%
46.0%-48.0%
44.0%-46.0%
Figure 7-1 - Level 16 Void Fraction Profile using 70 to 110
Micron Particles.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7S1
S344.0%46.0%48.0%50.0%52.0%54.0%56.0%58.0%60.0%62.0%64.0%66.0%68.0%70.0%72.0%
70.0%-72.0%
68.0%-70.0%
66.0%-68.0%
64.0%-66.0%
62.0%-64.0%
60.0%-62.0%
58.0%-60.0%
56.0%-58.0%
54.0%-56.0%
52.0%-54.0%
50.0%-52.0%
48.0%-50.0%
46.0%-48.0%
44.0%-46.0%
Figure 7-2 - Level 15 Void Fraction Profile using 70 to 110
Micron Particles.
-
46
1 2 3 4 5 6 7S1
S344.0%46.0%48.0%50.0%52.0%54.0%56.0%58.0%60.0%62.0%64.0%66.0%68.0%70.0%72.0%
70.0%-72.0%
68.0%-70.0%
66.0%-68.0%
64.0%-66.0%
62.0%-64.0%
60.0%-62.0%
58.0%-60.0%
56.0%-58.0%
54.0%-56.0%
52.0%-54.0%
50.0%-52.0%
48.0%-50.0%
46.0%-48.0%
44.0%-46.0%
Figure 7-3 - Level 14 Void Fraction Profile using 70 to 110
Micron particles.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7S1
S344.0%46.0%48.0%50.0%52.0%54.0%56.0%58.0%60.0%62.0%64.0%66.0%68.0%70.0%72.0%
70.0%-72.0%
68.0%-70.0%
66.0%-68.0%
64.0%-66.0%
62.0%-64.0%
60.0%-62.0%
58.0%-60.0%
56.0%-58.0%
54.0%-56.0%
52.0%-54.0%
50.0%-52.0%
48.0%-50.0%
46.0%-48.0%
44.0%-46.0%
Figure 7-4 - Level 13 Void Fraction Profile using 70 to 110
Micron particles.
-
47
1 2 3 4 5 6 7S1
S344.0%46.0%48.0%50.0%52.0%54.0%56.0%58.0%60.0%62.0%64.0%66.0%68.0%70.0%72.0%
70.0%-72.0%
68.0%-70.0%
66.0%-68.0%
64.0%-66.0%
62.0%-64.0%
60.0%-62.0%
58.0%-60.0%
56.0%-58.0%
54.0%-56.0%
52.0%-54.0%
50.0%-52.0%
48.0%-50.0%
46.0%-48.0%
44.0%-46.0%
Figure 7-5 - Level 12 Void Fraction Profile using 70 to 110
Micron particles.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7S1
S344.0%46.0%48.0%50.0%52.0%54.0%56.0%58.0%60.0%62.0%64.0%66.0%68.0%70.0%72.0%
70.0%-72.0%
68.0%-70.0%
66.0%-68.0%
64.0%-66.0%
62.0%-64.0%
60.0%-62.0%
58.0%-60.0%
56.0%-58.0%
54.0%-56.0%
52.0%-54.0%
50.0%-52.0%
48.0%-50.0%
46.0%-48.0%
44.0%-46.0%
Figure 7-6 - Level 11 Void Fraction Profile using 70 to 110
Micron particles.
-
48
1 2 3 4 5 6 7S1
S344.0%46.0%48.0%50.0%52.0%54.0%56.0%58.0%60.0%62.0%64.0%66.0%68.0%70.0%72.0%
70.0%-72.0%
68.0%-70.0%
66.0%-68.0%
64.0%-66.0%
62.0%-64.0%
60.0%-62.0%
58.0%-60.0%
56.0%-58.0%
54.0%-56.0%
52.0%-54.0%
50.0%-52.0%
48.0%-50.0%
46.0%-48.0%
44.0%-46.0%
Figure 7-7 - Level 10 Void Fraction Profile using 70 to 110
Micron particles.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7S1
S344.0%46.0%48.0%50.0%52.0%54.0%56.0%58.0%60.0%62.0%64.0%66.0%68.0%70.0%72.0%
70.0%-72.0%
68.0%-70.0%
66.0%-68.0%
64.0%-66.0%
62.0%-64.0%
60.0%-62.0%
58.0%-60.0%
56.0%-58.0%
54.0%-56.0%
52.0%-54.0%
50.0%-52.0%
48.0%-50.0%
46.0%-48.0%
44.0%-46.0%
Figure 7-8 - Level 9 Void Fraction Profile using 70 to 110
Micron particles.
-
49
1 2 3 4 5 6 7S1
S344.0%46.0%48.0%50.0%52.0%54.0%56.0%58.0%60.0%62.0%64.0%66.0%68.0%70.0%72.0%
70.0%-72.0%
68.0%-70.0%
66.0%-68.0%
64.0%-66.0%
62.0%-64.0%
60.0%-62.0%
58.0%-60.0%
56.0%-58.0%
54.0%-56.0%
52.0%-54.0%
50.0%-52.0%
48.0%-50.0%
46.0%-48.0%
44.0%-46.0%
Figure 7-9 - Level 8Void Fraction Profile using 70 to 110 Micron
particles.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7S1
S344.0%46.0%48.0%50.0%52.0%54.0%56.0%58.0%60.0%62.0%64.0%66.0%68.0%70.0%72.0%
70.0%-72.0%
68.0%-70.0%
66.0%-68.0%
64.0%-66.0%
62.0%-64.0%
60.0%-62.0%
58.0%-60.0%
56.0%-58.0%
54.0%-56.0%
52.0%-54.0%
50.0%-52.0%
48.0%-50.0%
46.0%-48.0%
44.0%-46.0%
Figure 7-10 - Level 7 Void Fraction Profile using 70 to 110
Micron particles.
-
50
1 2 3 4 5 6 7S1
S344.0%46.0%48.0%50.0%52.0%54.0%56.0%58.0%60.0%62.0%64.0%66.0%68.0%70.0%72.0%
70.0%-72.0%
68.0%-70.0%
66.0%-68.0%
64.0%-66.0%
62.0%-64.0%
60.0%-62.0%
58.0%-60.0%
56.0%-58.0%
54.0%-56.0%
52.0%-54.0%
50.0%-52.0%
48.0%-50.0%
46.0%-48.0%
44.0%-46.0%
Figure 7-11 - Level 6 Void Fraction Profile using 70 to 110
Micron particles.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7S1
S344.0%46.0%48.0%50.0%52.0%54.0%56.0%58.0%60.0%62.0%64.0%66.0%68.0%70.0%72.0%
70.0%-72.0%
68.0%-70.0%
66.0%-68.0%
64.0%-66.0%
62.0%-64.0%
60.0%-62.0%
58.0%-60.0%
56.0%-58.0%
54.0%-56.0%
52.0%-54.0%
50.0%-52.0%
48.0%-50.0%
46.0%-48.0%
44.0%-46.0%
Figure 7-12 - Level 5 Void Fraction Profile using 70 to 110
Micron particles.
-
51
1 2 3 4 5 6 7S1
S344.0%46.0%48.0%50.0%52.0%54.0%56.0%58.0%60.0%62.0%64.0%66.0%68.0%70.0%72.0%
70.0%-72.0%
68.0%-70.0%
66.0%-68.0%
64.0%-66.0%
62.0%-64.0%
60.0%-62.0%
58.0%-60.0%
56.0%-58.0%
54.0%-56.0%
52.0%-54.0%
50.0%-52.0%
48.0%-50.0%
46.0%-48.0%
44.0%-46.0%
Figure 7-13 - Level 4 Void Fraction Profile using 70 to 110
Micron particles.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7S1
S344.0%46.0%48.0%50.0%52.0%54.0%56.0%58.0%60.0%62.0%64.0%66.0%68.0%70.0%72.0%
70.0%-72.0%
68.0%-70.0%
66.0%-68.0%
64.0%-66.0%
62.0%-64.0%
60.0%-62.0%
58.0%-60.0%
56.0%-58.0%
54.0%-56.0%
52.0%-54.0%
50.0%-52.0%
48.0%-50.0%
46.0%-48.0%
44.0%-46.0%
Figure 7-14 - Level 3 Void Fraction Profile using 70 to 110
Micron particles.
-
52
1 2 3 4 5 6 7S1
S344.0%46.0%48.0%50.0%52.0%54.0%56.0%58.0%60.0%62.0%64.0%66.0%68.0%70.0%72.0%
70.0%-72.0%
68.0%-70.0%
66.0%-68.0%
64.0%-66.0%
62.0%-64.0%
60.0%-62.0%
58.0%-60.0%
56.0%-58.0%
54.0%-56.0%
52.0%-54.0%
50.0%-52.0%
48.0%-50.0%
46.0%-48.0%
44.0%-46.0%
Figure 7-15 - Level 2 Void Fraction Profile using 70 to 110
Micron particles.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7S1
S344.0%46.0%48.0%50.0%52.0%54.0%56.0%58.0%60.0%62.0%64.0%66.0%68.0%70.0%72.0%
70.0%-72.0%
68.0%-70.0%
66.0%-68.0%
64.0%-66.0%
62.0%-64.0%
60.0%-62.0%
58.0%-60.0%
56.0%-58.0%
54.0%-56.0%
52.0%-54.0%
50.0%-52.0%
48.0%-50.0%
46.0%-48.0%
44.0%-46.0%
Figure 7-16 - Level 1 Void Fraction Profile using 70 to 110
Micron particles.
-
53
7.1.2 180 to 250 Micron particles
1 2 3 4 5 6 7S1
S341.0%42.0%43.0%44.0%45.0%46.0%47.0%48.0%49.0%50.0%51.0%52.0%53.0%54.0%55.0%56.0%57.0%58.0%59.0%60.0%61.0%62.0%63.0%
62.0%-63.0%61.0%-62.0%60.0%-61.0%59.0%-60.0%58.0%-59.0%57.0%-58.0%56.0%-57.0%55.0%-56.0%54.0%-55.0%53.0%-54.0%52.0%-53.0%51.0%-52.0%50.0%-51.0%49.0%-50.0%48.0%-49.0%47.0%-48.0%46.0%-47.0%45.0%-46.0%44.0%-45.0%43.0%-44.0%42.0%-43.0%41.0%-42.0%
Figure 7-17 - Level 16 Void Fraction Profile using 180 to 250
Micron particles.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7S1
S341.0%42.0%43.0%44.0%45.0%46.0%47.0%48.0%49.0%50.0%51.0%52.0%53.0%54.0%55.0%56.0%57.0%58.0%59.0%60.0%61.0%62.0%63.0%
62.0%-63.0%61.0%-62.0%60.0%-61.0%59.0%-60.0%58.0%-59.0%57.0%-58.0%56.0%-57.0%55.0%-56.0%54.0%-55.0%53.0%-54.0%52.0%-53.0%51.0%-52.0%50.0%-51.0%49.0%-50.0%48.0%-49.0%47.0%-48.0%46.0%-47.0%45.0%-46.0%44.0%-45.0%43.0%-44.0%42.0%-43.0%41.0%-42.0%
Figure 7-18 -Level 15 Void Fraction Profile using 180 to 250
Micron particles.
-
54
1 2 3 4 5 6 7S1
S341.0%42.0%43.0%44.0%45.0%46.0%47.0%48.0%49.0%50.0%51.0%52.0%53.0%54.0%55.0%56.0%57.0%58.0%59.0%60.0%61.0%62.0%63.0%
62.0%-63.0%61.0%-62.0%60.0%-61.0%59.0%-60.0%58.0%-59.0%57.0%-58.0%56.0%-57.0%55.0%-56.0%54.0%-55.0%53.0%-54.0%52.0%-53.0%51.0%-52.0%50.0%-51.0%49.0%-50.0%48.0%-49.0%47.0%-48.0%46.0%-47.0%45.0%-46.0%44.0%-45.0%43.0%-44.0%42.0%-43.0%41.0%-42.0%
Figure 7-19 - Level 14 Void Fraction Profile using 180 to 250
Micron particles.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7S1
S341.0%42.0%43.0%44.0%45.0%46.0%47.0%48.0%49.0%50.0%51.0%52.0%53.0%54.0%55.0%56.0%57.0%58.0%59.0%60.0%61.0%62.0%63.0%
62.0%-63.0%61.0%-62.0%60.0%-61.0%59.0%-60.0%58.0%-59.0%57.0%-58.0%56.0%-57.0%55.0%-56.0%54.0%-55.0%53.0%-54.0%52.0%-53.0%51.0%-52.0%50.0%-51.0%49.0%-50.0%48.0%-49.0%47.0%-48.0%46.0%-47.0%45.0%-46.0%44.0%-45.0%43.0%-44.0%42.0%-43.0%41.0%-42.0%
Figure 7-20 - Level 13 Void Fraction Profile using 180 to 250
Micron particles.
-
55
1 2 3 4 5 6 7S1
S341.0%42.0%43.0%44.0%45.0%46.0%47.0%48.0%49.0%50.0%51.0%52.0%53.0%54.0%55.0%56.0%57.0%58.0%59.0%60.0%61.0%62.0%63.0%
62.0%-63.0%61.0%-62.0%60.0%-61.0%59.0%-60.0%58.0%-59.0%57.0%-58.0%56.0%-57.0%55.0%-56.0%54.0%-55.0%53.0%-54.0%52.0%-53.0%51.0%-52.0%50.0%-51.0%49.0%-50.0%48.0%-49.0%47.0%-48.0%46.0%-47.0%45.0%-46.0%44.0%-45.0%43.0%-44.0%42.0%-43.0%41.0%-42.0%
Figure 7-21 - Level 12 Void Fraction Profile using 180 to 250
Micron particles.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7S1
S341.0%42.0%43.0%44.0%45.0%46.0%47.0%48.0%49.0%50.0%51.0%52.0%53.0%54.0%55.0%56.0%57.0%58.0%59.0%60.0%61.0%62.0%63.0%
62.0%-63.0%61.0%-62.0%60.0%-61.0%59.0%-60.0%58.0%-59.0%57.0%-58.0%56.0%-57.0%55.0%-56.0%54.0%-55.0%53.0%-54.0%52.0%-53.0%51.0%-52.0%50.0%-51.0%49.0%-50.0%48.0%-49.0%47.0%-48.0%46.0%-47.0%45.0%-46.0%44.0%-45.0%43.0%-44.0%42.0%-43.0%41.0%-42.0%
Figure 7-22 - Level 11 Void Fraction Profile using 180 to 250
Micron particles.
-
56
1 2 3 4 5 6 7S1
S341.0%42.0%43.0%44.0%45.0%46.0%47.0%48.0%49.0%50.0%51.0%52.0%53.0%54.0%55.0%56.0%57.0%58.0%59.0%60.0%61.0%62.0%63.0%
62.0%-63.0%61.0%-62.0%60.0%-61.0%59.0%-60.0%58.0%-59.0%57.0%-58.0%56.0%-57.0%55.0%-56.0%54.0%-55.0%53.0%-54.0%52.0%-53.0%51.0%-52.0%50.0%-51.0%49.0%-50.0%48.0%-49.0%47.0%-48.0%46.0%-47.0%45.0%-46.0%44.0%-45.0%43.0%-44.0%42.0%-43.0%41.0%-42.0%
Figure 7-23 - Level 10 Void Fraction Profile using 180 to 250
Micron particles.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7S1
S341.0%42.0%43.0%44.0%45.0%46.0%47.0%48.0%49.0%50.0%51.0%52.0%53.0%54.0%55.0%56.0%57.0%58.0%59.0%60.0%61.0%62.0%63.0%
62.0%-63.0%61.0%-62.0%60.0%-61.0%59.0%-60.0%58.0%-59.0%57.0%-58.0%56.0%-57.0%55.0%-56.0%54.0%-55.0%53.0%-54.0%52.0%-53.0%51.0%-52.0%50.0%-51.0%49.0%-50.0%48.0%-49.0%47.0%-48.0%46.0%-47.0%45.0%-46.0%44.0%-45.0%43.0%-44.0%42.0%-43.0%41.0%-42.0%
Figure 7-24 - Level 9 Void Fraction Profile using 180 to 250
Micron particles.
-
57
1 2 3 4 5 6 7S1
S341.0%42.0%43.0%44.0%45.0%46.0%47.0%48.0%49.0%50.0%51.0%52.0%53.0%54.0%55.0%56.0%57.0%58.0%59.0%60.0%61.0%62.0%63.0%
62.0%-63.0%61.0%-62.0%60.0%-61.0%59.0%-60.0%58.0%-59.0%57.0%-58.0%56.0%-57.0%55.0%-56.0%54.0%-55.0%53.0%-54.0%52.0%-53.0%51.0%-52.0%50.0%-51.0%49.0%-50.0%48.0%-49.0%47.0%-48.0%46.0%-47.0%45.0%-46.0%44.0%-45.0%43.0%-44.0%42.0%-43.0%41.0%-42.0%
Figure 7-25 - Level 8 Void Fraction Profile using 180 to 250
Micron particles.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7S1
S341.0%42.0%43.0%44.0%45.0%46.0%47.0%48.0%49.0%50.0%51.0%52.0%53.0%54.0%55.0%56.0%57.0%58.0%59.0%60.0%61.0%62.0%63.0%
62.0%-63.0%61.0%-62.0%60.0%-61.0%59.0%-60.0%58.0%-59.0%57.0%-58.0%56.0%-57.0%55.0%-56.0%54.0%-55.0%53.0%-54.0%52.0%-53.0%51.0%-52.0%50.0%-51.0%49.0%-50.0%48.0%-49.0%47.0%-48.0%46.0%-47.0%45.0%-46.0%44.0%-45.0%43.0%-44.0%42.0%-43.0%41.0%-42.0%
Figure 7-26 - Level 7 Void Fraction Profile using 180 to 250
Micron particles.
-
58
1 2 3 4 5 6 7S1
S341.0%42.0%43.0%44.0%45.0%46.0%47.0%48.0%49.0%50.0%51.0%52.0%53.0%54.0%55.0%56.0%57.0%58.0%59.0%60.0%61.0%62.0%63.0%
62.0%-63.0%61.0%-62.0%60.0%-61.0%59.0%-60.0%58.0%-59.0%57.0%-58.0%56.0%-57.0%55.0%-56.0%54.0%-55.0%53.0%-54.0%52.0%-53.0%51.0%-52.0%50.0%-51.0%49.0%-50.0%48.0%-49.0%47.0%-48.0%46.0%-47.0%45.0%-46.0%44.0%-45.0%43.0%-44.0%42.0%-43.0%41.0%-42.0%
Figure 7-27 - Level 6 Void Fraction Profile using 180 to 250
Micron particles.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7S1
S341.0%42.0%43.0%44.0%45.0%46.0%47.0%48.0%49.0%50.0%51.0%52.0%53.0%54.0%55.0%56.0%57.0%58.0%59.0%60.0%61.0%62.0%63.0%
62.0%-63.0%61.0%-62.0%60.0%-61.0%59.0%-60.0%58.0%-59.0%57.0%-58.0%56.0%-57.0%55.0%-56.0%54.0%-55.0%53.0%-54.0%52.0%-53.0%51.0%-52.0%50.0%-51.0%49.0%-50.0%48.0%-49.0%47.0%-48.0%46.0%-47.0%45.0%-46.0%44.0%-45.0%43.0%-44.0%42.0%-43.0%41.0%-42.0%
Figure 7-28 - Level 5 Void Fraction Profile using 180 to 250
Micron particles.
-
59
1 2 3 4 5 6 7S1
S341.0%42.0%43.0%44.0%45.0%46.0%47.0%48.0%49.0%50.0%51.0%52.0%53.0%54.0%55.0%56.0%57.0%58.0%59.0%60.0%61.0%62.0%63.0%
62.0%-63.0%61.0%-62.0%60.0%-61.0%59.0%-60.0%58.0%-59.0%57.0%-58.0%56.0%-57.0%55.0%-56.0%54.0%-55.0%53.0%-54.0%52.0%-53.0%51.0%-52.0%50.0%-51.0%49.0%-50.0%48.0%-49.0%47.0%-48.0%46.0%-47.0%45.0%-46.0%44.0%-45.0%43.0%-44.0%42.0%-43.0%41.0%-42.0%
Figure 7-29 - Level 4 Void Fraction Profile using 180 to 250
Micron particles.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7S1
S341.0%42.0%43.0%44.0%45.0%46.0%47.0%48.0%49.0%50.0%51.0%52.0%53.0%54.0%55.0%56.0%57.0%58.0%59.0%60.0%61.0%62.0%63.0%
62.0%-63.0%61.0%-62.0%60.0%-61.0%59.0%-60.0%58.0%-59.0%57.0%-58.0%56.0%-57.0%55.0%-56.0%54.0%-55.0%53.0%-54.0%52.0%-53.0%51.0%-52.0%50.0%-51.0%49.0%-50.0%48.0%-49.0%47.0%-48.0%46.0%-47.0%45.0%-46.0%44.0%-45.0%43.0%-44.0%42.0%-43.0%41.0%-42.0%
Figure 7-30 - Level 3 Void Fraction Profile using 180 to 250
Micron particles.
-
60
1 2 3 4 5 6 7S1
S341.0%42.0%43.0%44.0%45.0%46.0%47.0%48.0%49.0%50.0%51.0%52.0%53.0%54.0%55.0%56.0%57.0%58.0%59.0%60.0%61.0%62.0%63.0%
62.0%-63.0%61.0%-62.0%60.0%-61.0%59.0%-60.0%58.0%-59.0%57.0%-58.0%56.0%-57.0%55.0%-56.0%54.0%-55.0%53.0%-54.0%52.0%-53.0%51.0%-52.0%50.0%-51.0%49.0%-50.0%48.0%-49.0%47.0%-48.0%46.0%-47.0%45.0%-46.0%44.0%-45.0%43.0%-44.0%42.0%-43.0%41.0%-42.0%
Figure 7-31 - Level 2 Void Fraction Profile using 180 to 250
Micron particles.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7S1
S341.0%42.0%43.0%44.0%45.0%46.0%47.0%48.0%49.0%50.0%51.0%52.0%53.0%54.0%55.0%56.0%57.0%58.0%59.0%60.0%61.0%62.0%63.0%
62.0%-63.0%61.0%-62.0%60.0%-61.0%59.0%-60.0%58.0%-59.0%57.0%-58.0%56.0%-57.0%55.0%-56.0%54.0%-55.0%53.0%-54.0%52.0%-53.0%51.0%-52.0%50.0%-51.0%49.0%-50.0%48.0%-49.0%47.0%-48.0%46.0%-47.0%45.0%-46.0%44.0%-45.0%43.0%-44.0%42.0%-43.0%41.0%-42.0%
Figure 7-32 - Level 1 Void Fraction Profile using 180 to 250
Micron particles.
-
61
7.1.3 500 to 750 Micron particles
1 2 3 4 5 6 7S1
S336.0%37.0%38.0%39.0%40.0%41.0%42.0%43.0%44.0%45.0%46.0%47.0%48.0%49.0%50.0%51.0%52.0%
51.0%-52.0%50.0%-51.0%49.0%-50.0%48.0%-49.0%47.0%-48.0%46.0%-47.0%45.0%-46.0%44.0%-45.0%43.0%-44.0%42.0%-43.0%41.0%-42.0%40.0%-41.0%39.0%-40.0%38.0%-39.0%37.0%-38.0%36.0%-37.0%
Figure 7-33 - Level 16 Void Fraction Profile using 500 to 750
Micron particles.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7S1
S336.0%37.0%38.0%39.0%40.0%41.0%42.0%43.0%44.0%45.0%46.0%47.0%48.0%49.0%50.0%51.0%52.0%
51.0%-52.0%50.0%-51.0%49.0%-50.0%48.0%-49.0%47.0%-48.0%46.0%-47.0%45.0%-46.0%44.0%-45.0%43.0%-44.0%42.0%-43.0%41.0%-42.0%40.0%-41.0%39.0%-40.0%38.0%-39.0%37.0%-38.0%36.0%-37.0%
Figure 7-34 - Level 15 Void Fraction Profile using 500 to 750
Micron particles.
-
62
1 2 3 4 5 6 7S1
S336.0%37.0%38.0%39.0%40.0%41.0%42.0%43.0%44.0%45.0%46.0%47.0%48.0%49.0%50.0%51.0%52.0%
51.0%-52.0%50.0%-51.0%49.0%-50.0%48.0%-49.0%47.0%-48.0%46.0%-47.0%45.0%-46.0%44.0%-45.0%43.0%-44.0%42.0%-43.0%41.0%-42.0%40.0%-41.0%39.0%-40.0%38.0%-39.0%37.0%-38.0%36.0%-37.0%
Figure 7-35 - Level 14 Void Fraction Profile using 500 to 750
Micron particles.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7S1
S336.0%37.0%38.0%39.0%40.0%41.0%42.0%43.0%44.0%45.0%46.0%47.0%48.0%49.0%50.0%51.0%52.0%
51.0%-52.0%50.0%-51.0%49.0%-50.0%48.0%-49.0%47.0%-48.0%46.0%-47.0%45.0%-46.0%44.0%-45.0%43.0%-44.0%42.0%-43.0%41.0%-42.0%40.0%-41.0%39.0%-40.0%38.0%-39.0%37.0%-38.0%36.0%-37.0%
Figure 7-36 - Level 13 Void Fraction Profile using 500 to 750
Micron particles.
-
63
1 2 3 4 5 6 7S1
S336.0%37.0%38.0%39.0%40.0%41.0%42.0%43.0%44.0%45.0%46.0%47.0%48.0%49.0%50.0%51.0%52.0%
51.0%-52.0%50.0%-51.0%49.0%-50.0%48.0%-49.0%47.0%-48.0%46.0%-47.0%45.0%-46.0%44.0%-45.0%43.0%-44.0%42.0%-43.0%41.0%-42.0%40.0%-41.0%39.0%-40.0%38.0%-39.0%37.0%-38.0%36.0%-37.0%
Figure 7-37 - Level 12 Void Fraction Profile using 500 to 750
Micron particles.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7S1
S336.0%37.0%38.0%39.0%40.0%41.0%42.0%43.0%44.0%45.0%46.0%47.0%48.0%49.0%50.0%51.0%52.0%
51.0%-52.0%50.0%-51.0%49.0%-50.0%48.0%-49.0%47.0%-48.0%46.0%-47.0%45.0%-46.0%44.0%-45.0%43.0%-44.0%42.0%-43.0%41.0%-42.0%40.0%-41.0%39.0%-40.0%38.0%-39.0%37.0%-38.0%36.0%-37.0%
Figure 7-38 - Level 11 Void Fraction Profile using 500 to 750
Micron particles.
-
64
1 2 3 4 5 6 7S1
S336.0%37.0%38.0%39.0%40.0%41.0%42.0%43.0%44.0%45.0%46.0%47.0%48.0%49.0%50.0%51.0%52.0%
51.0%-52.0%50.0%-51.0%49.0%-50.0%48.0%-49.0%47.0%-48.0%46.0%-47.0%45.0%-46.0%44.0%-45.0%43.0%-44.0%42.0%-43.0%41.0%-42.0%40.0%-41.0%39.0%-40.0%38.0%-39.0%37.0%-38.0%36.0%-37.0%
Figure 7-39 - Level 10 Void Fraction Profile using 500 to 750
Micron particles.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7S1
S336.0%37.0%38.0%39.0%40.0%41.0%42.0%43.0%44.0%45.0%46.0%47.0%48.0%49.0%50.0%51.0%52.0%
51.0%-52.0%50.0%-51.0%49.0%-50.0%48.0%-49.0%47.0%-48.0%46.0%-47.0%45.0%-46.0%44.0%-45.0%43.0%-44.0%42.0%-43.0%41.0%-42.0%40.0%-41.0%39.0%-40.0%38.0%-39.0%37.0%-38.0%36.0%-37.0%
Figure 7-40 - Level 9 Void Fraction Profile using 500 to 750
Micron particles.
-
65
1 2 3 4 5 6 7S1
S336.0%37.0%38.0%39.0%40.0%41.0%42.0%43.0%44.0%45.0%46.0%47.0%48.0%49.0%50.0%51.0%52.0%
51.0%-52.0%50.0%-51.0%49.0%-50.0%48.0%-49.0%47.0%-48.0%46.0%-47.0%45.0%-46.0%44.0%-45.0%43.0%-44.0%42.0%-43.0%41.0%-42.0%40.0%-41.0%39.0%-40.0%38.0%-39.0%37.0%-38.0%36.0%-37.0%
Figure 7-41 - Level 8 Void Fraction Profile using 500 to 750
Micron particles.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7S1
S336.0%37.0%38.0%39.0%40.0%41.0%42.0%43.0%44.0%45.0%46.0%47.0%48.0%49.0%50.0%51.0%52.0%
51.0%-52.0%50.0%-51.0%49.0%-50.0%48.0%-49.0%47.0%-48.0%46.0%-47.0%45.0%-46.0%44.0%-45.0%43.0%-44.0%42.0%-43.0%41.0%-42.0%40.0%-41.0%39.0%-40.0%38.0%-39.0%37.0%-38.0%36.0%-37.0%
Figure 7-42 - Level 7 Void Fraction Profile using 500 to 750
Micron particles.
-
66
1 2 3 4 5 6 7S1
S336.0%37.0%38.0%39.0%40.0%41.0%42.0%43.0%44.0%45.0%46.0%47.0%48.0%49.0%50.0%51.0%52.0%
51.0%-52.0%50.0%-51.0%49.0%-50.0%48.0%-49.0%47.0%-48.0%46.0%-47.0%45.0%-46.0%44.0%-45.0%43.0%-44.0%42.0%-43.0%41.0%-42.0%40.0%-41.0%39.0%-40.0%38.0%-39.0%37.0%-38.0%36.0%-37.0%
Figure 7-43 - Level 6 Void Fraction Profile using 500 to 750
Micron particles.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7S1
S336.0%37.0%38.0%39.0%40.0%41.0%42.0%43.0%44.0%45.0%46.0%47.0%48.0%49.0%50.0%51.0%52.0%
51.0%-52.0%50.0%-51.0%49.0%-50.0%48.0%-49.0%47.0%-48.0%46.0%-47.0%45.0%-46.0%44.0%-45.0%43.0%-44.0%42.0%-43.0%41.0%-42.0%40.0%-41.0%39.0%-40.0%38.0%-39.0%37.0%-38.0%36.0%-37.0%
Figure 7-44 - Level 5 Void Fraction Profile using 500 to 750
Micron particles.
-
67
1 2 3 4 5 6 7S1
S336.0%37.0%38.0%39.0%40.0%41.0%42.0%43.0%44.0%45.0%46.0%47.0%48.0%49.0%50.0%51.0%52.0%
51.0%-52.0%50.0%-51.0%49.0%-50.0%48.0%-49.0%47.0%-48.0%46.0%-47.0%45.0%-46.0%44.0%-45.0%43.0%-44.0%42.0%-43.0%41.0%-42.0%40.0%-41.0%39.0%-40.0%38.0%-39.0%37.0%-38.0%36.0%-37.0%
Figure 7-45 - Level 4 Void Fraction Profile using 500 to 750
Micron particles.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7S1
S336.0%37.0%38.0%39.0%40.0%41.0%42.