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McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10
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McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

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Page 1: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

McGraw-Hill/Irwin

©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved

Self-Adjustment or Instability

Self-Adjustment or InstabilityChapter 10Chapter 10

Page 2: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

2

Leakages and Injections

Total spending doesn’t always match total output at the desired full-employment–price-stability level.

LO1

Page 3: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

3

The Circular Flow

The focus of macro concern is whether desired injections will offset desired leakage at full employment.

Full employment GDP is the value of total output (real GDP) produced at full employment.

LO1

Page 4: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

4

Leakages and Injections

Businesstaxes

Householdtaxes

ImportsSaving Businesssaving

INJECTIONS

ExportsGovernment spending

Investment

LEAKAGES

Productmarket

Factormarket

Business Firms

Households(disposable

income)

LO1

Page 5: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

5

Consumer Saving

A leakage is income not spent directly on domestic output, but instead is diverted from the circular flow.

LO1

Page 6: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

6

Consumer Saving

Saving is a primary leakage from the circular flow.

Saving represents income not directly returned to the product markets.

LO1

Page 7: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

7

Consumer Saving

If full-employment income is $3 trillion, then consumption would equal $2350 billion.

CF = $100 billion + 0.75($3000 billion)

= $2350 billion

LO1

Page 8: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

8

Real GDP

50

100

Pri

ce L

evel

Leakage and AD

CF

2,350 3,000QF

Real consumer demand at QF

ASOutput not demanded by consumers

LO1

Page 9: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

9

Imports and Taxes

Imports and taxes represent leakage from the circular flow.

LO1

Page 10: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

10

Business Savings

Business saving is also a leakage from the circular flow of income.

Gross business saving is depreciation allowances and retained earnings.

LO1

Page 11: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

11

Injections into the Circular Flow

An injection is an addition of spending to the circular flow of income.

Injections of investment, government expenditures, and exports help offset leakages from saving, imports, and taxes.

LO1

Page 12: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

12

Leakages and Injections

INJECTIONS

Investment Government spending

Exports

LEAKAGES

Consumer savingBusiness saving

Taxes Imports

LO1

Page 13: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

13

Self-Adjustment?

Classical economists believed that flexible interest rates and flexible prices equalize injections and leakages.

This flexibility would lead to full employment.

Page 14: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

14

Flexible Interest Rates

According to classical economists, if interest rates fell far enough, business investment (injections) would equal consumer saving (leakage).

Page 15: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

15

Changing Expectations

Keynes disagreed with classical economists concerning the role of flexible interest rates in reaching full employment.

Keynes argued that investment would fall in response to declining sales.

Page 16: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

16

Flexible Prices

Classical economists believed that a falling price level would prompt consumers to buy more output.

Page 17: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

17

Expectations (Again)

Keynes disagreed with classical economists concerning the role of flexible prices in reaching full employment.

Keynes argued that declining retail prices would prompt investment cutbacks.

Page 18: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

18

REAL OUTPUT (in billions of dollars per year)

PR

ICE

LE

VE

L (

aver

age

pric

e)AD Shift

QF = $3,000

P1

Q1

P0

$2,900

AD0

F

AD0

b

AS

$100 billion decline in I

d

Page 19: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

19

The Multiplier Process

Keynes argued that things were likely to get worse once a spending shortfall emerged.

LO2

Page 20: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

20

A Decline in Investment

Suppose expectations fall.

Businesses cut back on investment spending.

Unsold capital goods start to pile up.

LO2

Page 21: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

21

Undesired Inventory

Economists distinguish desired (or planned) investment from actual investment.

Actual investment =

Desired investment + Undesired investment

LO2

Page 22: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

22

Falling Output and Prices

Business firms are likely to react to undesired inventory buildups by cutting prices and reducing the rate of new output.

LO2

Page 23: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

23

Household Incomes

Firms usually cut wages and employment as they cut back production.

A reduction in investment spending implies a reduction in household incomes.

LO2

Page 24: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

24

Income-Dependent Consumption

What starts off as a relatively small spending shortfall quickly snowballs into a much larger problem.

If disposable income falls, we expect consumer spending to drop as well.

LO2

Page 25: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

25

Income-Dependent Consumption

The marginal propensity to consume is a critical variable.

The marginal propensity to consume (MPC) is the fraction of each additional (marginal) dollar of disposable income spent on consumption.

It is the change in consumption divided by the change in disposable income.

LO2

Page 26: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

26

The Multiplier

The multiplier is the multiple by which an initial change in aggregate spending will alter total expenditure after an infinite number of spending cycles.

LO2

Page 27: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

27

The Multiplier

The change in total spending equals the multiplier times the initial change in aggregate spending.

Initial change in aggregate

spending multiplier

Total change in spending

LO2

Page 28: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

28

The Multiplier

The cumulative decease in total spending is equal to the AD shortfall multiplied by the multiplier.

A recessionary gap of $100 billion per year would decrease total spending by $400 billion per year (MPC = 0.75).

LO2

Page 29: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

29

The Multiplier

LO2

Page 30: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

30

The Multiplier Process

1. $100 billion in unsold goods appear

3. Income reduced by $100 billion 4. Consumption reduced by $75 billion

5. Sales fall $75 billion6. Further cutbacks in employment or wages

7. Income reduced by $75 billion more

8. Consumption reduced by $56.25 billion more

Factor markets

Product markets

Business firms

Households

9. And so on

2. Cutbacks in employment or wages

LO2

Page 31: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

31

The Multiplier Cycles

LO2

Page 32: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

32

Macro Equilibrium Revisited

Key features of the Keynesian adjustment process:

Producers cut output and employment when output exceeds aggregate demand at the current price level (leakages exceed injections).

LO2

Page 33: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

33

Macro Equilibrium Revisited

Key features of the Keynesian adjustment process:

The resulting loss of income causes a decline in consumer spending.

Declines in consumer spending lead to further production cutbacks, more lost income, and still less consumption.

LO2

Page 34: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

34

Sequential AD Shifts

The decline in household income caused by investment cutbacks sets off the multiplier process, causing a secondary shift of the AD curve.

LO2

Page 35: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

35

Multiplier Effects

Real Output (in billions of dollars per year)

Pri

ce L

eve

l (av

era

ge p

rice

)

QF = 3000

maP0

2600 2900

AD2

c

I = $100 billionC = $300 billion

b

d

AD1

AS

AD0

LO2

Page 36: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

36

Price and Output Effects

The impact of a shift in aggregate demand is reflected in both output and price changes.

LO3

Page 37: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

37

Recessionary GDP Gap

As long as the aggregate supply curve is upward-sloping, the shock of any AD shift will be spread across output and prices.

LO3

Page 38: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

38

Recessionary GDP Gap

The recessionary GDP gap is the amount by which equilibrium GDP falls short of full-employment GDP.

The recessionary GDP gap equals the difference between equilibrium real GDP (QE) and full-employment real GDP (QF).

LO3

Page 39: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

39

Recessionary GDP Gap

The recessionary GDP gap is the classic case of cyclical unemployment.Cyclical employment is the unemployment attributable to a lack of job vacancies, that is, to an inadequate level of aggregate demand.

LO3

Page 40: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

40

Recessionary GDP Gap

REAL OUTPUT (in billions of dollars per year)

PR

ICE

LE

VE

L (a

vera

ge p

rice)

QE QF

P0

PE

AD0

AD2

AS

c

m a

Recessionary GDP gap

LO3

Page 41: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

41

Short-Run Inflation-Unemployment Trade-Offs

The shape of the aggregate supply curve adds to the difficulty of restoring full employment.

Page 42: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

42

Upward-Sloping AS

When AD increases both output and prices go up.

So long as the short-run AS is upward sloping, there is a trade-off between unemployment and inflation.

Page 43: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

43

The Unemployment-Inflation Trade-Off

REAL OUTPUT (in billions of dollars per year)

PR

ICE

LE

VE

L (

ave

rag

e p

rice

)

QE = $2800 QF = $3000

AS

PE

P3

P4

AD2

ch

f

AD3

AD4

g

Recessionary GDP gap

Page 44: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

44

“Full” vs. “Natural” Unemployment

Full employment is the lowest rate of unemployment compatible with price stability.

The closer the economy gets to capacity output, the greater the risk of inflation.

Page 45: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

45

“Full” vs. “Natural” Unemployment

Neoclassical and monetarist economists do not accept this notion of full employment.

In their view, the long-run AS curve is vertical so that there is no unemployment-inflation trade-off.

Page 46: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

46

Adjustment to an Inflationary GDP Gap

Operating through the multiplier process, an increase in investment might initiate an inflationary spiral.

LO3

Page 47: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

47

Increased Investment

An increase in investment spending shifts the aggregate demand curve to the right.

LO3

Page 48: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

48

Inventory Depletion

When AD increases due to increased investment available inventories shrink.

Inventory depletion is a warning sign of impending inflation.

LO3

Page 49: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

49

Household Incomes

As investment increases, household incomes get a boost as producers increase their output to rebuild inventories and supply more investment goods.

LO3

Page 50: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

50

Induced Consumption

Consumers purchase more goods and services as their incomes increase.

Eventually consumer spending increases by a multiple of the income change.

LO3

Page 51: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

51

A New Equilibrium

The increase in AD causes both output and prices to increase.

This increase in the average price level is known as demand-pull inflation.

Demand-pull inflation is an increase in the price level initiated by excessive aggregate demand.

LO3

Page 52: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

52

Demand-Pull Inflation

Real Output (in billions of dollars per year)

Pri

ce L

eve

l (av

era

ge p

rice

)

a

w

r

AD0

AS

QF QE

P0

P6

AD5

AD6

C = $300 billion

I = $100 billion

Inflationary GDP gap

LO3

Page 53: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

53

Boom and Busts

The basic conclusion of the Keynesian analysis is that:

The economy is vulnerable to abrupt changes in spending behavior, and

The economy won’t self-adjust to a desired macro equilibrium.

Page 54: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

54

Boom and Busts

The responses of market participants to an abrupt AD shifts are likely to worsen rather than improve market outcomes.

Page 55: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

55

Maintaining Consumer Confidence

A sudden change in government spending or exports could get the multiplier ball rolling.

The whole process could also originate with a change in consumer spending.

Page 56: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

56

Consumer Confidence

Consumer spending consists of two components:

Autonomous – represented by the letter (a) in the consumption function, and

Induced – represented by the letters (bY) in the consumption function.

C = a + bY

Page 57: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

57

Consumer Confidence

When consumer confidence changes, the value of (a) changes and the consumption function shifts.

Page 58: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

58

Consumer Confidence

A change in consumer confidence can also change the value of (b) altering the consumer’s willingness to spend out of each additional dollar in income.

Page 59: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

59

Consumer Confidence

Page 60: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

60

The Official View: Always a Rosy Outlook

Governments often paint a picture of the economy which is better than what actually exists.

Page 61: McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved Self-Adjustment or Instability Chapter 10.

McGraw-Hill/Irwin

©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, All Rights Reserved

Self-Adjustment or Instability

Self-Adjustment or Instability

End of Chapter 10End of Chapter 10