Motivation levels of employees
Motivationis a term that refers to a process that elicits,
controls, and sustains certain behaviors. Motivation is a group of
phenomena which affect the nature of an individual's behavior, the
strength of the behavior, and the persistence of the behavior.
For instance: An individual has not eaten, he or she feels
hungry, as a response he or she eats and diminishes feelings of
hunger. There are many approaches to motivation: physiological,
behavioural, cognitive, and social.
It's the crucial element in setting and attaining goalsand
research shows you can influence your own levels of motivation and
self-control.
According to various theories, motivation may be rooted in a
basic need to minimize physical pain and maximize pleasure, or it
may include specific needs such as eating and resting, or a desired
object,goal, state of being,ideal, or it may be attributed to
less-apparent reasons such asaltruism,selfishness,morality, or
avoidingmortality.
Conceptually, motivation should not be confused with
eithervolitionoroptimism. Motivation is related to, but distinct
from,emotion.
Brief history
At one time, employees were considered just another input into
the production of goods and services .But this changed after
theHawthorne Studies.
The Hawthorne studies were conducted by Elton Mayoat Hawthorne
Plant in the 1920s. The researchers were studying the effect of
different working environments on productivity. They used lighting
as an experimental variable (the effect of bright lighting and dull
lighting).
Initially they noticed that employees were working harder but it
was not because of the lighting. They concluded that productivity
increased due to attention that the workers got from the research
team and not because of changes to the experimental variable.
Hawthorne studies found that employees are not motivated solely
by money but motivation is linked to employee behaviour and their
attitudes.The Hawthorne Studies began the human relations approach
to management, so the needs and motivation of employees became the
primary focus of managers.
Motivation conceptsIntrinsic and extrinsic motivation
Intrinsic motivationrefers to motivation that is driven by an
interest or enjoyment in the task itself, and exists within the
individual rather than relying on any external pressure. Intrinsic
motivation is based on taking pleasure in an activity rather than
working towards an external reward .
Intrinsic motivation has been studied
bysocialandeducationalpsychologists since the early 1970s. Students
who are intrinsically motivated are more likely to engage in the
task willingly as well as work to improve their skills, which will
increase their capabilities.[7]Students are likely to be
intrinsically motivated if they:
attribute their educational results to factors under their own
control, also known as autonomy,
believe they have the skill that will allow them to be effective
agents in reaching desired goals (i.e. the results are not
determined by luck),
are interested in mastering a topic, rather than just
rote-learning to achieve good grades.
Extrinsic motivationrefers to the performance of an activity in
order to attain an outcome, which then contradicts intrinsic
motivation. It is widely believed that motivation performs two
functions.
First one is often referred to the energetic activation
component of the motivation construct. The second one is directed
at a specific behaviour and makes reference to the orientation
directional component.
Motives can be divided into two types: external and internal.
Internal motives are considered as the needs that every human being
experience, while external indicate the presence of specific
situations where these needs arise.
Social psychological research has indicated that extrinsic
rewards can lead toover justificationand a subsequent reduction in
intrinsic motivation. In one study demonstrating this effect,
children who expected to be (and were) rewarded with a ribbon and a
gold star for drawing pictures spent less time playing with the
drawing materials in subsequent observations than children who were
assigned to an unexpected reward condition.
For those children who received no extrinsic
reward,self-determination theoryproposes that extrinsic motivation
can be internalised by the individual if the task fits with their
values and beliefs and therefore helps to fulfill their basic
psychological needs.
Push and Pull
This model is usually used when discussing motivation within
tourism context, so the most attention in gastronomic tourism
research should be dedicated to this theory. Pull factors
illustrate the choices of destinations by tourists, whereas push
factors determine the desire to go on holiday.
Moreover, push motives are connected with internal forces for
example need for relaxation or escapism and pull factors in turn
induce a traveller to visit certain location by external forces
such as landscape, culture image or climate of a destination. Dann
also highlights the fact that push factors can be stimulated by
external and situational aspects of motivation in shape of pull
factors.
Then again pull factors are issues that can arise from a
location itself and therefore push an individual to choose to
experience it. Since, a huge number of theories have been developed
over the years in many studies there is no single theory that
illustrates all motivational aspects of travelling.
Many researchers highlighted that because motives may occur at
the same time it should not be assumed that only one motive drives
an individual to perform an action as it was presumed in previous
studies. On the other hand, since people are not able to satisfy
all their needs at once they usually seek to satisfy some or a few
of them.
Self-control
The self-control of motivation is increasingly understood as a
subset ofemotional intelligence; a person may be highly intelligent
according to a more conservative definition (as measured by many
intelligence tests), yet unmotivated to dedicate this intelligence
to certain tasks.Yale School of ManagementprofessorVictor Vroom's
"expectancy theory" provides an account of when people will decide
whether to exert self control to pursue a particular goal.
Drives and desires can be described asa deficiency or need that
activates behavior that is aimed at a goal or an incentive. These
are thought to originate within the individual and may not require
external stimuli to encourage the behavior. Basic drives could be
sparked by deficiencies such as hunger, which motivates a person to
seek food; whereas more subtle drives might be the desire for
praise and approval, which motivates a person to behave in a manner
pleasing to others.
By contrast, the role of extrinsic rewards and stimuli can be
seen in the example of training animals by giving them treats when
they perform a trick correctly. The treat motivates the animals to
perform the trick consistently, even later when the treat is
removed from the process.
Motivational theoriesIncentive theory
Areward, tangible or intangible, is presented after the
occurrence of an action (i.e. behavior) with the intent to cause
the behavior to occur again. This is done byassociatingpositive
meaning to the behavior. Studies show that if the person receives
the reward immediately, the effect is greater, and decreases as
duration lengthens. Repetitive action-reward combination can cause
the action to becomehabit. Motivation comes from two sources:
oneself, and other people. These two sources are called intrinsic
motivation and extrinsic motivation, respectively.
Reinforcers and reinforcement principles of behavior differ from
the hypothetical construct of reward.
A reinforcer is any stimulus change following a response that
increases the future frequency or magnitude of that response,
therefore the cognitive approach is certainly the way forward as in
1973 Maslow described it as being the golden pineapple. Positive
reinforcement is demonstrated by an increase in the future
frequency or magnitude of a response due to in the past being
followed contingently by a reinforcing stimulus.
Negative reinforcement involves stimulus change consisting of
the removal of an aversive stimulus following a response. Positive
reinforcement involves a stimulus change consisting of the
presentation or magnification of an appetitive stimulus following a
response. From this perspective, motivation is mediated by
environmental events, and the concept of distinguishing between
intrinsic and extrinsic forces is irrelevant.
Applying proper motivational techniques can be much harder than
it seems. Steven Kerr notes that when creating a reward system, it
can be easy to reward A, while hoping for B, and in the process,
reap harmful effects that can jeopardize your goals.
Incentive theory inpsychologytreats motivation andbehaviorof the
individual as they are influenced bybeliefs, such as engaging in
activities that are expected to be profitable. Incentive theory is
promoted bybehavioral psychologists, such asB.F. Skinnerand
literalized by behaviorists, especially by Skinner in
hisphilosophyofRadical behaviorism, to mean that a person's actions
always havesocialramifications: and if actions are positively
received people are more likely to act in this manner, or if
negatively received people are less likely to act in this
manner.
Incentive theory distinguishes itself from other motivation
theories, such asdrive theory, in the direction of the motivation.
In incentive theory,stimuli"attract", to use the term above, a
person towards them.
As opposed to the body seeking to reestablishhomeostasispushing
it towards the stimulus. In terms of behaviorism,incentive
theoryinvolvespositive reinforcement: the stimulus has been
conditioned to make the person happier.
For instance, a person knows that eatingfood, drinkingwater, or
gainingsocial capitalwill make them happier. As opposed to indrive
theory, which involvesnegative reinforcement: a stimulus has been
associated with the removal of thepunishment-- the lack
ofhomeostasisin the body.
For example, a person has come to know that if they eat when
hungry, it will eliminate that negative feeling ofhunger, or if
they drink when thirsty, it will eliminate that negative feeling of
thirst.
Escape-seeking dichotomy model
Escapism and seeking are major factors influencing decision
making. Escapism is a need to breakaway from a daily life routine
whereas seeking is described as the desire to learn, gain some
inner benefits through travelling.
Both motivations have some interpersonal and personal facets for
example individuals would like to escape from family problems
(personal) or from problems with work colleagues (interpersonal).
This model can also be easily adapted with regard to different
studies.
Drive-reduction theory
There are a number of drive theories. TheDrive Reduction
Theorygrows out of the concept that we have certain biological
drives, such as hunger. As time passes the strength of the drive
increases if it is not satisfied (in this case by eating).
Upon satisfying a drive the drive's strength is reduced. The
theory is based on diverse ideas from the theories ofFreudto the
ideas offeedbackcontrol systems, such as athermostat.
Drive theory has some intuitive or folk validity. For instance
when preparing food, the drive model appears to be compatible with
sensations of rising hunger as the food is prepared, and, after the
food has been consumed, a decrease in subjective hunger.
There are several problems, however, that leave the validity of
drive reduction open for debate. The first problem is that it does
not explain how secondary reinforcers reduce drive.
For example, money satisfies no biological or psychological
needs, but a pay check appears to reduce drive throughsecond-order
conditioning. Secondly, a drive, such as hunger, is viewed as
having a "desire" to eat, making the drive ahomuncularbeinga
feature criticized as simply moving the fundamental problem behind
this "small man" and his desires.
In addition, it is clear that drive reduction theory cannot be a
complete theory of behavior, or a hungry human could not prepare a
meal without eating the food before he finished cooking it. The
ability of drive theory to cope with all kinds of behavior, from
not satisfying a drive (by adding on other traits such as
restraint), or adding additional drives for "tasty" food, which
combine with drives for "food" in order to explain cooking render
it hard to test.
Cognitive dissonance theory
Suggested byLeon Festinger,cognitive dissonanceoccurs when an
individual experiences some degree of discomfort resulting from an
inconsistency between two cognitions: their views on the world
around them, and their own personal feelings and actions.
For example, a consumer may seek to reassure himself regarding a
purchase, feeling, in retrospect, that another decision may have
been preferable. His feeling that another purchase would have been
preferable is inconsistent with his action of purchasing the item.
The difference between his feelings and beliefs causes dissonance,
so he seeks to reassure himself.
While not a theory of motivation, per se, the theory of
cognitive dissonance proposes that people have amotivational
driveto reduce dissonance. Thecognitive miserperspective makes
people want to justify things in a simple way in order to reduce
the effort they put into cognition.
They do this by changing their attitudes, beliefs, or actions,
rather than facing the inconsistencies, because dissonance is a
mental strain. Dissonance is also reduced by justifying, blaming,
and denying. It is one of the most influential and extensively
studied theories insocial psychology.
Need theories
Need hierarchy theory
Thecontent theoryincludes the hierarchy of needs fromAbraham
Maslowand the two- factor theory fromHerzberg. Maslow's theory is
one of the most widely discussed theories of motivation.
The American motivation psychologist Abraham H. Maslow developed
the Hierarchy of needs consistent of five hierarchic classes. It
shows the complexity of human requirements. According to him,
people are motivated by unsatisfied needs.
The lower level needs such as Physiological and Safety needs
will have to be satisfied before higher level needs are to be
addressed. We can relate Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs theory with
employee motivation.
For example, if a manager is trying to motivate his employees by
satisfying their needs; according to Maslow, he should try to
satisfy the lower level needs before he tries to satisfy the upper
level needs or the employees will not be motivated. Also he has to
remember that not everyone will be satisfied by the same needs.
A good manager will try to figure out which levels of needs are
active for a certain individual or employee. The basic requirements
build the first step in his pyramid. If there is any deficit on
this level, the whole behavior of a human will be oriented to
satisfy this deficit. Subsequently we do have the second level,
which awake a need for security. Basically it is oriented on a
future need for security. After securing those two levels, the
motives shift in the social sphere, which form the third stage.
Psychological requirements consist in the fourth level, while
the top of the hierarchy comprise the self- realization So theory
can be summarized as follows:
Human beings have wants and desires which influence their
behavior. Only unsatisfied needs influence behavior, satisfied
needs do not.
Since needs are many, they are arranged in order of importance,
from the basic to the complex.
The person advances to the next level of needs only after the
lower level need is at least minimally satisfied.
The further the progress up the hierarchy, the more
individuality, humanness and psychological health a person will
show.
The needs, listed from basic (lowest-earliest) to most complex
(highest-latest) are as follows:
Physiology(hunger, thirst, sleep, etc.)
Safety/Security/Shelter/Health
Belongingness/Love/Friendship
Self-esteem/Recognition/Achievement
Self actualization
Herzberg's two-factor theory
Frederick Herzberg'stwo-factor theory, a.k.a.
intrinsic/extrinsic motivation, concludes that certain factors in
the workplace result injob satisfaction, but if absent, they don't
lead to dissatisfaction but no satisfaction.The factors that
motivate people can change over their lifetime, but "respect for me
as a person" is one of the top motivating factors at any stage of
life.
He distinguished between:
Motivators; (e.g. challenging work, recognition, responsibility)
which give positive satisfaction,and
Hygiene factors; (e.g. status,job security,salaryand fringe
benefits) that do not motivate if present, but, if absent, result
in demotivation.
The name Hygiene factors is used because, like hygiene, the
presence will not make you healthier, but absence can cause health
deterioration.
The theory is sometimes called the "Motivator-Hygiene Theory"
and/or "The Dual Structure Theory."
Herzberg's theory has found application in such occupational
fields as information systems and in studies of user satisfaction
(seeComputer user satisfaction).
Alderfer's ERG theory
Alderfer, expanding on Maslow's hierarchy of needs, created
theERG theory. This theory posits that there are three groups of
core needs existence, relatedness, and growth, hence the label: ERG
theory.
The existence group is concerned with providing our basic
material existence requirements. They include the items that Maslow
considered to be physiological and safety needs. The second group
of needs are those of relatedness- the desire we have for
maintaining important interpersonal relationships.
These social and status desires require interaction with others
if they are to be satisfied, and they align with Maslow's social
need and the external component of Maslow's esteem classification.
Finally, Alderfer isolates growth needs' an intrinsic desire for
personal development. These include the intrinsic component from
Maslow's esteem category and the characteristics included under
self-actualization.
Self-determination theory
Self-determination theory, developed byEdward Deciand Richard
Ryan, focuses on the importance ofintrinsic motivationin driving
human behavior. Like Maslow's hierarchical theory and others that
built on it, SDT posits a natural tendency toward growth and
development. Unlike these other theories, however, SDT does not
include any sort of "autopilot" for achievement, but instead
requires active encouragement from the environment. The primary
factors that encourage motivation and development are autonomy,
competence feedback, and relatedness.
Broad theories
The latest approach in developing a broad, integrative theory of
motivation is Temporal Motivation Theory(TMT). Integrating theories
of motivation. Introduced in a 2007Academy of Management
Reviewarticle, it synthesizes into a single formulation the primary
aspects of several other major motivational theories, including
Incentive Theory, Drive Theory, Need Theory, Self-Efficacy and Goal
Setting.
The original researchers note that, in an effort to keep the
theory simple, existing theories to integrate were selected based
on their shared attributes, and that these theories are still of
value, as TMT does not contain the same depth of detail as each
individual theory. However, it still simplifies the field of
motivation and allows findings from one theory to be translated
into terms of another.
Achievement Motivation is an integrative perspective based on
the premise that performance motivation results from the way broad
components of personality are directed towards performance. As a
result, it includes a range of dimensions that are relevant to
success at work but which are not conventionally regarded as being
part of performance motivation. Especially it integrates formerly
separated approaches as Need for Achievement with, for example,
social motives like dominance. The Achievement Motivation Inventory
is based on this theory and assesses three factors (in 17 separated
scales) relevant to vocational and professional success.
Cognitive theories
Goal-setting theory
Goal-setting theoryis based on the notion that individuals
sometimes have a drive to reach a clearly defined end state. Often,
this end state is a reward in itself.
A goal's efficiency is affected by three features: proximity,
difficulty and specificity. Good goal setting incorporates theSMART
criteria, in which goals are: specific, measurable, accurate,
realistic, and timely.
An ideal goal should present a situation where the time between
the initiation of behavior and the end state is close. This
explains why some children are more motivated to learn how to ride
a bike than to master algebra. A goal should be moderate, not too
hard or too easy to complete. In both cases, most people are not
optimally motivated, as many want a challenge (which assumes some
kind of insecurity of success). At the same time people want to
feel that there is a substantial probability that they will
succeed.
Specificity concerns the description of the goal in their class.
The goal should be objectively defined and intelligible for the
individual. A classic example of a poorly specified goal is to get
the highest possible grade. Most children have no idea how much
effort they need to reach that goal.
Models of behavior change
Social-cognitive models of behavior change include the
constructs of motivation andvolition. Motivation is seen as a
process that leads to the forming of behavioral intentions.
Volition is seen as a process that leads from intention to actual
behavior. In other words, motivation and volition refer to goal
setting and goal pursuit, respectively.
Both processes require self-regulatory efforts. Several
self-regulatory constructs are needed to operate inorchestrationto
attain goals. An example of such a motivational and volitional
construct is perceivedself-efficacy. Self-efficacy is supposed to
facilitate the forming of behavioral intentions, the development of
action plans, and the initiation of action. It can support the
translation of intentions into action.
Unconscious motivation
Somepsychologistsbelieve that a significant portion of human
behavior is energized and directed by unconscious motives.
According toMaslow, "Psychoanalysis has often demonstrated that the
relationship between a conscious desire and the ultimate
unconscious aim that underlies it need not be at all direct."
Intrinsic motivation and the 16 basic desires theory
Starting from studies involving more than 6,000 people,
Professor Steven Reiss has proposed a theory that found 16 basic
desires that guide nearly all human behavior. The 16 basic desires
that motivate our actions and define our personalities as:
Acceptance, the need for approval
Curiosity, the need to learn
Eating, the need for food
Family, the need to raise children
Honor, the need to be loyal to the traditional values of one's
clan/ethnic group
Idealism, the need for social justice
Independence, the need for individuality
Order, the need for organized, stable, predictable
environments
Physical activity, the need for exercise
Power, the need for influence of will
Romance, the need for sex
Saving, the need to collect
Social contact, the need for friends (peer relationships)
Social status, the need for social standing/importance
Tranquility, the need to be safe
Vengeance, the need to strike back/to win
In this model, people differ in these basic desires. These basic
desires represent intrinsic desires that directly motivate a
person's behavior, and not aimed at indirectly satisfying other
desires. People may also be motivated by non-basic desires, but in
this case this does not relate to deep motivation, or only as a
means to achieve other basic desires.
Controlling motivation
The control of motivation is only understood to a limited
extent. There are many different approaches ofmotivation training,
but many of these are consideredpseudoscientificby critics. To
understand how to control motivation it is first necessary to
understand why many people lack motivation.
Employee motivation
Workers in any organization need something to keep them working.
Most of the time, thesalaryof the employee is enough to keep him or
her working for an organization. An employee must be motivated to
work for a company or organization. If no motivation is present in
an employee, then that employees quality of work or all work in
general will deteriorate.
When motivating an audience, you can use general motivational
strategies or specific motivational appeals. General motivational
strategies include soft sell versus hard sell and personality type.
Soft sell strategies have logical appeals, emotional appeals,
advice and praise. Hard sell strategies have barter, outnumbering,
pressure and rank. Also, you can consider basing your strategy on
your audience personality. Specific motivational appeals focus on
provable facts, feelings, right and wrong, audience rewards and
audiencethreats.
Drugs
Some authors, especially in thetranshumanistmovement, have
suggested the use of "smart drugs", also known asnootropics, as
"motivation-enhancers". These drugs work in various ways to affect
neurotransmitters in the brain. It is generally widely accepted
that these drugs enhance cognitive functions, but not without
potential side effects.The effects of many of these drugs on the
brain are emphatically not well understood, and their legal status
often makes open experimentation difficult.
ApplicationsEducation
Motivation is of particular interest toeducational
psychologistsbecause of the crucial role it plays in student
learning. However, the specific kind of motivation that is studied
in the specialized setting of education differs qualitatively from
the more general forms of motivation studied by psychologists in
other fields.
Motivation in education can have several effects on how students
learn and how they behave towards subject matter.It can:
Direct behavior toward particular goals
Lead to increased effort and energy
Increase initiation of, and persistence in, activities
Enhance cognitive processing
Determine what consequences are reinforcing
Lead to improved performance.
Because students are not always internally motivated, they
sometimes needsituated motivation, which is found in environmental
conditions that the teacher creates.
If teachers decided to extrinsically reward productive student
behaviors, they may find it difficult to extricate themselves from
that path. Consequently student dependency on extrinsic rewards
represents one of the greatest detractors from their use in the
classroom.[14]
The majority of new student orientation leaders at colleges and
universities recognize that distinctive needs of students should be
considered in regard to orientation information provided at the
beginning of the higher education experience.
Research done by Whyte in 1986 raised the awareness of
counselors and educators in this regard. In 2007, the National
Orientation Directors Association reprintedCassandra B. Whyte's
research report allowing readers to ascertain improvements made in
addressing specific needs of students over a quarter of a century
later to help with academic success.
Generally, motivation is conceptualized as
eitherintrinsicorextrinsic. Classically, these categories are
regarded as distinct.Today, these concepts are less likely to be
used as distinct categories, but instead as twoideal typesthat
define acontinuum:
Intrinsic motivationoccurs when people are internally motivated
to do something because it either brings them pleasure, they think
it is important, or they feel that what they are learning is
significant. It has been shown that intrinsic motivation for
education drops from grades 3-9 though the exact cause cannot be
ascertained.Also, in younger students it has been shown that
contextualizing material that would otherwise be presented in an
abstract manner increases the intrinsic motivation of these
students.
Extrinsic motivationcomes into play when a student is compelled
to do something or act a certain way because of factors external to
him or her (like money or good grades).
Cassandra B. Whyte researched and reported about the importance
of locus of control and academic achievement. Students tending
toward a more internal locus of control are more academically
successful, thus encouraging curriculum and activity development
with consideration of motivation theories.
Motivation has been found to be an important element in the
concept ofAndragogy(what motivates the adult learner), and in
treating Autism Spectrum Disorders, as inPivotal Response
Therapy.
Doyle and Moeyn have noted that traditional methods tended to
use anxiety as negative motivation (e.g. use of bad grades by
teachers) as a method of getting students to work. However, they
have found that progressive approaches with focus on positive
motivation over punishment has produced greater effectiveness with
learning, since anxiety interferes with performance of complex
tasks.
Sudbury Model schools' approach
Sudbury Model schools adduce that the cure to the problem of
procrastination, of learning in general, and particularly of
scientific illiteracy is to remove once and for all what they call
the underlying disease: compulsion in schools.
They contend that human nature in a free society recoils from
every attempt to force it into a mold; that the more requirements
we pile onto children at school, the surer we are to drive them
away from the material we are trying to force down their throats;
that after all the drive and motivation of infants to master the
world around them is legendary. They assert that schools must keep
that drive alive by doing what some of them do: nurturing it on the
freedom it needs to thrive.
Sudbury Model schools do not perform and do not offer
evaluations, assessments, transcripts, or recommendations,
asserting that they do not rate people, and that school is not a
judge; comparing students to each other, or to some standard that
has been set is for them a violation of the student's right to
privacy and to self-determination.
Students decide for themselves how to measure their progress as
self-starting learners as a process of self-evaluation: real
life-long learning and the proper educational evaluation for the
21st century, they adduce.According to Sudbury Model schools, this
policy does not cause harm to their students as they move on to
life outside the school.
However, they admit it makes the process more difficult, but
that such hardship is part of the students learning to make their
own way, set their own standards and meet their own goals. The
no-grading and no-rating policy helps to create an atmosphere free
of competition among students or battles for adult approval, and
encourages a positive cooperative environment amongst the student
body.
Business
At lower levels ofMaslow's hierarchy of needs, such as
physiological needs, money is a motivator, however it tends to have
a motivating effect on staff that lasts only for a short period (in
accordance withHerzberg's two-factor model of motivation). At
higher levels of the hierarchy, praise, respect,
recognition,empowermentand a sense of belonging are far more
powerful motivators than money, as bothAbraham Maslow's theory of
motivation andDouglas McGregor'stheory X and theory Y(pertaining to
the theory of leadership) demonstrate.
According to Maslow, people are motivated by unsatisfied
needs.The lower level needs such as Physiological and Safety needs
will have to be satisfied before higher level needs are to be
addressed. We can relate Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs theory with
employee motivation.
For example, if a manager is trying to motivate his employees by
satisfying their needs; according to Maslow, he should try to
satisfy the lower level needs before he tries to satisfy the upper
level needs or the employees will not be motivated. Also he has to
remember that not everyone will be satisfied by the same needs. A
good manager will try to figure out which levels of needs are
active for a certain individual or employee.
Maslow has money at the lowest level of the hierarchy and shows
other needs are better motivators to staff. McGregor places money
in his Theory X category and feels it is a poor motivator. Praise
and recognition are placed in the Theory Y category and are
considered stronger motivators than money.
Motivated employees always look for better ways to do a job.
Motivated employees are more quality oriented.
Motivated workers are more productive.
The average workplace is about midway between the extremes of
high threat and high opportunity. Motivation by threat is a
dead-end strategy, and naturally staff are more attracted to the
opportunity side of the motivation curve than the threat side.
Motivation is a powerful tool in the work environment that can lead
to employees working at their most efficient levels of
production.
Nonetheless, Steinmetz also discusses three common character
types of subordinates: ascendant, indifferent, and ambivalent who
all react and interact uniquely, and must be treated, managed, and
motivated accordingly. An effective leader must understand how to
manage all characters, and more importantly the manager must
utilize avenues that allow room for employees to work, grow, and
find answers independently.
The assumptions of Maslow and Herzberg were challenged by a
classic study at Vauxhall Motors' UK manufacturing plant. This
introduced the concept of orientation to work and distinguished
three main orientations: instrumental (where work is a means to an
end), bureaucratic (where work is a source of status, security and
immediate reward) and solidaristic (which prioritises group
loyalty).
Other theories which expanded and extended those of Maslow and
Herzberg includedKurt Lewin's Force Field Theory, Edwin Locke'sGoal
TheoryandVictor Vroom'sExpectancy theory. These tend to stress
cultural differences and the fact that individuals tend to be
motivated by different factors at different times.
According to the system ofscientific managementdeveloped
byFrederick Winslow Taylor, a worker's motivation is solely
determined by pay, and therefore management need not consider
psychological or social aspects of work. In essence, scientific
management bases human motivation wholly on extrinsic rewards and
discards the idea of intrinsic rewards.
In contrast,David McClellandbelieved that workers could not be
motivated by the mere need formoneyin fact, extrinsic motivation
(e.g., money) could extinguish intrinsic motivation such as
achievement motivation, though money could be used as an indicator
of success for various motives, e.g., keeping score. In keeping
with this view, his consulting firm, McBer & Company, had as
its first motto "To make everyone productive, happy, and free." For
McClelland, satisfaction lay in aligning a person's life with their
fundamental motivations.
Elton Mayofound that the social contacts a worker has at the
workplace are very important and that boredom and repetitiveness of
tasks lead to reduced motivation. Mayo believed that workers could
be motivated by acknowledging their social needs and making them
feel important. As a result, employees were given freedom to make
decisions on the job and greater attention was paid to informal
work groups. Mayo named the model theHawthorne effect. His model
has been judged as placing undue reliance on social contacts at
work situations for motivating employees.
William OuchiintroducedTheory Z, a hybrid management approach
consisting of both Japanese and American philosophies and
cultures.[32]Its Japanese segment is much like the clan culture
where organizations focus on a standardized structure with heavy
emphasis on socialization of its members. All underlying goals are
consistent across the organization. Its American segment retains
formality and authority amongst members and the organization.
Ultimately, Theory Z promotes common structure and commitment to
the organization, as well as constant improvement of work
efficacy.
InEssentials of Organizational Behavior, Robbins and Judge
examine recognition programs as motivators, and identify five
principles that contribute to the success of an employee incentive
program:
Recognition of employees' individual differences, and clear
identification of behavior deemed worthy of recognition
Allowing employees to participate
Linking rewards to performance
Rewarding of nominators
Visibility of the recognition process
OBJECTIVES
Main Objectives of Employee Motivation are as follows :
The purpose of motivation is to create condition in which people
are willing to work with zeal, initiative. Interest, and
enthusiasm, with a high personal and group moral satisfaction with
a sense of responsibility.
To increase loyalty against company.
For improve discipline and with pride and confidence in cohesive
manner so that the goal of an organization are achieved
effectively.
Motivation techniques utilized to stimulate employee growth.
For the motivation you can buy mans time. Physical presence at a
given place.
You can even buy a measured number of skilled muscular motions
per hour or day.
Performance results from the interaction of physical, financial
and human resource.
For the achieve a desire rate of production.
Every employee is expected to show increased and qualitative
productivity by the manager. To achieve this the behavior of the
employee is very important. The behavior of the employees is
influenced by the environment in which they find themselves.
Finally, an employee's behavior will be a function of that
employee's innate drives or felt needs and the opportunities he or
she has to satisfy those drives or needs in the workplace.
If employees are never given opportunities to utilize all of
their skills, then the employer may never have the benefit of their
total performance. Work performance is also contingent upon
employee abilities. If employees lack the learned skills or innate
talents to do a particular job, then performance will be less than
optimal. A third dimension of performance is motivation.
Motivation is the act of stimulating someone or oneself to get
desired course of action, to push right button to get desired
reactions.
The following are the features of motivation :
Motivation is an act of managers
Motivation is a continuous process
Motivation can be positive or negative
Motivation is goal oriented
Motivation is complex in nature
Motivation is an art
Motivation is system-oriented
Motivation is different from job satisfaction .
MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS
There are several factors that motivate a person to work. The
motivational factors can be broadly divided into two groups:
I. MONETARY FACTORS:
Salaries or wages:
Salaries or wages is one of the most important motivational
factors. Reasonable salaries must be paid on time. While fixing
salaries the organization must consider such as :
Cost of living
Company ability to pay
Capability of company to pay etc,
Bonus:
It refers to extra payment to employee over and above salary
given as an incentive. The employees must be given adequate rate of
bonus.
Incentives:
The organization may also provide additional incentives such as
medical allowance, educational allowance, hra ,allowance, etc.
Special individual incentives:
The company may provide special individual incentives. Such
incentives are to be given to deserving employees for giving
valuable suggestions.
II. NON MONETARY FACTORS:
Status or job title:
By providing a higher status or designations the employee must
be motivated. Employees prefer and proud of higher
designations.
Appreciation and recognition:
Employees must be appreciated for their services. The praise
should not come from immediate superior but also from higher
authorities.
Delegation of authority:
Delegation of authority motivates a subordinate to perform the
tasks with dedication and commitment. When authority is delegated,
the subordinate knows that his superior has placed faith and trust
in him.
Working conditions :
Provision for better working conditions such as air-conditioned
rooms, proper plant layout, proper sanitation, equipment, machines
etc, motivates the employees.
Job security:
Guarantee of job security or lack of fear dismissal, etc can
also be a good way to motivate the employees. Employees who are
kept temporarily for a long time may be frustrated and may leave
the organization.
Job enrichment:
Job enrichment involves more challenging tasks and
responsibilities. For instance an executive who is involved in
preparing and presenting reports of performance, may also asked to
frame plans.
Workers participation:
Inviting the employee to be a member of quality circle, or a
committee, or some other form of employee participation can also
motivate the work-force.
Cordial relations: Good and healthy relations must exist
throughout the organization. This would definitely motivates the
employees.
Good superiors: Subordinates want their superiors to be
intelligent, experienced, matured, and having a good personality.
In fact, the superior needs to have superior knowledge and skills
than that of his subordinates. The very presence of superiors can
motivate the subordinates.
Other factors:
There are several other factors of motivating the employees:
Providing training to the employees.
Proper job placements.
Proper promotions and transfers.
Proper performance feed back.
Proper welfare facilities.
Flexible working hours.
Need and importance of motivation
Motivation offers several importance to he organization and to
the employees:
Higher efficiency
Reduce absenteeism.
Reduces employee turn over.
Improves a corporate image.
Good relations.
Improved morale.
Reduced wastages and breakages.
Reduced accidents.
Facilitates initiative and innovation.
Money as a motivator
It is normally believed that money acts as a motivator. In
general the role of money as a motivator depends upon certain
factors:
Money fails to motivate people, when there is no direct
relationship between reward and effort.
Economic conditions of people influence the Importance of money.
For poor person, the value of certain amount of money is quite high
as compared to rich.
Money is a significant motivator at lower level of employees
level however money may not be a significant factor for senior
executives who have already fulfilled their lower level needs.
Employees are concerned not only wih the amount of money paid to
them, but it should be fair and equitable as paid to that of othe
employees of same level or status.
Social attitudes towards money and wealth also decides the
motivation to earn more and more.
Motivational Theories:
Maslows-Hierarchy of Needs Theory: This theory was proposed by
Abraham Maslow and is based on the assumption that people are
motivated by a series of five universal needs. These needs are
ranked, according to the order in which they influence human
behavior, in hierarchical fashion
Physiological needs are deemed to be the lowest- level needs.
These needs include the needs such as food & water .
o So long as physiological needs are unsatisfied, they exist as
a driving or motivating force in a person's life. A hungry person
has a felt need. This felt need sets up both psychological and
physical tensions that manifest themselves in overt behaviors
directed at reducing those tensions (getting something to eat).
Once the hunger is sated, the tension is reduced, and the need for
food ceases to motivate. At this point (assuming that other
physiological requirements are also satisfied) the next higher
order need becomes the motivating need.
Thus, safety needs -- the needs for shelter and security --
become the motivators of human behavior.
o Safety needs include a desire for security, stability,
dependency, protection, freedom from fear and anxiety, and a need
for structure, order, and law.. In the workplace this needs
translates into a need for at least a minimal degree of employment
security; the knowledge that we cannot be fired on a whim and that
appropriate levels of effort and productivity will ensure continued
employment.
Social needs include the need for belongingness and love.
o Generally, as gregarious creatures, human have a need to
belong. In the workplace, this need may be satisfied by an ability
to interact with one's coworkers and perhaps to be able to work
collaboratively with these colleagues.
After social needs have been satisfied, ego and esteem needs
become the motivating needs.
o Esteem needs include the desire for self-respect, self-esteem,
and the esteem of others. When focused externally, these needs also
include the desire for reputation, prestige, status, fame, glory,
dominance, recognition, attention, importance, and
appreciation.
The highest need in Maslow's hierarchy is that of
self-actualization; the need for self-realization, continuous
self-development, and the process of becoming all that a person is
capable of becoming.
Alderfer's Hierarchy of Motivational Needs : Clayton Alderfer
reworked Maslow's Need Hierarchy to align it more closely with
empirical research. Alderfer's theory is called the ERG theory --
Existence, Relatedness, and Growth.
Existence refers to our concern with basic material existence
requirements; what Maslow called physiological and safety
needs.
Relatedness refers to the desire we have for maintaining
interpersonal relationships; similar to Maslow's social/love need,
and the external component of his esteem need.
Growth refers to an intrinsic desire for personal development;
the intrinsic component of Maslow's esteem need, and
self-actualization
Alderfer's ERG theory differs from Maslow's Need Hierarchy
insofar as ERG theory demonstrates that more than one need may be
operative at the same time. ERG theory does not assume a rigid
hierarchy where a lower need must be substantially satisfied before
one can move on.
Alderfer also deals with frustration-regression. That is, if a
higher-order need is frustrated, an individual then seeks to
increase the satisfaction of a lower-order need.
According to Maslow an individual would stay at a certain need
level until that need was satisfied.
ERG theory counters by noting that when a higher- order need
level is frustrated the individuals desire to increase a lower-
level need takes place. Inability to satisfy a need for social
interaction, for instance, might increase the desire for more money
or better working conditions.
So frustration can lead to a regression to a lower need.
In summary, ERG theory argues, like Maslow, that satisfied
lower- order needs lead to the desire to satisfy higher-order
needs; but multiple needs can be operating as motivators at the
same time, and frustration in attempting to satisfy a higher- level
need can result in regression to a lower- level need.
Alderfer's Hierarchy of Motivational Needs
Level of Need
Definition
Properties
Growth
Impel a person to make creative or productive effects on himself
and his environment
Satisfied through using capabilities in engaging problems;
creates a greater sense of wholeness and fullness as a human
being
Relatedness
Involve relationships with significant others
Satisfied by mutually sharing thoughts and feelings; acceptance,
confirmation, under- standing, and influence are elements
Existence
Includes all of the various forms of material and psychological
desires
When divided among people one person's gain is another's loss if
resources are limited
A Reorganization of Maslow's and Alderfer's Hierarchies
Level
Introversion
Extroversion
Growth
Self-Actualization (development of competencies [knowledge,
attitudes, and skills] and character)
Transcendence (assisting in the development of others'
competencies and character; relationships to the unknown,
unknowable)
Other (Relatedness)
Personal identification with group, significant others
(Belongingness)
Value of person by group (Esteem)
Self (Existence)
Physiological, biological (including basic emotional needs)
Connectedness, security
Two-factor Theory: Herzberg's Two Factor Theory, also known as
the Motivation-Hygiene Theory, was derived from a study designed to
test the concept that people have two sets of needs:
1. their needs as animals to avoid pain
2. their needs as humans to grow psychologically.
Herzberg study
Herzberg's study consisted of a series of interviews that sought
to elicit responses to the questions:
(1) Recall a time when you felt exceptionally good about your
job. Why did you feel that way about the job? Did this feeling
affect your job performance in any way? Did this feeling have an
impact on your personal relationships or your well- being?
(2) Recall a time on the job that resulted in negative feelings?
Describe the sequence of events that resulted in these negative
feelings.
Research Resultlts : it appeared from the research, that the
things making people happy on the job and those making them unhappy
had two separate themes.
1)SATISFACTION (MOTIVATION): Five factors stood out as strong
determiners of job satisfaction:
achievement
recognition
work itself
responsibility
advancement
The last three factors were found to be most important for
bringing about lasting changes of attitude. It should be noted,
that recognition refers to recognition for achievement as opposed
to recognition in the human relations sense.
2)DISSATISFACTION (HYGIENE): The determinants of job
dissatisfaction were found to be:
company policy
administrative policies
supervision
salary
interpersonal relations
working conditions
From the results Herzberg concluded that the replies people gave
when they felt good about their jobs were significantly different
from the replies given when they felt bad. Certain characteristics
tend to be consistently related to job satisfaction and others to
job dissatisfaction. Intrinsic factors, such as work itself ,
responsibility and achievement seem to be related to job
satisfaction.
Respondents who felt good about their work tended to attribute
these factors to themselves. On the other dissatisfied respondents
tended to cite extrinsic factors such as supervision, pay, company
policies and working condition. Herzberg proposed that his findings
indicated the existence of a dual continuum: the opposite of
satisfaction is No satisfaction and the opposite of Dissatisfaction
is No Dissatisfaction.
According to Herzberg, the factors leading to Job satisfaction
are separate and distinct form those that lead to job
dissatisfaction. Therefore, managers who seek to eliminate factors
that can create job dissatisfaction may bring about peace but not
necessarily motivation. They will be placating their workforce
rather than motivating them.
As a result, conditions surrounding the job such as quality of
supervision, pay , company policies, physical working conditions
relations with others and job security were characterized by
Herzberg as hygiene factors, when theyre adequate, people will not
be dissatisfied ; neither will they be satisfied.
If we want to motivate people on their jobs, Herzberg suggested
emphasizing factors associated with the work itself or to outcomes
directly derived form it, such as promotional opportunities,
opportunities for personal growth, recognition, responsibility and
achievement. These are the characteristics that people find
intrinsically rewarding.
xpectancy Theory
In recent years, probably the most popular motivational theory
has been the Expectancy Theory (also known as the
Valence-Instrumentality- Expectancy Theory). Although there are a
number of theories found with this general title, they all have
their roots in Victor Vroom's 1964 work on motivation.
ALTERNATIVES AND CHOICES:
Vroom's theory assumes that behavior results from conscious
choices among alternatives whose purpose it is to maximize pleasure
and minimize pain. The key elements to this theory are referred to
as Expectancy (E), Instrumentality (I), and Valence (V). Critical
to the understanding of the theory is the understanding that each
of these factors represents a belief.
ALTERNATIVES AND C
Vroom's theory suggests that the individual will consider the
outcomes associated with various levels of performance (from an
entire spectrum of performance possibilities), and elect to pursue
the level that generates the greatest reward for him or her.
Expectancy: "What's the probability that, if I work very hard,
I'll be able to do a good job?"
Expectancy refers to the strength of a person's belief about
whether or not a particular job performance is attainable.
Assuming all other things are equal, an employee will be
motivated to try a task, if he or she believes that it can be done.
This expectancy of performance may be thought of in terms of
probabilities ranging from zero (a case of "I can't do it!") to 1.0
("I have no doubt whatsoever that I can do this job!")
A number of factors can contribute to an employee's expectancy
perceptions:
the level of confidence in the skills required for the task
the amount of support that may be expected from superiors and
subordinates
the quality of the materials and equipment
the availability of pertinent information
Previous success at the task has also been shown to strengthen
expectancy beliefs.
Instrumentality: "What's the probability that, if I do a good
job, that there will be some kind of outcome in it for me?"
If an employee believes that a high level of performance will be
instrumental for the acquisition of outcomes which may be
gratifying, then the employee will place a high value on performing
well.
Vroom defines Instrumentality as a probability belief
linking one outcome (a high level of performance, for example)
to another outcome (a reward).
Instrumentality may range from a probability of 1.0 (meaning
that the attainment of the second outcome -- the reward -- is
certain if the first outcome -- excellent job performance -- is
attained) through zero (meaning there is no likely relationship
between the first outcome and the second).
An example of zero instrumentality would be exam grades that
were distributed randomly (as opposed to be awarded on the basis of
excellent exam performance). Commission pay schemes are designed to
make employees perceive that performance is positively instrumental
for the acquisition of money.
For management to ensure high levels of performance, it must tie
desired outcomes (positive valence) to high performance, and ensure
that the connection is communicated to employees.
The VIE theory holds that people have preferences among various
outcomes. These preferences tend to reflect a person's underlying
need state.
Valence: "Is the outcome I get of any value to me?"
The term Valence refers to the emotional orientations people
hold with respect to outcomes (rewards). An outcome is positively
valent if an employee would prefer having it to not having it. An
outcome that the employee would rather avoid ( fatigue, stress,
noise, layoffs) is negatively valent. Outcomes towards which the
employee appears indifferent are said to have zero valence.
Valences refer to the level of satisfaction people expect to get
from the outcome (as opposed to the actual satisfaction they get
once they have attained the reward).
Vroom suggests that an employee's beliefs about Expectancy,
Instrumentality, and Valence interact psychologically to create a
motivational force such that the employee acts in ways that bring
pleasure and avoid pain.
People elect to pursue levels of job performance that they
believe will maximize their overall best interests (their
subjective expected utility).`
There will be no motivational forces acting on an employee if
any of these three conditions hold:
(1) the person does not believe that he/she can successfully
perform the required task
(2) the person believes that successful task performance will
not be associated with positively valent outcomes
(3) the person believes that outcomes associated with successful
task completion will be negatively valent (have no value for that
person).
MF= Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valance
McClellands Theory of Needs: According to David McClelland,
regardless of culture or gender, people are driven by three
motives:
achievement,
affiliation, and
influence.
Since McClelland's first experiments, over 1,000 studies
relevant to achievement motivation have been conducted. These
studies strongly support the theory.
Achievement : The need for achievement is characterized by the
wish to take responsibility for finding solutions to problems,
master complex tasks, set goals, get feedback on level of
success.
Affiliation : The need for affiliation is characterized by a
desire to belong, an enjoyment of teamwork, a concern about
interpersonal relationships, and a need to reduce uncertainty.
Power :The need for power is characterized by a drive to control
and influence others, a need to win arguments, a need to persuade
and prevail
According to McClelland, the presence of these motives or drives
in an individual indicates a predisposition to behave in certain
ways. Therefore, from a manager's perspective, recognizing which
need is dominant in any particular individual affects the way in
which that person can be motivated.
People with achievement motives are motivated by standards of
excellence, delineated roles and responsibilities and concrete,
timely feedback. Those with affiliation motives are motivated when
they can accomplish things with people they know and trust. And the
power motive is activated when people are allowed to have an
impact, impress those in power, or beat competitors.
Theory of X and Theory of Y: Douglas McGregor observed two
diametrically opposing view points of managers about their
employees, one is negative called Theory of X and one is positive
called Theory of Y
a) Theory of X : Following are the assumptions of managers who
believe in the Theory of X in regard to their employees.
Employees dislike work; if possible avoid the same
Employees must be coerced, controlled or threatened to do the
work
Employees avoid responsibilities and seek formal direction
Most employees consider security of job, most important of all
other factors in the job and have very little ambition
b) Theory of Y: Following are the assumptions of managers who
believe in the Theory of Y in regard to their employees.
Employees love work as play or rest
Employees are self directed and self controlled and committed to
the organizational objectives
Employees accept and seek responsibilities
Innovative spirit is not confined to managers alone, some
employees also possess it.
Theory of X assumes Maslows lower level needs dominate in
employees. Whereas Theory of Y, assumes Maslows higher level needs
dominate in employees.
Goal Setting Theory : Edwin Locke proposed that setting specific
goals will improve motivation. Salient features of this theory are
the following:
Specific goal fixes the needs of resources and efforts
It increases performance
Difficult goals result higher performance than easy job
Better feedback of results leads to better to better performance
than lack of feed back.
Participation of employees in goal has mixed result
Participation of setting goal, however, increases acceptance of
goal and involvements.
Goal setting theory has identified two factors which influences
the performance. These are given below;
o Goal commitment
o Self efficiency
Goal commitment: Goal setting theory presupposes that the
individual is committed to the goal. This commitment depends on the
following:
o Goals are made public
o Individual has an internal locus of control
o Goals are self-set
Self Efficiency : Self Efficiency is the belief or self
confidence, that he/she is capable of performing task. Persons with
high self-efficiency put up extra-efforts when they face
challenges. In the case of low self-efficiency level they will
lessen or even abandon when meeting challenges.
Reinforcement Theory: This theory focus its attention as to what
controls behaviour. In contrast to goal setting theory, which is
cognitive approach focus attention on what initiates behaviour.
Behaviour, as per cognitive approach is initiated by internal
events. Reinforcement theory argues that behaviour is reinforced
and controlled by external events. The classical conditioning
proposed by Pavlov which we have already studied in our earlier
lessons explains this in a better way.
Equity theory: This theory of motivation centres around the
principle of balance or equity. According to this theory level of
motivation in an individual is related to his or her perception of
equity and farness practiced by management. Greater the fairness
perceived higher the motivation and vice versa. In this assessment
of fairness, employee makes comparison of input in the job ( in
terms of contribution) with that of outcome (in terms of
compensation) and compares the same with that of another colleague
of equivalent cadre.
CHARECTERSTICS
1. Motivation is a psychological Concept :-Motivation should
come from inside each individual. There are two desiring factors in
motivation-(a) Fundamental needs, such as food, clothes and shelter
and (b) Ego-satisfaction including self-esleem, recognition from
others, opportunities for achievements, self-development and self
actualization which act as powerful though unconscious, motivator
of behaviour. Inner motivation can be more decisur for behaviour
than any external influence.
2. The whole Individual is motivated, not part of Him:-A
person's basic needs determine to a great extent what he will try
to do at any given time. All these need are inter-related because
each individual is an integrated organised whole.
3. Motivation is an unending Process:-Man is a social animal. As
a social animal he has innumerable wants which induce him to work.
If one basic need is adequately satisfied for a given individual it
loses power as a motivator and does into determine his current
behaviour but at the same time other s needs continue to emerge.
Wants are innumerable and cannot be satisfied at on time. It is an
unending process so the process of motivation is also unending to
induce the person to satisfy is innumerable wants.
4. Frustration of Basic Needs Makes a Man Sick:-If anybody fails
in trying to mt a need which the feels is essential for him, he
becomes to some extent mentally ill and such frustrated man cannot
be motivated any further until his essential need is satisfied.
5. Goals are Motivators:-Goals and motives are inseparable. Man
works to achieve the goals. A soon as the goal is achieved he would
be no longer interested in work. Therefore, it is very essential
for the management to know his goal to push him to work.
6. The self-concept as a Unifyings Force :-According to
Geller-man unifying forces run through each individual's history.
Unifying force means the drive to actuals his our image of himself.
The outline of a person's self image are fairly well checked in
early childhood and there after do not act inarily change for
example, a child who easily seems himself as a leader, will if
possible try to behave tt way in later life. Thus, two things that
individual is always trying to do are (a) to act like the person,
he things he is , and (b) to get what he things, he can.
what is motivation?
According to Greenberg and Baron this definition could be
divided into three main parts. The first part looks at arousal that
deals with the drive, or energy behind
individual (s) action. People turn to be guided by their
interest in making a good impression on others, doing interesting
work and being successful in what they do. The second part
referring to the choice people make and the direction their
behaviour takes. The last part deals with maintaining behaviour
clearly defining how long people have to persist at attempting to
meet their goals.
It can be observed from the above definitions that, motivation
in general, is more or less
basically concern with factors or events that moves, leads, and
drives certain human action or inaction over a given period of time
given the prevailing conditions.
Role of financial motivation:
The potential role of money as (a) conditioned reinforce (2) an
incentive which is capable of satisfying needs (3) an anxiety
reducer (4) serves to erase feelings of dissatisfaction (motivation
and organisational climate.
Employee satisfaction: This refers to the positive or negative
aspects of employees altitude towards their jobs or some features
of the job.
Organizational Goals: A concept, which refers to the focus of
attention and decision-making among employees of a sub-unit.
Organizing: This involves the complete understanding of the
goals of organization, the
necessity of proper co-ordination, and the environmental factors
that influence the goals and employees within the organization.
Employee attitudes: Mental state of readiness for motive
arousal.
Performance: the act of performing; of doing something
successfully; using knowledge as distinguished from merely
possessing it; A performance comprises an event in which
generally one group of people (the performer or performers)
behave in a particular way for another group of people.
Efficiency: The ratio of the output to the input of any system.
Economic efficiency is a
general term for the value assigned to a situation by some
measure designed to capture theamount of waste or "friction" or
other undesirable and undesirable economic features present.
Motivational theories:
In this thesis discussion on some of the motivational theories
will include Alders (ERG theory), Maslow (Need theory), Vrooms
(Expectancy theory), Adams (Social equity theoty), Taylor
(productivity theory), Herzberg (Two factor theory), Mac Gregory
(theory X and Y), Geogopalaus (path goal theory) and skinner
(Reward theory).
ALDERS:
Alder asserts in his Existence relatedness and growth theory
commonly known as the ERG theory that there are three basic human
needs: Existence, relatedness and growth, which must be meet by an
employee to enable him, increase performance.
MASLOW:
Maslow (1943) suggests that human needs can be classified into
five categories and that
these categories can be arranged in a hierarchy of importance.
These include physiological, security, belongings, esteem and
self-actualisation needs.
According to him a person is motivated first and foremost to
satisfy physiological needs. As long as the employees remain
unsatisfied, they turn to be motivated only to fulfil them. When
physiological needs are satisfied they cease to act as primary
motivational factors and the individual moves up the hierarchy and
seek to satisfy security needs. This process continues until
finally selfactualisation needs are satisfied.
VROOMS:
Vroom (1964) proposes that people are motivated by how much they
want something and
how likely they think they are to get it he suggest that
motivation leads to efforts and the
efforts combined with employees ability together with
environment factors which interplays resulting to performance. This
performance interns leads to various outcomes, each of which has an
associated value called Valence.
ADAMS:
Adams (1965) on his part suggests that people are motivated to
seek social equity in the
rewards they receive for high performance. According to him the
outcome from job includes; pay, recognition, promotion, social
relationship and intrinsic reward .to get these rewards various
inputs needs to be employed by the employees to the job as time,
experience, efforts, education and loyalty.
TAYLOR:
Taylor (1911) observed the soldering by employees, which is a
situation whereby workers work less than full capacity. He argued
that soldering occurs due to the fact employees fear that
performing high will lead to increasing productivity, which might
cause them to lose their jobs.
HERZBERG:
Herzberg suggested that there are factors in a job, which causes
satisfaction. These he called intrinsic factors (motivators) and
other factor he refers to as dissatisfies (hygiene
factors).According to him if the motivational factors are met, the
employee becomes motivated and hence performs higher.
MAC GREGORY:
Mac Gregory suggested that there exist two sets of employees
(lazy and ambitious
employees) With lazy employees representing theory X, hard and
ambitious workers
representing Y. According to him the lazy employee should be
motivated to increase
performance in an organization.
Geogopalaus path Goal theory:
Geogopalaus path Goal theory of motivation states that, if a
worker sees high productivity as a path leading to the attainment
of one or more of his personal goals, he will turn to be a high
producer. But if he sees low productivity as the path leading to
the attainment of his goal he will turn to be a low producer and
hence needs to be motivated.
This discussion on the above motivational theories explains the
fact that the concept of
employees motivation has been a critical factor addressed by
previous authors as what
determines the core competence of every organisation in
achieving a competitive position.
THE PROCESS OF EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION:
Fulfilment and Re-definition of needs.
tension or drive to fulfil or need.
goal directed Behaviour.
The above 3 steps are repeated again and again.
QUESTIONNAIRE
NAME : -
DESIGNATION :-
QUALIFICATION : -
DEPARTMENT :-
EXPERIENCE :-
1. Are you satisfied with the existing working conditions of the
organization?
a) Highly satisfied
b) Satisfied
c) Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied
d) Dissatisfied
e) Highly dissatisfied
2. Are you satisfied with your designation?
a) Highly satisfied
b) Satisfied
c) Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied
d) Dissatisfied
e) Highly dissatisfied
3. According to your task, are you satisfied with the
responsibility and authority given to you?
a) Highly satisfied
b) Satisfied
c) Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied
d) Dissatisfied
e) Highly dissatisfied
4. How do you find the working environment in the
organization?
a) Friendly
b) Encouraging
c) Competitive
d) Cool
e) Disputed
5. Do you get clear communication from your superiors?
a) Almost always
b) Mostly
c) Sometimes
d) Rarely
e) Not at all
6. What is the attitude of superiors towards your problems?
a) Hostile
b) Indifferent
c) Encouraging
d) Understanding
e) Problem Solving
7. Does you superiors involve you while taking decisions?
OR To what extent do you think that when decisions are being
made about certain work that you are to do, you are asked for your
ideas?
a) Almost always
b) Mostly
c) Sometimes
d) Rarely
e) Not at all
8. How often do superiors invite their subordinates for an
informal discussion?
a) Almost always
b) Mostly
c) Sometimes
d) Rarely
e) Not at all
9. Are you satisfied with the relationship that your colleagues
are having with you?
a) Highly satisfied
b) Satisfied
c) Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied
d) Dissatisfied
e) Highly dissatisfied
10. According to your nature of job, are you satisfied with your
salary package?
a) Highly satisfied
b) Satisfied
c) Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied
d) Dissatisfied
e) Highly dissatisfied
11. Are you satisfied with the present performance appraisal
procedure?
a) Highly satisfied
b) Satisfied
c) Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied
d) Dissatisfied
e) Highly dissatisfied
12. Are you satisfied with the employees benefit, security &
welfare schemes introduced by the Organization?
a) Highly satisfied
b) Satisfied
c) Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied
d) Dissatisfied
e) Highly dissatisfied
13. To what extent do the superiors and the colleagues take
pains to help an employee who wants to learn more about his
job?
a) To a great extent
b) To a considerable extent
c) To some extent
d) To a little extent
e) Not at all
14.To what extent are people in the higher levels aware of the
problems of the lower levels in the organization?
a) To a great extent
b) To a considerable extent
c) To some extent
d) To a little extent
e) Not at all
15. Do you think company is planning your career development
programmes?
a) Almost always
b) Mostly
c) Sometimes
d) Rarely
e) Not at all
16. How often are the rewards (such as praise and promotions)
given strictly on the basis of valid reasons?
a) Almost always
b) Mostly
c) Sometimes
d) Rarely
e) Not at all
17. Do you receive the adequate respect/ recognition for your
extra efforts?
a) Almost always
b) Mostly
c) Sometimes
d) Rarely
e) Not at all
18.There is a general feeling that grievances of the employees
are handled properly. To what extent do you agree with this
statement?
a) Strongly agree
b) Agree
c) Neither agree nor disagree
d) Disagree
e) Strongly disagree
MONEY AS A MOTIVATOR
The importance of money as a motivator has been consistently
downgraded by most behavioral scientists. They prefer to point out
the value of challenging jobs, goals, and participation on
decisions making, feedback, cohesive work teams, and other non
monetary factors as stimulants to employee motivation. We agree
otherwise here that money is the crucial incentives to work
motivation. As a medium can purchase the numerous, need satisfying
things they desire.
Furthermore, money also performs the function of a scorecard,
by
which employees assess the value that the organization places on
their services and by which employees can compare their value to
others. Money improved in employees performance.
MONEY DOESNT MOTIVATES MOST EMPLOYEES TODAY
Money can motivate some people under some conditions, so the
issue is not really whether or not money can motivate. The answer
to that is it can! the more relevant question is does money
motivate most employees in the workforce today to higher
performance?
The answer to this question, well argue, is No.
For money to motivate an individuals performance, certain
conditions must be met.
First, money must be important to the individuals. Second, money
must be perceived by the individual as being a direct reward for
performance. Third, the marginal amount of money offered for the
individual, as being significant must perceive the performance.
Finally, management must have the discretion to reward high
performers with more money.
Money is not important to all employees. High achievers for
instance, are intrinsically motivated. Money should have impact on
these people. Similarly, money is relevant to those individuals
with strong lower-order needs, but for most of the workforce,
lower-order needs are substantially satisfied.
Money would motivate if employees perceived a string linkage
between performance and rewards in organizations, unfortunately,
pay increase are far more often determined by levels of skills and
experience, community pay standards, the ational cost of living
index, and the
organizations current and future financial prospects than by
each employees level of performance.
So might be theoretically capable of motivating employees to
higher levels of performance, but most managers are not given
enough flexibility to do much about it.
PPT
1. MOTIVATION
2. DEFINITION
3. THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
4. THEORIES OF MOTIVATION (CONTD.)
5. NEED HIERARCHY THEORY
6. THEORY X & THEORY Y
7. HERZBERGS TWO-FACTOR THEORY
8. ERG THEORY
9. McCLELLANDS THEORY OF NEEDS
GOAL SETTING THEORY
11. EQUITY THEORY
12. EXPECTANCY THEORY
MOTIVATION
11. EQUITY THEORY
12. EXPECTANCY THEORY
MOTIVATION
DEFINITION
THE PROCESS THAT ACCOUNTS FOR AN INDIVIDUALS INTENSITY,
DIRECTION, AND PERSISTENCE OF EFFORT TOWARD ATTAINING A GOAL
THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
CONTENT THEORY
NEED HIERARCHY THEORY
THEORY X & THEORY Y
TWO-FACTOR THEORY
ERG THEORY
McCLELLANDS THEORY OF NEEDS
PROCESS THEORY
GOAL SETTING THEORY
EQUITY THEORY
EXPECTANCY THEORY
NEED HIERARCHY THEORY
PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS
SAFETY NEEDS
NEEDS FOR BELONGINGNESS
ESTEEM NEEDS
NEED FOR SELF-ACTUALIZATION
THEORY X
X EMPLOYEES DISLIKE WORK
THEY MUST BE CONTROLLED TO ACHIEVE GOALS
THEY AVOID RESPONSIBILITIES
MOST PUT SECURITY ABOVE ALL
THEORY Y
Y EMPLOYEES LIKE WORK
PEOPLE WILL EXERCISE SELF-CONTROL
THEY SEEK RESPONSIBILITIES
THEY ARE INNOVATIVE
HERZBERGS TWO-FACTOR THEORY
INTRINSIC FACTORS ARE RELATED TO JOB SATISFACTION, WHILE
EXTRINSIC FACTORS ARE ASSOCIATED WITH DISSATISFACTION
ERG THEORY
THERE ARE THREE GROUPS OF CORE NEEDS:
EXISTENCE
RELATEDNESS
GROWTH
McCLELLANDS THEORY OF NEEDS
NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENT
NEED FOR POWER
NEED FOR AFFILIATION
GOAL SETTING THEORY
SPECIFIC AND DIFFICULT GOALS WITH FEEDBACK LEAD TO HIGHER
PERFORMANCE
EQUITY THEORY
INDIVIDUALS COMPARE THEIR JOB INPUTS AND OUTCOMES WITH THOSE OF
OTHERS AND THEN RESPOND SO AS TO ELIMINATE ANY INEQUITIES
EXPECTANCY THEORY
THE STRENGTH OF A TENDENCY TO ACT IN A CERTAIN WAY DEPENDS ON AN
EXPECTATION THAT THE ACT WILL BE FOLLOWED BY A GIVEN OUTCOME AND ON
THE ATTRACTIVENESS OF THAT OUTCOME TO THE INDIVIDUAL.