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Management Information System Unit 14

Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 284

Unit 14 Database Management Systems

Structure:

14.1 Introduction

Objectives

14.2 Types of Database Users

Database administrator

Database designers

End users

System analyst and application programmers

DBMS system designers and implementers

Tool developers

Operators and maintenance personnel

14.3 Types of Databases

14.4 Database Management Systems (DBMS)

Functions

Advantages

Disadvantages

14.5 Designing of DBMS

Data, information and its structure

Entity, instance and attributes

Data and mapping

Database architecture

Database languages and interfaces

14.6 Data Warehouse and Data Mining

14.7 Summary

14.8 Glossary

14.9 Terminal Questions

14.10 Answers

14.11 Case Let

14.1 Introduction

In the previous unit, you have learnt about the evolution of the information

systems function and the various roles and challenges faced by a CIO. In

this unit you will learn about the Database Management Systems (DBMS)

that are essential for the maintenance of information and that help in

accessing the information for analysis purpose.

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Table 14.1 depicts the concepts of DBMS.

Table 14.1: Concepts of DBMS

Data Data is a raw fact that can be recorded and has specificmeaning.

DBMS(DatabaseManagementSystem)

Software programme which effectively controls thecreation, maintenance and use databases in the business.

What does itconsist of?

Collection of related data.

Set of programmes to access those data.

A complete definition or description of the databasestructures and constraints.

Where is DBMS

used?

All areas where computers are used, including business,

engineering, law, education, banking, hotel and airlinereservation.

Examples ofDBMS

Multimedia databases can store pictures, video clips andsound messages.

Geographic information system can store and analysemaps, weather data and satellite images.

Objectives:

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

evaluate the types of database users

explain database management systems

describe the designing of DBMS describe data warehouse and data mining

14.2 Types of Database Users

Different persons involved in the design, use and maintenance of a large

database are:

Database Administrator (DBA)

Database Designers (DBD)

End users

System analysts and application programmers

DBMS designers and implementers

Tool developers

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14.2.1 Database Administrator (DBA)

Database is one of the primary resources used by employees of a businessunit to make sense of the business. Since it is used by many, it has to be

protected from unintentional deletion of data, non-authorised use and

duplicate data. Database Administrator (DBA) is specialist who is employed

to maintain, develop and secure the organisations database using standard

rules.

Following are a few responsibilities of a DBA:

DBA is authorised to monitor and access the databases.

DBA is responsible for producing, executing changing and maintaining

the database.

DBA allows database to be utilised by the users.

DBA defines the systematic procedure to recover lost data.

14.2.2 Database designers (DBD)

A DBD designs the database structure to meet the requirements of the

organisation.

14.2.3 End users

End users are those who access the database, query and update the

database and generate various reports. The database primarily exists for

their use. End users are of two types:

o Casual usersThey are the users accessing the DBMS with Structured

Query language SQL queries.

o Uninstructed usersThey are the users accessing the DBMS through

menus.

14.2.4 System analysts and application programmers

System analysts gather information regarding the requirements of the end

users and make specifications for already worked out transactions.

The specifications of the application programmes are developed by the

system analyst. The system analysts are mainly responsible for debugging,

testing, and maintaining the developed programmes.

14.2.5 DBMS system designers and implementers

Implementers implement the DBMS modules and interfaces as a software

package.

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System designers

The system designers design the DBMS application programmes. Thedesigns are done according to the requirements of the organisation. The

data are fed in the designed application program by the staff and it is

retrieved by the management so as to take decision on the information

obtained through the DBMS. If any new type of data has to be included the

designers of DBMS will restructure it by a simply adding a column.

14.2.6 Tool developers

Tools are the optional packages of the software usually belonging to the

third party. They include packages for design, monitoring the performance

including the graphical interface of the database. The software tools are

developed by the vendors and sold in the marketplace. The vendors areusually called as tool developers.

14.2.7 Operators and maintenance personnel

They are system administration personnel who are responsible for the

actual running and maintenance of the hardware and software environment

for the smooth working of the DB system.

14.3 Types of Databases

The following databases are commonly used in the organisation.

Flat File

Hierarchical database

Relational database

Operational database

Distributed database

External database

Object oriented database

Flat File

Flat files consist of set ofstrings in one or more files that can be taken apart

to get the information. The data can be separated by a simple comma for a

small data store and or by a tab if the data is complex. The lockingmechanism can detect when a file is deleted or modified. For instance, a flat

model database containing only zip codes. Within the database, there will

only be one column and each new row will contain a new zip code.

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Hierarchical database

Hierarchical database resembles a tree structure. In this database, each linkis nested in order to keep the data organised in a particular order on a same

level list. For instance, a hierarchal database of sales may list each days

sales as a separate file. Within this nested file all of the sales for the day are

stored.

Relational database

The relational database represents the database as a collection of relations

having a set of rows and columns, each of which is assigned a unique

name. Relation consists of a relational schema (structure of table) and

relational instance (data in a table at the particular time). There is a close

correspondence between the concept of table and the mathematicalconcept of relation.

In relational model we use certain conventions. For instance, a row is called

a tuple and a column is termed as an attribute. The domain of a relational

schema is a pool of legal values.

Student (Register No, Name, Add, Phone, D.O.B, GPA)

In this example, Student is a relation and the attributes (columns) are

Register No, Name, Add, Phone and D.O.B. A possible tuple for the Student

relation is (MBA02C1101', ' Nupur Rastogi, '440, 1 -main, 2nd cross, Airport

Road, Kodenahalli, Bangalore-560008', 25256789, 11-Jan-1986).

The domain of each attribute is as follows:

Register no. : Alphanumeric characters

Name : Characters

Add : Alphanumeric characters

Phone : Limit set to 13 digits

D.O.B : Date, month, year

Characteristics of relation are:

An attribute structure containing many data in relation with them neednot be ordered.

Each attribute in the relation is an entity.

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Operational database

As the name suggests it supports the business operations of theorganisation, by storing all the details of current business transactions. For

example a customer data base contains all information pertaining to name,

products purchased, address, date of purchase and loyalty programs

enrolled to etc. Other examples are employee database, physical assets

database and inventory database. These databases could be built using

Microsoft Access DBMS or Oracle DBMS or MySql DBMS. The other names

of this database are transaction database, production database and Subject

Area Database (SADB).

Distributed Database

A distributed database allows parts of it to be duplicated and circulated tonetwork servers called nodes at different locations. The network servers

could be on the extranet, intranet or the internet network. A distributed

database could be an operational or a hypermedia database (explained

below)

The advantage of this distribution is that branches, or subsidiaries or

workgroups can view and edit only those databases that pertain to their

scope of operations. Also breaking the database into parts enables faster

retrieval, lower storage requirements and update operations to the database

of the node. The main advantage of this database is that if one of the nodes

shut down the business remains unaffected and continues to provide

services to stakeholders. Similarly when disasters occur due to natural or

unnatural causes the data loss in the distributed database is minimised as

data from multiple locations can be consolidated to build database.

But the main challenge data accuracy. Changes made to one database

must be updated to other locations wherever applicable to reflect the latest

data. This issue can be solved by replication or duplication. In replication

special software is used compare the various interrelated databases at

different locations and find if any changes have been made. The changes

are then updated into each related databases. The complexity and timetaken increases as the number and size of the distributed databases

increases.

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In duplication, one database is considered as the master database. The

contents of this database are periodically copied into other locations. Allchanges have to be made to the master database.

External Databases

External databases refer to the wealth of information available for free or for

payment on the internet. It could be statistical information from government

portals or newspapers, magazines, scholarly articles and full text databases.

To search for information on these databases you use search engines like

Google or Bing or Yahoo.

Object oriented database (OODB)

An object oriented database incorporates all objects. It is also referred to

Object database management System (ODBMS).

Objects consists the following:

Attributes: These are the data that defines the objects characteristics.

The data are very simple and may be numbers, strings, and integers

etc. for referring an object.

Methods: This defines the object behaviour and is also referred to as

procedures. For example if you have created a Car Object with name,

manufacturer and year of make. You can create a procedure to that

requires you to make entry to all 3 characteristics of the object.

o Hypermedia Database

A hypermedia database is an OODB of hyperlinked multimedia

content such as video, audio, photographs, text and graphics. For

example a website is a hypermedia database as it contains

interrelated content of webpages written in HTML, images, audio and

video. The DBMS is webserver software which responds to your

browser requests for files or webpages. Software such as

ColdFusion can be used to create such a database

Self Assessments Questions

1. A _______ could be a relational or a hypermedia database.

2. The ______________model represents the database as a collection of

relations having a set of rows and columns, each of which is assigned

a unique name.

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Activity 1:

Create an Excel sheet for accepting data for the following fields S. No.,

Name, Address, Pin Code, and Phone No. Date of birth, Occupation,

Remarks.

Enter your friends particulars for the above fields and find out as to how

this simple exercise is useful in understanding the concept of a database.

Hint:Open an Excel sheet types the headings in the cells of row1 column

1 and type the related data in the respective cells according to the

heading written. Continue feeding row 2 column 2 and under these type

the details.

14.4 Database Management System (DBMS)

In the previous section, you learnt about various types of databases. You

will now learn about DBMS.

14.4.1 Functions

The basic functions of DBMS in addition to centralised databases are:

1. Distributed query processing: Distributed query processing is referred to

the capability to access the remote sites and transmit queries and data

between the other sites through the communication network.

2. Data tracing: DBMS should have the capability to keep track of thedistribution of data, and replication by maintaining DBMS catalogue.

3. Distributed transaction management: DBMS transactions access data

from more than one site and synchronise the access to distributed data

and maintain integrity of the overall database.

4. Distributed database recovery: The capability to recover from other site

crashes and from new failures.

5. Security: Security must be in line with security policy that the

management formulates.

6. Distributed directory management: A directory contains information

(metadata) about data in the database. The directory may be global for

the entire DB or local for each site. These functions increase the

complexity of a DBMS over a centralised DBMS.

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14.5.1 Data, information and its structure

MIS is an important resource required to execute the operations of thebusiness unit. Business decision to be taken by the managers depends on

the valuable insight from companys data through MIS. The formats have

been changed but the managers still rely on these systems to perform their

day-to-day activities. MIS managers are in charge of the systems

development within the firm.

Data and information

Usually people use data and information as a synonym of each other but

they actually convey very distinct meaning. The following provides a brief

explanation on data and information.

Data is a raw fact which has been collected for a specific purpose. Data can

be anything from binary digits to a combination of alphabets and numeric

characters. Data can be any of these following forms:

Linguistic expressions (e.g., name, age, address, date, ownership)

Symbolic expressions (e.g., traffic signs)

Mathematical expressions (e.g., E = mc2)

Signals (e.g., electromagnetic waves)

For example, the data name, age, address, date, ownership, traffic signs,

equations (e.g., E=mc2), electromagnetic waves, etc. are collected for a

specific purpose which may serve one or more activities of the same

domain.

The fact describes the elements such as opinions, comments or description

of an event or object. When this data is processed it becomes a meaningful

piece of data which can be used for further action.

Data that has been processed is referred to as information. Information

helps in analysis and decision making. It is observed that information is

obtained from the data but not all data produce useful information.

Information is useful when it is relevant, reliable, accurate, up-to-date,

timely, complete, intelligent, consistent and convenient to the recipient. Aninformation system is designed in a way to process data to a meaningful

form, i.e., to accept input, manipulate it in some way and produce output.

DBMS helps in gathering and providing reports. The set of data that is

stored in row and columns to perform a specific task is referred to as DBMS.

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The main function of the information systems is to convert data into

information. Figure 14.1 depicts how data is converted into information usingthe intermediate processes.

The information systems can perform its function only with the proper

organisation and structure to convert data into information.

Data represents a fact or statement of event without relation to other things.

Fig. 14.1: The Process of Changing Data into Information(Organisation structure

Source: http://Ih6.ggpht.com

E.g.: It is raining.

Here information embodies the understanding of a relationship of some sort,

like cause and effect.

E.g.: The temperature dropped 15 degrees and then it started raining.

Knowledge represents a pattern that connects and provides a high level of

predictability as to what is described or what will happen next.

E.g.: If the humidity is very high and the temperature drops substantially, the

atmosphere will hold the moisture so it rains.

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Wisdom represents understanding of fundamental principles personified

within the knowledge that is the basis for the knowledge being what it is.Wisdom is essentially systemic.

E. g.: It rains because it rains. And this includes an understanding of all the

interactions that happen between raining, evaporation, air currents,

temperature gradients, changes and raining.

Figure 14.2 depicts the diagrammatic representation of data to information,

to knowledge and to wisdom.

Fig. 14.2: Transition of Data to Information, Knowledge and Wisdom.

Source:http://peterjamesthomas.com

14.5.2 Entity, instance and attributes

Entity

An entity is something that has a distinct, separate existence, though it need

not be of a material existence. (e.g., Employee record)

Attribute

Theproperty that describes an entity is an attribute.It is a characteristic or

property of an object, such as weight, size, and colour.

Relationship

It describes the relationship between two or more entities.
http://peterjamesthomas.com/http://peterjamesthomas.com/

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Schemas

The database description refers to defining the name, data type, size of acolumn in a table and database (actual data in the table) itself. The

database description is called Meta data.The database description is

specified during the designing stage of the database and is not frequently

changed.

Instances

The collection of data stored in the database at a particular moment is a

database instance or database state or snapshot. These changes occur

very frequently due to addition, deletion and modification.

14.5.3 Data and mapping

Data mapping is also referred as database mapping. Data mapping is used

as a first step for a wide variety of data integration tasks including data

transformation between a data source and a destination.An attribute will

map to zero or more columns in a relational database. You must also

remember while mapping that all attributes are not persistent, some are

used for temporary calculations. For example, a student object may have an

averagemark attribute that is needed within your application but isnt saved

to the database because it is calculated by the application. Because some

attributes of an object are objects in their own right, a customer object has

an address object as an attribute this really reflects an association

between the two classes that would need to be mapped, and the attributes

of the address class itself will have to be mapped. The important thing is

that this process is repeated again and again. At some point the attribute will

be mapped to zero or more columns.

The easiest mapping among all is the property mapping of a single attribute

to a single column. It is even simpler when each has the same basic types,

for example, theyre both dates, the attribute is a string and the column is a

char, or the attribute is a number and the column is a float.

Data mapping is used as the first step for a wide variety of data integration

tasks. That means data transformation, identification of data relationshipsand detection of hidden sensitive data and consolidation of multiple

databases.

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14.5.4 Database architecture

The architecture followed in the database design is three-tier-architecture.The three schema architecture has three levels of architecture, an internal

level, a conceptual level and an external level. The three schema

architecture is also referred as client server architecture. In this architecture,

the major advantage is, the division of the architecture into levels that allows

both developers and users to work on their own levels. They do not need to

know the details of the other levels and they do not have to know anything

about changes in the other levels. Figure 14.3 depicts the diagrammatic

representation of three schema architecture. Note that each of these

schemas represents only the data descriptions which are available in

physical stage.

1. Internal level

This is a database with the physical storage structure. Operations

performed here are translated into modifications of the contents and

structure of the files.

It has an internal schema.

It describes the complete details of the stored records and access

methods used to achieve efficient access to the data.

2. Conceptual level

This concentrates on the entities description and hides the details ofthe physical storage structures. This level is independent of both

software and hardware.

3. External level or view level

This is the outermost layer.

This layer is closest to the users.

The data viewed by the individual users is called external level.

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Fig. 14.3: The Three Schema Architecture

Source: http://lh4.ggpht.com/

14.5.5 Database languages and interfaces

To support each and every user groups the DBMS should have interfaces

and languages.

DBMS Languages

The Data Definition Language (DDL) is used by the Database administrator

and the database designers and other users to define the conceptual and

internal schemas. The DDL complier of DBMS processes the DDL statements to find the

description of schema constructs and store the description in the DBMS

catalogue.

DDL defines the conceptual (description of relations/tables in the

database) and external schema (specification of views). The internal

schema (how will data be stored and retrieved) is specified by

combinations and specification related to storage

Data Manipulation Languages (DMLs)

DML is a used by database users to retrieve, insert, delete and updatedata in a database.

DML and DDL are components of Structured Query Language (SQL)

which is used to retrieve and manipulate data in a relational database.

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DMLs have their functional capability organised by the initial word in a

statement, which is almost always a verb. In the case of SQL, theseverbs are "select", "insert", "update" and "delete".

DMLs tend to have many different "flavours" and capabilities between

database vendors.

There has been a standard established for SQL by American National

Standard Institute (ANSI) but vendors still "exceed" the standard and

provide their own extensions.

There are two types of DML:

High level

High level can be used to specify complex database operations.

DML statements can be entered through a graphical user interface or

embedded a programming language.

The statements are extracted through the pre compiler and processed by

the DBMS.

Referred to set-at- a-time as it can retrieve many rows of data from the

database

Low level / Non- procedural

Embedded in a general purpose programming language.

This low level is also referred as recordat a time DMLS.As it retrieves

one row at a time from the database.

DBMS interfaces

DBMS are provided to nave users of the database like general managers.

Menu Interface

Presents the users with menus to send queries to the database.

Queries are composed in a step by step manner by choosing the right

menu items from the menu

Pull down menus are used for web based interface which allow the userto view the data in an exploratory and unstructured manner.

Forms- based interfaces.

It will display a form for every user.

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In the form, the user can enter the data to form a new row in the table of

the database or change particular rows or delete rows.Graphical user interfaces

A schema will be displayed to the user in the form of a diagram in the

graphical user interface. The queries specified by the user through

manipulating the diagram.

Natural language interfaces

Natural language interfaces accept the requests in written English or any

other language

The natural language request will handled by the interface as it has the

dictionary consisting of important words.

Interfaces for parametric users:

Allow repetitive operations to be performed by parametric users like bank

tellers. Programmers specify a short cut key or function key to access

menu items or buttons on the forms. This enables the parametric user to

quickly perform operations like balance enquiries or deposit and

withdrawals.

Interfaces for the DBA

Such interfaces allow the DBA staff to create new account/user, grants

rights to users, set system parameters and change schema.

Activity 2:

Take two different samples of medical bills issued by two medical stores

and find out the striking similarity in the fields and note down the

difference if any in the data fields and structure.

Self Assessment Questions

6. The property that describes an entity is a ___________.

7. An attribute will map to zero or more columns in a _____________.

8. The three schema architecture is also referred as _______________.

14.6 Data Warehouse and Data Mining

In the previous section, you learnt about designing of DBMS. You will now

learn about data warehouse and data mining.

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Data Warehouse

A data warehouse is a large data storehouse containing the historical dataof the organisation collected from various operational, external and other

databases for the purpose of business analysis. All the data undergoes the

process of extraction, transformation and loading (ETL) before being stored

in the database. This is done to ensure that all the data integrity violations,

data redundancy and other inconsistencies in the data remain at a minimum

level.

A data warehouse is different from an operational database in the following

ways

In the data warehouse historical data is stored whereas in a

transactional database data pertaining to the current financial year is

stored.

The data in the data warehouse is static (records are not updated) but in

an operational database the data records can be updated.

Data in the data warehouse can be aggregated on many dimensions.

Whereas in the operational database the data is maintained at the

atomic level as aggregation increases its size and consumes time in

preparing reports.

For the purpose of analysis specific data from the data warehouse can be

stored in data marts or analytical data store. These are small in size whencompared to the data warehouse and easier to build. The subsets of the

data warehouse pertaining to the needs of various functions like marketing,

accounting and sales can be stored in the data mart or analytical

storehouse.

To perform the analysis different analytical tools like querying, OLAP and

data mining are used. The analysis can be performed through a desktop

interface or through a web interface.

Data Mining

Data Mining is used to expose unseen relationships and trends in the datawarehouse. This aids the organisation in gaining competitive advantage and

formulating strategy. A brute force approach (using recognition algorithms,

mathematical and statistical techniques) is used in data mining to analyse all

possible combinations of data to find patterns. The analyst then interprets

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the result of this analysis. The patterns identified in data mining are:

Associations: occur when one event connects with another event. Forexample, most men buy soft drinks and chips during the IPL cricket

season.

Sequences occur when one event leads to another. For example,

purchase of tea is followed by purchase of sugar cubes.

Classification patterns are found by categorising data. For example

classify customers as most profitable, profitable and not profitable.

Forecasting uncovers patterns to predict future trends. For example,

predicting advertising campaign response rates.

Clustering: Finding similar groups of customers or data or facts based on

certain criteria. Finding documents that matches the search criteria.


9. A __________is a large data storehouse containing the historical data

of the organisation collected from various operational, external and

other databases for the purpose of business analysis.

10. _________ is used to expose unseen relationships and trends in the

data warehouse.

14.7 Summary

Let us recapitulate the important concepts discussed in this unit: Data represents a fact or statement of event without relation to other

things.

Information is a data that has been processed into a form that is

meaningful to a recipient and helps in analysis and decision making.

An entity is something that has a distinct and separate existence. The

property that describes an entity is an attribute. It is a characteristic or

property of an object, such as weight, size or colour.

The data definition language is used by the database designers and

database administrators in order to define the external and conceptual

schemas.

The three tier architecture has three levels, first one is an internal,

second one is external and the last one is conceptual. The three schema

architecture is also referred as client server architecture.

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Nave users of the database can use various DBMS interfaces like form

based interfaces, web based interfaces, interface for parametric usersand natural language interfaces.

DML statements allow the entry of data into the database.

A brute force approach (using recognition algorithms, mathematical and

statistical techniques) is used in data mining to analyse all possible

combinations of data to find patterns.

A data warehouse is a large data storehouse containing the historical

data of the organisation collected from various operational, external and

other databases for the purpose of business analysis.

14.8 GlossaryData Mapping: It is the process of constructing data element mappings,

among two different models.

Schema:logical view of the relationships between the data in the database.

View:a way by which different users of the database to see portions of the

database in different ways.

14.9 Terminal Questions

1. Explain different types of database users.

2. Explain the three-tier architecture with a neat diagram.

3. Explain database interfaces.

14.10 Answers


1. Distributed

2. Relational

3. True

4. False

5. True

6. Attribute

7. Relational database

8. Client Server Architecture

9. Data warehouse

10. Data mining

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Terminal Questions

1. There are many types of database users namely, DBA, DBD, end users.For more details refer 14.2.

2. The client server model, entity, instance, attributes, etc. for more details

refer 14.5.4.

3. DDL, DML, DBMS, Data base language and interfaces.For more details

refer 14.5.5.

14.11 Case Let

Collection and segregation:

Some people are having this habit of collecting things. Let us consider that

you are collect books, stamps, toys, coins, pictures, etc. You store each of

these items in different boxes.

Also since you are and IS professional you create a database to document

your collection according to boxes and further segregate them item wise and

category wise. As and when you get new items you add it into the

appropriate box and update the database.

Discussion Questions:

How will you organise items of your collection into a database

Hint:Think in terms of designing a DBMS

Let us say a local museum wishing to procure your coin collection ask for

the list of all items in it.

Hint:Think in terms of database languages

How will you find that you don`t have the other item collections?

References:

Josheph, S. J. and Mohapatra, Management Information System in

Knowledge Economy,Prentice Hall.

Ken, L. Jane, L. and Rajanish, D. Management Information System,

Managing the Digital Firm, Pearson Education. Obrien, A, J, Management Information System, Galkotia Publications.

New Delhi.

Sadagopan, S. Management Information Systems, Prentice Hall.

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Robert, S, and Mary, S. Management Information Systems The

Managers View,Tata McGraw Hill. Elmasri, R. (2008), Fundamentals of Database Systems, Pearson

Education.

E-References:

http://washingtontechnology.com/articles/2011/11/14/strategy-cio-role-

evolves.aspx

http://www.educause.edu/EDUCAUSE+Quarterly/EDUCAUSEQuarterly

MagazineVolum/TheCorporateCIOModelandtheHigh/157433

http://attainable-

utopias.org/tiki/AckoffDataInformationKnowledgeWisdom www.mhhe.com/business/mis/obrien

www.net.educause.edu

www.idealware.org

http://peterjamesthomas.com

http://Ih6.ggphy.com

http://lh4.ggpht.com/

http:/www.comptechdoc.org

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