Enterprise Resource Planning Unit 6 Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 116 Unit 6 ERP – A Manufacturing Perspective Structure 6.1 Introduction Objectives 6.2 Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) 6.3 Computer Aid Design/Computer Aid Manufacturing (CAD/CAM) 6.4 Materials Requirement Planning (MRP) Master Production Schedule (MPS) Bill of Material (BOM) Inventory Records Closed Loop MRP Manufacturing Resource Planning (MRP-II) 6.5 Distribution Requirements Planning (DRP) 6.6 Just-in-Time(JIT) & KANBAN Kanban Benefits of JIT Potential Pitfalls of JIT 6.7 Product Data Management (PDM) Data Management Process Management Process Management Process Management Benefits of PDM 6.8 Manufacturing Operations Make-to-Order (MTO) and Make-to-Stock (MTS) Assemble-to-Order (ATO) Engineer-to-Order (ETO) Configure-to-Order (CTO) 6.9 Summary 6.10 Terminal Questions 6.11 Answers 6.12 Case Study 6.13 Glossary
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Enterprise Resource Planning Unit 6
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 116
Unit 6 ERP – A Manufacturing Perspective
Structure
6.1 Introduction
Objectives
6.2 Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP)
6.3 Computer Aid Design/Computer Aid Manufacturing (CAD/CAM)
6.4 Materials Requirement Planning (MRP)
Master Production Schedule (MPS)
Bill of Material (BOM)
Inventory Records
Closed Loop MRP
Manufacturing Resource Planning (MRP-II)
6.5 Distribution Requirements Planning (DRP)
6.6 Just-in-Time(JIT) & KANBAN
Kanban
Benefits of JIT
Potential Pitfalls of JIT
6.7 Product Data Management (PDM)
Data Management
Process Management
Process Management
Process Management
Benefits of PDM
6.8 Manufacturing Operations
Make-to-Order (MTO) and Make-to-Stock (MTS)
Assemble-to-Order (ATO)
Engineer-to-Order (ETO)
Configure-to-Order (CTO)
6.9 Summary
6.10 Terminal Questions
6.11 Answers
6.12 Case Study
6.13 Glossary
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6.1 Introduction
By now you must be familiar with the ERP Modules. This unit familiarises
you with the various methods and techniques used in the industry. This unit
gives an overview of ERP in manufacturing perspective.
The manufacturing segment accounts for nearly 25% of the total Information
Technology (IT) spending in the country, which makes it the largest segment.
The process and discrete manufacturing segments spent a total of Rs 2,605
crore on IT in the year 1997-98. Discrete manufacturing accounted for
nearly 11.3% of the total segment spending and the rest came in from
process manufacturing.
The process manufacturing sector traditionally spends more on Information
Technology (IT). This is because the larger population of companies is
engaged in this activity as well as their scale of operations is also increasing.
In general, the business and IT priorities of both process and discrete
manufacturing are the same. It consists of controlling inventory, production
costs, marketing costs, and improving supplier and delivery channel
relationships on the business front.
It also helps in improving IT infrastructure, automating internal and external
processes, and better decision-making. At the same time, there are
differences in the emphasis given to the various aspects of IT usage. In this
analysis, we take the segments together when discussing the areas where
they exhibit similarity. However, when areas show dissimilarities between
each other we discuss them separately.
IT investments by large manufacturing organisations were on the decline in
1998. Since, many industries like automobiles, steel, cement, and others
were facing a downturn in their business. Overall, many of the smaller
manufacturing organisations, which have been traditionally poor in IT usage,
turned towards IT. Traditional large buyers like TISCO, Ashok Leyland, and,
Bajaj Auto to name a few did not have any major IT project underway.
Public sector steel companies slowed down the IT investments. However,
their counterparts in the private sector spent on ERP and plant automation.
In the industry of Pharmaceuticals, the WTO agreement on patents has
forced companies to get patents on their formulations. A very data-intensive
area the clinical trials, are fast emerging as an application in the
pharmaceutical industry.
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Some of major investment areas for manufacturing companies are:
Infrastructure like systems, network components, messaging systems,
and so on.
Software design and application development.
Software packages like word processors, spreadsheets, databases, and
so on.
Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) packages.
Packaged application implementation services.
Consulting services.
External connectivity – connecting to dealers and suppliers (supply
chain).
Data warehousing.
E-commerce.
Learning Objectives:
After studying this unit you will be able to:
Analyse and know the various techniques and technologies that are
used in the manufacturing industry.
Explain how ERP and other concepts like MRP, MRP-II, CAD/CAM,
PDM, can improve the competitiveness of a company.
Assess the different types of manufacturing operations like MTS, MTO,
ETO, ATO, and CTO, and so on.
6.2 Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP)
Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) is the slogan in the manufacturing
industry and more and more companies are turning to ERP solutions. With
almost all the international players present in the country, the stage is set for
the launch of the Indian manufacturing sector into the age of integrated
applications.
ERP is a high impact area because it leads to a bottom-up change in the
organisation. That is, it is by no means an incremental technology. But many
companies do not even realise the full implications of using an ERP. They
are nevertheless enchanted by the concept of integrated applications. But a
mad rush into ERP, without the required business process discipline, will
lead to more flops than hits.
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The move to ERP is a high-investment proposition. It comprises of
investments in hardware, connectivity, and implementation services, apart
from a lot of invisible costs involved in process change, change
management, and training. There are more than 130 ERP implementations
underway in the country presently. SAP is one of the largest ERP vendors.
In the country it has around 75 customers, out of which 52 are in the
manufacturing segment, with dominance by the discrete manufacturing
companies. Most of these are first-generation ERP, which address the area
of integration of financials with logistics. These companies are at the first leg
of integrating financials with logistics using a packaged application.
The next phase taken up is either sales and distribution or production,
depending upon the priority of the company. Demand-driven industries like
automotive sector, consumer goods, processed foods and the like would
take up sales and distribution.
There are presently around 40 companies, which are in the process of
implementing solutions in this area. Possibly, an equal number of
companies are looking actively at production as the next application to be
integrated. But, recent studies show that companies are willing to take up
both the phases together right in the beginning. This is due to the fact that
there is a lower perceived risk in implementation. Since, code-less
implementation is becoming the order of the day, leading to better
implementation maturity. Another reason is that there are enough process
models available now in the country itself. Taken together, the total time
taken for rollout is shortened.
The process industry concentrates on integrating business applications with
the plant floor. The major areas under consideration are finance, materials,
and sales and distribution. Since production in the case of process industry
is plant-oriented, it falls within the realm of distributed digital control systems.
The most vital area after this is the maintenance function. Selection of the
right ERP package is based solely on the business needs and the fit that the
product offers. For example, L&T, which uses two ERP solutions from SAP
and Baan for two of its divisions. The Unit Equipment Division of L&T uses
ERP solution from Baan with the finance, manufacturing, distribution, shop
floor scheduling, and budgeting modules. This helps the company gain
competitiveness in global deals.
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ERP, currently, is restricted to being a transaction-oriented operations
system in the country. As of now, there are few examples of strategic
information systems built around an ERP solution in the country. There are
quite a few areas that need ERP refinement are being actively looked at by
some of the progressive companies. Called as extended ERP, it seeks to
encompass the suppliers and delivery channel partners into the
organisation's enterprise information system. Constraint-based planning
tools for supply-chain planning and demand-chain planning are being
actively looked at by companies that operate in specific markets.
6.3 Computer Aid Design/Computer Aid Manufacturing
Computer Aid Design/Computer Aid Manufacturing (CAD / CAM) are the
other major focus area for the manufacturing sector. Traditionally, the
automotive and aerospace industries are the largest consumers of
CAD/CAM.
With the automotive sector in the depression, vendors were not able to meet
their expectations from this industry. On the other hand, the farm auto sector
did better in comparison.
Mahindra & Mahindra (Tractor Division) has grown considerably in the last
three years and their manufacturing capacity has doubled. This is
accompanied with significant improvement in design capacity. Increasing
design capacity is also a competitive edge for a company. For example,
Tata Johnson Controls, which makes seating systems, started off by
designing seats solely for Ford. With increased design capacity using
advanced CAD/CAM, they went on to supply seating systems to many other
auto majors. The major focus area in CAD/CAM is on design analysis,
development, and manufacturing. Styling and ergonomics are the
refinement areas to achieve design excellence. There were only marginal
investments in modelling. There is also a trend developing for reverse
engineering, especially in the engineering and appliances industry.
Manufacturing, companies in the BPL Group have taken up reverse
engineering.
Product data management (PDM) is another leading edge of the CAD/CAM
philosophy. TELCO and Mahindra Ford have integrated many of their
suppliers. For the supplier, it means enhanced competence and improved
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competitiveness. Many of these suppliers, with their improved design
capacity and integration with OEMs, have also started exporting. Brakes
India is supplying brakes to many of the European auto manufacturers.
Another reason, which forces a company to make design an imperative, is
the improved alignment that many manufacturing organisations have
acquired. This is because of business process reengineering. An important
thing is the integration of tier 1 and tier 2 suppliers with OEMs, for standard
product information.
Many companies in heavy engineering sector have signed up multi year
contracts with global majors like SDRC and PTC. BHEL has a CAD/CAM
contract across all units with SDRC for a term of five-year. Similarly Lakshmi
Machine, L&T and Siemens works are investing in CAD/CAM to beef up
their research capability.
Self Assessment Questions
1. The _______________ sector traditionally spends more on Information
Technology (IT).
2. Increasing _______________ capacity is also a competitive edge for a
company.
3. The process industry focus is on integrating _____________
applications with the plant floor.
4. The move to __________ is a high-investment proposition.
Activity 1
Visit a manufacturing industry and analyse the reason why the
organisation should move towards restructuring their business in an ERP
Originally MRP was developed as a computer system that was limited to
materials planning. As MRP systems developed and computer technology, it
became clear that MRP systems maintain extensive information that can be
used for other company functions. For example, MRP systems maintain
accurate inventory information. Combining this information with cost data,
allows accounting personnel to have accurate inventory information, in
meaningful financial terms. Rather than having separate production and
accounting systems, a company can expand MRP to meet the requirements
of both the systems.
MRP-II is an expansion of closed loop MRP for managing an entire
manufacturing company. MRP-II systems provide information that is useful
to all functional areas and encourage cross-functional interaction. It also
supports sales and marketing by providing an order-promising capability.
Order promising is a method of tying customers' orders to finished goods in
the MPS. This allows sales personnel to have accurate information on
product availability and gives them the ability to give customers accurate
delivery dates. MRP-II supports financial planning by converting materials
schedules into capital requirements. A company can use MRP-II to simulate
the effects of different master production schedules on material usage,
labour, and capital requirements. MRP-II provides the purchasing
department with more than just purchase requisitions. The long-range
planned order release schedules can be used to provide the purchasing
department with information for developing long-range buying plans. It is
now common for suppliers to directly access MRP-II system of a customer
to receive up-to-date information on the customer's planned material needs.
Information in the MRP-II system is used to provide accounting with
information on material receipts to determine accounts payable. Shop floor
control information is used to track workers' hours for payroll purposes.
Manufacturing is the vital function in a manufacturing company. The
information required to successfully planning and schedule production is
valuable to the other (supporting) functions in the company. MRP-II systems
enhance a company's efficiency by providing a central source of
management information.
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Self Assessment Questions
5. _____________ and ___________ planning is critical to the success of
a manufacturing company.
6. The key to MRP is time-phasing of requirements for components are,
based upon the structure of the ______________.
7. ___________ is an expansion of closed loop MRP for managing an
entire manufacturing company.
8. _______________ is also important when suppliers or the shop floor
cannot meet order due dates
Activity 2
Visit an industry and study how the organisation has benefited with the
ERP system in handling the material starting form procurement of
material to distributing the material with in the company based on the
needs of the various departments.
6.5 Distribution Requirements Planning (DRP)
Distribution Requirements Planning (DRP) extends the technique of MRP
into the physical distribution system. It provides a mechanism for integrating
the physical distribution system with the production planning and scheduling
system. DRP assists companies that maintain distribution inventories in
distribution centers, field-warehouses, and so forth. This is achieved by
improving the linkage between marketplace requirements and
manufacturing activities.
A DRP system helps management to anticipate future requirements in the
field. At the same time helps to closely match the supply of products to the
demand for them and effectively deploy inventories to satisfy customer
requirements. They also rapidly adjust to changes in the marketplace. A
DRP system creates significant logistics saving through improved planning
of transportation capacity needs, vehicle loading, vehicle dispatching and
warehouse receipt planning.
DRP plays a central coordinator role in the physical distribution system
similar to MRPs role in coordinating materials in the manufacturing system.
DRP provides the necessary data for matching customer demand with the
supply of products at various stages in the physical distribution system and
with products being produced by manufacturing. The DRP record is similarly
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to MRP record. For example, for a distribution centre, forecasts
requirements for a product replace gross requirements and are used in
conjunction with information concerning inventory on-hand at the distribution
centre inventory in transit to the distribution centre (analogous to scheduled
receipts in MRP), transportation lead-time, safety stock requirements, and
standard shipping quantities to determine time-phased planned shipments
to the distribution centre (analogous to time-phased planned orders in MRP).
In addition to estimating the time-phased planned shipment quantities, DRP
provides a company with access to all the detailed local information for
managing physical distribution and for coordinating with manufacturing.
Since, demand from the customer is independent, each distribution centre,
for example, needs detailed forecasts of the item in demand. Careful
attention to actual customer demand patterns may allow forecasts,
generated by a standard forecasting method. This will be tailored to local
conditions, resulting in improved accuracy and inventory savings. As actual
field demands vary around the forecasts, adjustments to plans are made by
DRP. DRP makes continuous adjustments, sending inventories from the
central warehouse or manufacturing facility to those distribution centres
where they are most needed. In case when the total inventory is insufficient
to satisfy requirements, DRP provides the basis for accurately stating when
delivery can be expected for deciding allocations, such as favouring the best
customers or providing inventory to last the same amount of time at each
distribution centre. Therefore, DRP is a critical link between the marketplace,
demand forecasting and master production scheduling.
6.6 Just-in-Time (JIT) and Kanban
Just-in-Time (JIT) means to produce goods and services when needed, not
too early and not too late. It is time dependent and often has quality and
efficiency targets. JIT is a production philosophy and not a technology. This
is due the fact that it monitors the whole of the production system, and goes
far into inventory control. The JIT system has been called many names,
from zero defects and synchronous production to stockless production at
Hewlett Packard. The JIT system also uses the pull method of scheduling
material flow (Kanban). A JIT system aims to make goods available just in
time and these can be parts, products or subassemblies.
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JIT helps organisation to achieve some of the following benefits:
Increased flexibility
Parts reduction
Increased quality
Simplicity of system
The enhanced flexibility allows a company the ability to react to changing
events, i.e. change in customer orders, or design modifications. Increased
productivity means that the shortest time and minimum of resources are
needed to make a product. The overall objective of JIT is to produce parts in
lot sizes of one, but this is not economically feasible due to the set-up cost
being higher as compared to the carrying cost.
At the heart of JIT, is a set of tools and techniques. To achieve the aims of
JIT a disciplined approach is needed which incorporates three principles
applied to the organisation:
Elimination of Waste
Total Quality Management (TQM)
Total Employee Involvement
Elimination of Waste: Waste elimination is basically removal of any
activity that is not value-added, but first it has to be identified. These
activities don't increase product value and are costly to the company.
Examples of non-value-adding activities include traditional production
methods, i.e. inspection of parts, holding stock, inventories, time, and so
on. Waste is eliminated from these activities by removal of defects and
by not over producing hence, make-to-order.
Total Quality Management: TQM eliminates waste by eliminating
defects. In a JIT environment, the aim is to prevent defects from
occurring, and this is achieved by detecting problems at their source.
The whole organisation is involved in the process, right from the stages
of manufacturing, product development and purchasing. Manufacturing
uses statistical process control (SPC) and in-process testing (to allow
detection at source), while product development ensures that new
products can be manufactured to specification. Purchasing makes sure
that; the parts that are bought are of the required quality.
Total Employee Involvement: Total employee involvement has
management providing the leadership which results in employees
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wanting to be involved in the processes. Opportunity provided through
education and training, and work teams.
6.6.1 Kanban
Most companies in manufacturing sector view the making of a product as
continuous from design, manufacture, and distribution to sales and
customer service. For many companies, the soul of this process is the
Kanban, a Japanese term for Visual record', which directly or indirectly
drives much of the manufacturing organisation. It was originally developed
at Toyota in 1950s as a way of managing material flow on the assembly line.
Over the past three decades the Kanban process, which is a highly efficient
and effective factory production system, has developed into an optimum
manufacturing environment leading to global competitiveness.
The Kanban process of production is sometimes incorrectly described as
simple just-in-time management technique, a concept that attempts to
maintain minimum inventory. The Kanban process involves more than fine
tuning of production and supplier scheduling systems. Supplying the
components only when needed in production it minimises the inventories,
and monitors the work progress. It also allows industrial reengineering such
as a 'module and cellular production' system and group production
techniques. This is where team members are responsible for specific work
element and employees are encouraged to effectively participate
continuously in proving the Kanban processes for continuous improvement.
The Japanese refer to Kanban as a simple parts-movement system it
depends on cards and boxes/containers to take parts from one work station
to another on a production line. Kanban stands for Kan-card, Ban-signal.
The fundamental of the Kanban concept is that a supplier or the warehouse
must or deliver components to the production line as and when they are
needed, so that there is no storage in the production area. Within this
system, workstation located along production lines only produce/deliver
desired components when they receive a card and an empty container,
indicating that more parts is needed in production. Each work station will
only produce enough components to fill the container and then stop in case
of line interruptions. In addition, it limits the amount of inventory in the
process by acting as an authorisation to produce more inventories. Since
Kanban is a chain process system in which orders flow from one process to
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another, the production or delivery of components is pulled to the production
line. In contrast to the conventional forecast oriented method where parts
are pushed to the line.
The advantages of Kanban over the traditional push system are:
A simple and understandable process
Provides quick and precise information
Low costs associated with the transfer of information
Provides quick response to changes
Limit of over-capacity in processes
Avoids overproduction
Minimises waste
Maintains control
Delegates responsibility to line workers
6.6.2 Benefits of JIT
JIT is continuously monitoring to reduce inventory levels of work in process
(WIP), raw-materials and finished goods. Therefore, space is required is
less with lower inventories so there is less chance of the product becoming
damaged, spoiled or obsolete. Material handling of lots can be automated,
and operations can be placed closer together, enhancing communication
and teamwork. The following are some of the benefits of a properly
implemented JIT system:
Increased flexibility: This can be done through small batch sizes, which
achieves faster throughput. Flexibility is a prerequisite, if small batch
sizes are to be kept. A flexible workforce means that the operators must
be multi-skilled which is done through training. Increases the freedom of
worker to move from low demand to high demand areas.
Parts reduction: JIT constantly seeks to reduce inventory levels of raw
materials, work in process and finished goods. Lower inventory means
less space and less chance of the product being obsolete, damaged or
spoiled. Work in process inventories are reduced as a firm implements
the 'pull system'. Raw material reduction is the important part of the JIT
system and requires a sound relationship with the supplier. Inventories
can be reduced if products are produced, purchased, delivered in small
lots. To avoid unnecessary production delays, materials must arrive just
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before they are needed. It must be the correct material and must satisfy
the quality specifications.
Increased quality: When operating a JIT system, disruption has a
minimum impact. Therefore, quality problems need to be eliminated.
Benchmark: Quality Function Deployment and service design can be
used for device operations. Service employees need to learn the value
of providing defect free services.
Simplicity of system: Product mix or volume changes as planned by
Master Production Schedule (MPS), can be accomplished by adjusting
the number of cards in the system. Production orders are prioritised by
the cards on a post. Production orders for parts that are running low are
moved in front of parts that have more supply.
6.6.3 Potential Pitfalls of JIT
Many companies fail to realise what JIT is and what it can mean to their
business. Since, they fail to implement it properly. Most importantly, they
need to aware of the tasks, resources, time scale and costs. For this, the
systems need the full backing of the top management. The JIT system will
also fail if an adequate education programme is not provided. If careful
planning process and control improvements are not strictly followed, they
will result JIT not being realised. The planning stage will require dedication
and t: and may also require the assistance of an external consultant(s). All
above must be integrated with moves towards purchasing JIT, or again, JIT
will not be achieved. The JIT system must not be viewed as a one scheme
but as an ongoing continuous process.
Self Assessment Questions
9. DRP plays a has a central ______________ role in the physical
distribution system
10. ____________ eliminates waste by eliminating defects.
11. The Kanban process of production is sometimes incorrectly described
as simple ________________ technique
12. JIT continuously seeks to reduce _____________ levels of raw
materials, work in process and finished goods.
13. When operating a JIT system, ___________ has a minimum impact.
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Activity 3
Find out the process in the assembly chain of an automobile
manufacturing industry and asses the kind of planning they could do
using an ERP system to handle the inflow of material and components
for manufacturing.
6.7 Product Data Management (PDM)
One of the major manufacturing challenges is to maximise the time-to-
market benefits of concurrent engineering. At the same time, maintaining of
data, control on the flow of data. The system must also distribute the data
automatically to the people who need it, when they need it. The way PDM
systems cope with this challenge is that the master data is held only once in
a secure 'vault', where its integrity can be assured and all changes to it
monitored, controlled and recorded.
Duplicate reference copies of the master data, can be distributed freely. It is
used in various departments for analysis, design, and approval. The new
data is then released back into the vault. When a 'change' is made to the
data, a modified copy of the data, signed and dated, is stored in the vault
alongside the old data which remains in its original form as a permanent
record.
This is the principle behind more advanced PDM systems. To analyse it
more fully, let us look separately at how these systems control raw product
data (Data Management and Process Management).
6.7.1 Data Management
Manufacturing companies are usually good at recording systematically the
component and assembly drawings. But often do not keep complete records
of attributes such as 'size', 'weight', 'where used', and so on. As a result,
engineer; often have problems accessing the information they need. This
leaves a gap in their ability to manage their product data effectively. Data
management systems must be able to manage attribute and documentary
product data, and also relationships between them, through a relational
database system. With so much data being generated, a technique to
organise this information easily and quickly needs to be established.
Classification must be a basic capability of a PDM system. Information
regarding similar types of components must be capable of being grouped
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together in named classes. More detailed classification is possible by using
'attributes' to explain the essential characteristics of each component in a
given class.
Classification of Components
Components will be entered in the database under different types of classes,
which suit individual business needs. Classes themselves can be grouped
together under suitable broad headings. This allows all the company's
working stock of components to be organised in an easily traceable,
hierarchical network structure. Each part can be given its own set of
attributes.
Additionally, some systems have the capability of registering that certain
components are available with specific 'optional' attributes. This can be
invaluable in controlling Bills of Materials (BOMs) for made-to-order
variations of the standard items or customised items.
Classification of Documents
Documents relating to assemblies and components can be similarly
classified; for example, classes might be 'drawings', '3D models', Technical
publications', 'Spreadsheet files', and so on. Each document can have its set
of attributes, like part, number, author, dates entered and so on. And, at the
same time relationships between documents and the components
themselves can be maintained. So, for example, a dossier for a specific
'bearing assembly' could be extracted, containing 2D drawings, solid models,
and FEA files. PDM systems differ greatly in their classification capability.
Some have none. Others encourage the ability to define a classification only
at the time when the database is implemented. More recent PDM systems
have been provided with a capability that can be defined and modified at will,
as the demands of the organisation change.
Product Structure
Product structure is the third way from which product data can be accessed.
For any selected product, the relationship between its component
assemblies and between the parts that make up these assemblies must be
maintained. This would mean that one could open a complete Bill of
Materials, including documents and parts, either for the entire product or for
the selected assemblies. One distinct advantage is the ability to compare
not just the physical relationships between parts in an assembly, but also
other kinds of structures; for instance, manufacturing, financial, maintenance
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or document relationships. So, it is possible for specialist members of the
team to see the product structured from their point of view.
Querying the Data
As you can imagine, one needs to be able to 'get at' the components and
assembly data by a variety of routes. One could move up and down a
classification tree; pick one's way through a product structure; simply call-up
the data one wants by searching for it by name or part number, or search for
groups of data by specifying an attribute or combination of attributes. For
example, you could ask to see all stainless steel rivets with anodised shanks
less than 10 mm long.
6.7.2 Process Management
So far we have dealt only with organising data so that it is easy to access
and, refer to and for cross-reference; basically passive procedures. Process
Management (PM), on the other hand, is about controlling the way people
create and modify data – active procedures. This may sound like a new
name for 'project management'. It is not. PM concerns itself only with the
delegation of tasks; process management addresses the impact of tasks on
data. Process management systems normally have three broad functions:
Work Management: They manage what happens to the data when
someone works on it.
Workflow Management: They manage the flow of data between people.
Work History Management: They keep track of all the events and
movements that happen in functions 1 and 2 during the history of a
project.
PDM systems vary widely in how they perform these functions. The
following is a broad overview:
6.7.2.1 Work Management
Engineers create and change data for a living. The act of designing
something is exactly that. A solid model, for example, may go through
hundreds of design changes during the course of development, each
involving far-reaching modifications to the underlying engineering data.
Frequently the engineer will wish simply to explore a particular approach,
later abandoning it in favour of a previous version.
A PDM system offers a solution by acting as the working environment for
engineers. It meticulously captures all new and changed data as it is
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generated. It maintains a record of which version it is, recalling it on demand
and effectively keeping track of every move of the engineer.
Naturally, when an engineer is asked to carry out a design modification, he
or she will normally require more than just the original design and the
Engineering Change Order (ECO). Many, forms, files, and documents may
need to be referred to and other members of the design team may be
involved, too. In a traditional design environment, a project folder or dossier
would be compiled which the team could refer to as and when it is needed.
Today’s PDM systems cope with this requirement with varying degrees of
success. One approach is using ‘user packets’ instead of paper-based
processes. The packet allows the engineer to manage and modify several
different master documents simultaneously as well as provide various
supporting documents for reference. This approach also supports the
concurrent engineering principle. For example, even though only one user
can be working on a 'master' design, colleagues working on the same
project can be instantly notified that there is an updated master design, and
reference copies of it will be made available to them in their own packets. A
given packet can be worked on only by the user to whom it is logged out,
but its contents can be looked at and copied by everybody with the
necessary access permissions.
6.7.2.2 Workflow Management
Packets have the advantage of making it easy for team members to share
meaningful groups of documents, but they are useful for another reason
also. They make it possible to move work around from department to
department, or from individual to individual in logically organised bundles.
Engineers may need to design thousands of parts during the development
of a product. For each part that is designed, files need to be created,
modified, viewed, checked, and approved by many different people, some
times several times over. Each part will call for different development
techniques and different types of data – solid models for some, circuit
diagrams, and FEA (Functional Economic Analysis) data for others.
Work on any of these master files will have a potential impact on other
related files. So there needs to be continuous cross checking, modification,
rechecking and re-submission. With all these changes overlapping, it is all
too easy for an engineer in one discipline to be investing considerable time
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and effort in pursuing a design, which has already been invalidated by the
work someone else has done in another part of the project. Bringing order to
this highly complex workflow is what product data management systems do
best. In particular, they keep track of the thousands of individual decisions
that determine who does what next.
Most PDM systems permit the project leader to control the progress of the
project via 'states' using pre-determined 'triggers'. It also provides a routing
list which may vary according to what type of organisation or development
project is involved. The way systems differ is in how much flexibility they
allow within the framework discipline. The most rigid systems are based on
procedures. Every individual or group of individuals is made to represent a
state in a procedure – 'Initiated', 'Submitted', 'Checked', 'Approved', and
'Released'; a file or record can't move from one individual or group to the
next without changing states. Some systems make it possible to give an
identity of its own to the task, separate from the people working on it.
For example, consider an engineer working on a design wants to confer with
colleagues as to the best way to approach the design. As long as the master
model and all the associated reference files are contained in and controlled
by a packet, it is simple to pass the entire job across to any number of other
people without triggering a change of state. The formal workflow procedure
is not compromised by this informal rerouting because the authority to
change the file's state doesn't move around with the packet. It remains with
the designated individual.
Communication within the development team is enhanced too. When
packets of data and files are passed around, they can be accompanied by
instructions, notes and comments. Some systems have 'redlining' capability;
others even have provision for informally annotating files with the electronic
equivalent of 'post-it' notes.
In other words, a Process Management (PM) system could be seen as a
way of: 'loosening up' the working environment, instead of constraining it.
The challenge is how far you can allow informal teamwork and cross-
fertilisation to carry on, and still keep overall management control of project
costs and deadlines. Most systems allow the current status of the entire task,
with all supporting data, to be tracked and viewed by authorised individuals
at al times.
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A packet symbolises one task in a product development project, which may
consist of many thousands. Each packet has its own route to follow through
the system but the relationship between packets also needs to be controlled.
You need to be able to define the interdependence of tasks so as to match
the way your individual project is structured to coordinate this complex
workflow effectively. Not all systems are easy to customise in this way. The
ones that can be customised have the ability to create a hierarchical
relationship between files. For example, one could instruct the system to
prevent an engineer from signing off an assembly for release until all its
parts have been individually released.
6.7.2.3 Work History Management
As we have seen, Product Data Management (PDM) systems must not just
keep comprehensive database records of the current state of the project.
They must also record the states the project has been through. This means
that they are a potentially useful source of audit trial data. The ability to
perform regular process audits is a fundamental requirement for
conformance to international quality management standards such as
ISO9000, EN29000 and BS5750. But project history management is also
important to allow you to 'back-track' to specific points in a project's
development – to a point from where a problem arose, as one can start a
new line of development from it.
What specific development milestones the system records are important.
Some systems record only the changes in ownership of documents.
Therefore only the ownership of the document can be traced at a specific
point in time, but not the modification made to it. Others have the capacity to
record changes, but may do so as a series of 'snapshots' taken only when a
file changes 'state'. This can leave large gaps in workflow history as a user
may have been making modifications to a design for several weeks, without
any change to its state. Some systems provide an historic record in the form
of a 'moving picture', by allowing you to record changes to any system-
defined level you choose, for example, every time a modified file is saved.
This level of historical tracking, provides comprehensive auditing, also
permits the active monitoring of individual performance which is invaluable
during time-critical projects.
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Self Assessment Questions
14. Manufacturing companies are usually good at recording systematically
the ______________ and ______________.
15. Most systems allow the current status of the entire task, with all
supporting data, to be tracked and viewed by
_____________individuals at all times.
16. The way systems differ is in how much flexibility they permit allow
within the________________ discipline.
17. The challenge is how far you can allow _____________and cross-
fertilisation to carry on
6.7.3 Benefits of PDM
The following section covers some of the benefits of the PDM system:
Reduced Time-to-Market
This is the major benefit of a PDM system. Three factors limits the speed
with which you can bring a product to market. One is the time it takes to
perform tasks, such as engineering design and tooling. Another is the waste
of time between tasks, as when a released design sits in a production
engineer's in-tray waiting its turn to be dealt with. And the third is time lost in
rework. A PDM system can do much to overcome all these time limitations.
It can speed up the tasks by making data instantly available, as it is
needed.
It supports concurrent task management.
It allows authorised team members access to all relevant data, all the
time, with the assurance that it is always the latest version.
Improved Design Productivity
Product Data Management systems, when driving the appropriate tools, car
significantly increase the productivity of your engineers. With a PDM system
providing them with the correct tools to access this data efficiently, the
design process itself can be dramatically shortened.
Another important factor is that designers must spend more time actually
designing. Historically, a design engineer would spend as much as 25-30%
of his time simply handling information; looking for it, retrieving it, waiting for:
copies of drawings, archiving new data. PDM removes this dead time almost
entirely. The designer no longer requires knowing where to look for release
designs or other data.
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A third major time saver is the elimination of the 'reinvented wheel'
syndrome. The amount of time designers spend solving problems that have
probably been solved before, is notorious. It is often considered quicker to d
it again than to track down design elements that could be re-used. With
PDM system, the identification, re-use and modification of existing similar
designs must become routine.
Improved Design and Manufacturing Accuracy
An important advantage of PDM systems is that everyone involved in a
project is operating on the same set of data, which is always up-to-date.
When working on a master file you will know it is the only one. If you are
viewing reference copy, you know it is a replica of the latest master.
Therefore, overlapping or inconsistent designs are eliminated even though,
people operate on it concurrently. Naturally this leads to far fewer instances
of design problems that only emerge at manufacturing or QA, fewer
Engineering Change Orders (ECOs), more right-the-first-time designs and,
once again, a faster path to the marketplace.
Better use of Creative Team Skills
Designers are often cautious in their approach to problem solving for no
reason other than the high time penalties for exploring alternative solutions.
The risks of spending excessive time on a radically new design approach,
which may not work, would be unacceptable. PDM opens up the creative
process in three important ways.
First, it keeps track of all the test results and documents relating to a given
product change, minimising design rework and potential design mistakes.
Second, it reduces the risk of failure by sharing the risk with others and by
making the data available to the right people fast. Third, it encourages team
problem solving by allowing individuals to bounce ideas off each other using
the packet-transfer facility, knowing that all of them are looking at the same
problem.
Comfortable to Use
PDM systems differ widely in their levels of user-friendliness. But, most set
out to operate within the existing organisational structure of a product
engineering operation, without major disruption. In fact, the system must
make familiar tasks much more user-oriented than before. When users wish
to view information on a PDM system, the application is loaded
automatically, and then the document is loaded. In a conventional working
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environment, the users would either have to be much more skilled at
accessing the information, or be prepared to accept it in a much less flexible
form.
The concept of single central vault ensures that, while data is immediately
accessible to those who need it, all master documents and records of
historical change remain absolutely accurate and secure.
Better Control of Projects
The product development projects are almost invariably late is not because
they are badly planned in the first place, but because they routinely go out of
control. This is because of the immense volume of data the project
generates, rapidly snowballs beyond the scope of traditional project
management techniques. As the competitive time pressure increases, so
does the scope for inconsistency, and likelihood of rework. PDM systems
also enable you to retain control of the project by ensuring that the data, on
which it is based, is firmly controlled.
Product structure, change management, configuration control and trace-
ability are key benefits. Automatic data release and electronic sign-off
procedures can enhance the control As a result, it is impossible for;
scheduled task to be ignored, buried or forgotten.
Better Management of Engineering Change
A PDM system allows you to create and maintain multiple revisions and
versions of any design in the database. This means that iterations on design
can be created without the worry that previous versions will be lost or
accidentally erased. Every version and revision has to be 'signed' and
'dated', removing any ambiguity about current designs and providing a
complete audit trail of changes.
A Major Step toward Total Quality Management is acquired by introducing a
coherent set of audited processes to the product development cycle. A PDM
system goes a long way towards establishing an environment for ISO9000
compliance and Total Quality Management (TQM). The fundamental
principal of TQM, the 'empowerment of the individual to identify and solve
problems’, are inherent in the PDM structure. The form controls, checks,
change management processes and defined responsibility also ensure that
the PDM system you select, contributes to the organisation conformance
with international quality standards.
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6.8 Manufacturing Operations
The manufacturing operations can be classified based on the amount of
processing the product requires, after the company receives an order from
customer. They are broadly classified as:
Make-to-Order (MTO) and Make-to-Stock (MTS)
Assemble-to-Order (ATO)
Engineer-to-Order (ETO)
Configure-to-Order (CTO)
6.8.1 Make-to-Order (MTO) and Make-to-Stock (MTS)
At one end of the processing spectrum is the make-to-order (MTO)
company. This company does not begin processing the material for the
component or product until it has received an order from the customer. In
some cases, the company may not even procure the material and
components until after it receives the order. This type of manufacturing
operations is followed when the company competes on the basis of product
customisation and serves its customer base by providing unique and highly
specialised items. The MTO company’s production planning is based also
on firm customer orders.
At the other end of the spectrum is the Make-to-Stock (MTS) company,
which manufactures products and places them in inventory before it
receives customers' orders. Either the customer purchases the products
directly from the inventory at a retail outlet, or the company ships the
product 'off-the-shelf from the finished goods inventory at the factory or at a
distribution centre. MTS companies depend heavily on market analysis and
demand forecasting in planning the production of their products with respect
to the product mix and volume.
Figure 6.2 shows the relation between the output variety (degree of
customisation) and the type of manufacturing operation. As it is evident from
the graph, that the output variety is highest when the company is operating
in the make-to-order mode, since the companies can serve each and every
individual customer in the way he/she wants. But the cycle time will be more
and the cost of the product will also be more. But in the case of a MTS
company, the products are already made and kept in the inventory for the
customer to pick up. Here, the customer won't get any individual attention or
customisation; he can buy what is available with the company. The MTS
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company will be making products in lots and the cost of the products will be
less as the economies of scale will be at work and there will not be any
waiting period for the customer after placing the order.
6.8.2 Assemble-to-Order (ATO)
Assemble-to-Order (ATO) company is another variation of the
manufacturing operations. The ATO company manufactures standardised,
option modules according to the forecasts it has made and then assembles
a specific combination, or package of modules, after receiving the
customer's order. The classic example is the automobile manufacturer. After
receiving orders from a host of dealers, the manufacturer specifies the exact
production schedule for the automobiles.
The schedule is based on the options order by the customers, like automatic
transmission or manual transmission, air-conditioning, standard or digital
control panel, leather, cloth or vinyl seating, and so on. Many components
for assembling the automobiles would have be ordered or started into
production before receiving the customer's order based upon demand
forecasts. Thus, the major processing that remains when the orders come in
is assembly. This approach shortens the time between placement of the
order and delivery of the product – cycle time.
6.8.3 Engineer-to-Order (ETO)
Yet another variant in the manufacturing operations is the Engineer-to-Order
(ETO) company. The ETO Company is the ultimate in product variety,
product customisation and flexibility. In this mode of operation, as per
customer order the company manufactures any thing, but at a higher price.
The expensive clothing of the 'bold and beautiful' is an example of this kind
of production. Products are made for each customer and even the minute
details, for example, the feel of the cloth and the texture, the colour of the
threads, the size of the collar and so on will differ from one customer to
another, depending upon the customer's preferences. So the manufacturer
cannot keep anything in inventory, he will have to order only once the
customer has given his/her specifications. Obviously, the cost of production
will be highest in this mode of production.
6.8.4 Configure-to-Order (CTO)
MTO manufacturers traditionally had to choose between ATO and ETO.
ATO suppliers face the need to extend product lines, add features, and
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increase flexibility to meet customer demands. ETO manufacturers feel a
pressure to standardise at least some of their product lines to reduce costs
and remain competitive. Today, the environment of CTO has emerged in
response to customers' demands for individualised products with shortened
lead-times, improved quality and competitive prices. Virtually any
manufacturer that uses options, features, or variable dimensions is a
candidate for entering the CTO environment.
The key component of a configuration is the blueprint of valid combinations
of features and options.
Figure 6.2 shows the relation between the output variety (degree of
customisation) and the type of manufacturing operation. As you can see
from the graph, the output variety is highest when the company is operation
in the make-to-order mode as the companies can serve each and every
individual customer in the way he/she wants. However, since the cycle time
will be more the cost of the product also will increase. In the case of an MTS
company, the products are already made and kept in the inventory for the
customer to pick up. Here the customer will not get any individual attention
or customisation. He can buy what is available with the company.
This model, make use of traditional bill of material model with parent and
component relationships. Rules and calculations then ensure that the final
configuration can be built by defining the way to build it and also establish a
selling price. The flexibility of establishing this CTO model is clearly an
important aspect of selecting the best configuration software for your
business. Few functional areas are free from the impact of transitioning to a
new way of entering sales orders. They automatically generate new part
numbers, bills and routings; for building and shipping products; and record
the financial results of doing business.
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Figure 6.2: Relation between output variety and the type of manufacturing
process
Input from sales and marketing, manufacturing, product data management,
and finance is required to develop a CTO model that supports the integrated
environment. It is important to understand how the configuration generates
the "appropriate" bill of material and routing because they are at the core of
the planning process. Typically, a CTO model represents a translation of
product engineering rules that define relationships among product options,
materials and manufacturing processes. Multiple models CTO differentiate
different sets of valid relationships and required processes.
The CTO model provides valid options within a model, and applies rules or
calculations based on selections. For example, a CTO model of a Personal
Computer (PC) would have a set of component options such as case styles,
CPUs (66 or 100 MHz), hard drives (520MB or 1.2GB), and monitors (VGA
or SVGA). Structured under the options would be the real item part numbers.
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This is very use full for identification and verification process during
manufacturing and quality control.
Key considerations for production and material planners are the modularity
of the real bills of material that will be combined in the configured end item,
and the level at which sales analysis records will be stored. Many times, the
structure (if bills and routings exist at all) needs to be re-examined in light of
how it will support the CTO model.
The ability of the configuration to automatically create new part numbers,
generate bills and routings, and assign prices has greatly reduced the
process of product introduction. However, unless the manufacturing bills
have been reviewed and contoured to a CTO model, the result is often
inaccurate/inadequate information, faster!
With the architecture of the CTO, and the ability to capture sales analysis
information at the option level, planners have a tool to improve their
planning models. The ability to capture sales analysis records on the options
provides the ability to accrue data for use in forecasting software. For
example, within the option accessories, each occurrence of a mouse,
modem NIC, sound card and CD-ROM selection is captured as a sales
analysis record. This information is available for summarisation at a month
or year end. The data, can be reviewed and massaged, then input to the
forecasting algorithms. Automatically information is monitored and
maintained at the detail level, instead of forecasting it at the accessory level
with the use of percentage Bills of Material (BOM),.
The configuration software also provides features to quickly develop
accurate part, bill, and routing information. In addition to maintaining sales
analysis information at the configured item level, detail information by option
is also available. This provides a powerful database for the dissection of
market data. It also becomes the foundation for improving forecasting and
planning capabilities.
Self Assessment Questions
18. Historically, a design engineer would spend as much as 25-30% of his;
time simply_____________________.
19. The __________no longer needs to know where to look for release
designs or other data, since it is all there on demand.
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20. The single _____________concept ensures that, while data is
immediately accessible to those who need it
21. The ________________company’s production planning is based also
on firm customer orders.
22. MTO manufacturers traditionally have had to choose between
____________and _______________.
Activity 4
Visit a manufacturing industry process on internet and study the need for
various manufacturing operations and their significance in making the
production more efficient and flexible. Make a list of the reasons why they
should switch over to an ERP.
6.9 Summary
The manufacturing sector always faces troubles in allocating raw materials
and deciding the outputs. The ERPs forefathers namely material resource
planning and manufacturing resource planning have solved these problems.
They were designed with tools that helped to provide the calculations in an
accurate manner. This has helped a lot through retail ERP.
However these applications were not able to tackle similar problems in other
departments like finance and human resources. ERP however helped in
overcoming that trouble also by using software programs that calculated
more than billion permutations and combinations in a millisecond. Turnkey’s
ERP manufacturing is like providing total solutions to the sector as the first
word in the phrase will indicate. German ERP solutions are very famous.
The CAD/CAM systems assist engineers in designing, examining, and
upgrading drawings required for manufacturing. Being a part of Product
Data Management it enables high degree of precision in both during design
phase and the actual manufacturing phase. It also enhances the capacity of
the company by reducing the time consumed in converting the drawings into
actual working models.
Materials and production planning is critical to the success of a
manufacturing company. Material Resource Planning (MRP) provides a
method that helps keep order due dates valid, even after the orders have
been released to the shop floor or outside vendor. It provides a complete
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and comprehensive view about all the activities like the master pproduction
schedule (MPS), Bill of Material (BOM), Inventory Records (IR). This system
provides a complete view about the flow of materials, with in the company. It
also monitors all the materials that come in and moves out of the company.
Distribution Requirement Planning (DRP) provides a mechanism for
integrating the physical distribution system with the production planning and
scheduling system. DRP records are is similar to MRP records. DRP plays a
central coordinator role in the physical distribution system similar to MRPs
role in coordinating materials in the manufacturing system. DRP system also
creates significant logistics saving through improved planning of
transportation capacity needs, vehicle loading, vehicle dispatching and
warehouse receipt planning. DRP acts as a critical link between the
marketplace, demand forecasting and master production scheduling.
Just-in-Time (JIT) means to produce goods and services when needed, not
too early and not too late. JIT system aims to make goods available just in
time and these can be parts, products or subassemblies. It ensures to
eliminate the things that are not required for production from the site. It also
takes care of the quality of the product. At the same time it makes sure that
all the employees are involved in the work yielding the complete benefit from
the companies’ work force. Kanban concept makes sure that unnecessary
items that are not meant for production will not be a part of production line.
This process can be described as simple JIT. Kanban is a chain process
system in which orders flow from one process to another, the production or
delivery of components is pulled to the production line. This pulling of
components takes place only when requirement arises. Hence preventing
the excess usage or wasting the materials.
Product Data Management (PDM) has to maintain the data. Check the flow
of data between the various departments of the organisation. It must ensure
that the data is made available to the people who need the data in time.
Process management systems normally have three broad functions work
management, workflow management and work history management. This
method enabled proper classification of data according to the function, time
and the requirements. This system has given high flexibility in handling and
maintaining the huge data an organisation generates every day.
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6.10 Terminal Questions
1. What are MTS and MTO?
2. Explain Just-in-Time (JIT) & KANBAN. Mention the benefits of JIT.
3. What is ATO and how is it different from ETO?
4. What is CAD/CAM and what are its advantages?
5. What is PDM and how does it improve the competitiveness of a
company?
6. Explain the concept of MRP II
6.11 Answers
Self Assessment Questions
1. Process manufacturing
2. Design
3. Business
4. Enterprise Resource Planning
5. Materials, production
6. Bill of Material
7. MRP-II
8. Feedback
9. Coordinating
10. Total Quality Management
11. Just-in-Time management
12. Inventory
13. Disruption
14. Component, assembly drawings
15. Authorised
16. Framework
17. Informal teamwork
18. Handling information
19. Designer
20. Central vault
21. Make to Order
22. Assemble to Order, Engineer-to-Order
Terminal Questions
1. Refer section 6.7
2. Refer section 6.6
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3. Refer section 6.8
4. Refer section 6.3
5. Refer section 6.7
6. Refer section 6.4
6.12 Case Study
Analyse some of the major problems faced by XYZ company while making an order for components for fabrication of dumper body are listed below,
High manufacturing lead time.
Inventory levels not balanced leading to excess and short inventory.
Several manual registers and recording methodology.
Several non value adding processes affecting costs and creating waste.
Manual compilation of reports and MIS affecting accuracy and completeness.
To over come these problems the XYZ company planned to implement a ERP based MRP system in their organization, and the following are the out come of the implementation of the ERP system in the organisation.
Automated MRP based on sale orders and delivery schedules given by customers
Bill of material defined for all products.
Better planning lead to better availability of material and also better purchase price for raw materials.
Process and data integration lead to better inter-process control resulting in purchase optimisation, inventory optimisation. Wasteful exercises like manual registers writing, manual verification of certain details are eliminated by pushing the business rules into the software.
Automatic generation of documents like Purchase Order, Invoice etc. leading to time saving and accuracy.
Generation of MIS reports using real time data enabling the management take the right decision at the right time for running the business more profitably.
Questions
1. Analyse the problems faced by the company that forced it to get an ERP implementation.
2. Explain what how the company benefited form the new system.
3. Give your own perspective of how ERP helped in achieving the above mentioned results
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6.13 Glossary
Term Description
Deploy Putting something to use in an organisation like a new machinery or a tool or even a software implementation like the ERP system
Enchanted To captivate somebody or something or to cast a spell on somebody or something like an ERP system captivating the imagination of many organisation.
Inventories Accounting a record of a business's current assets, including property owned, merchandise on hand, and the value of work in progress and work completed but not sold
Realm A defined area of interest or study, scope of something in an area or domain of an industry
Solely Or nothing other than or to the exclusion of all else or others in an organisation and particularly for a group of people or managers
References
1. ”Manufacturing & Service Operations Management” by WJ Hopp, ML
Spearman.
2. "The Kanban Evolution" by Drickhamer, David.
3. “A Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Data Banks" by Codd, E.F.