MA*2003*Z*Z*Z*SM-MAR103-NT1 1 Experimental Elastomer Analysis MSC.Software Corporation
Experimental Elastomer Analysis
MSC.Software Corporation
MA*2003*Z*Z*Z*SM-MAR103-NT1 1
Copyright 2003 MSC.Software Corporation
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Part Number: MA*2003*Z*Z*Z*SM-MA103-NT1
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MA*2003*Z*Z*Z*SM-MAR103-NT1 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
ContentsTable of Contents
Experimental Elastomer Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Table of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
CHAPTER 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7Course Objective: FEA & Laboratory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8Course Schedule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11About MSC.Marc Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13About Axel Products, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14Data Measurement and Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15Typical Properties of Rubber Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17Important Application Areas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
CHAPTER 2 The Macroscopic Behavior of Elastomers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21Microscopic Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22Temperature Effects, Tg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23Time Effects, Viscoelasticity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24Curing Effects (Vulcanization) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26Damage, Early Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27Damage, Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28Damage, Chemical Causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28Deformation States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
CHAPTER 3 Material Models, Historical Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31Engineering Materials and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32Neo-Hookean Material Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33Neo-Hookean Material Extension Deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35Neo-Hookean Material Shear Deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36Neo-Hookean Material Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38A Word About Simple Shear. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402-Constant Mooney Extensional Deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41Other Mooney-Rivlin Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43Ogden Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45Foam Models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46Viscoelastic Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47Model Limitations and Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48Determining Model Coefficients. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
CHAPTER 4 Laboratory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51Lab Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 3
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Basic Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53Measuring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56What about Shore Hardness? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57Testing the Correct Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58Tensile Testing in the Lab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59Compression Testing in the Lab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61Equal Biaxial Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63Compression and Equal Biaxial Strain States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64Volumetric Compression Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65Planar Tension Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66Viscoelastic Stress Relaxation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68Dynamic Behavior – Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69Friction Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71Data Reduction in the Lab. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72Model Verification Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74Testing at Non-ambient Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76Loading/Unloading Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77Test Specimen Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78Fatigue Crack Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79Experimental and Analysis Road Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
CHAPTER 5 Material Test Data Fitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81Major Modes of Deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82Confined Compression Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85Hydrostatic Compression Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86General Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87Mooney, Ogden Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88Visual Checks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89Material Stability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90Future Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91Adjusting Raw Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92Consider All Modes of Deformation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95The Three Basic Strain States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96Curve Fitting with Mentat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
CHAPTER 6 Workshop Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103Some Mentat Hints and Shortcuts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104Model 1: Uniaxial Stress Specimen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105Model 1: Uniaxial Curve Fit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
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Model 1C: Tensile Specimen with Continuous Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123Model 1: Realistic Uniaxial Stress Specimen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135Model 2: Equi-Biaxial Stress Specimen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139Model 2: Equi-Biaxial Curve Fit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143Model 2: Realistic Equal-Biaxial Stress Specimen. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155Model 3: Simple Compression, Button Comp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158Model 4: Planar Shear Specimen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166Model 4: Planar Shear Curve Fit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170Model 4: Realistic Planar Shear Specimen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185Model 5: Viscoelastic Specimen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188Model 5: Viscoelastic Curve Fit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
CHAPTER 7 Contact Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203Definition of Contact Bodies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204Control of Rigid Bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206Contact Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207Bias Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208Deformable-to-Deformable Contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209Potential Errors due to Piecewise Linear Description: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210Analytical Deformable Contact Bodies: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210Contact Flowchart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211Symmetry Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212Rigid with Heat Transfer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213Contact Table. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215Contact Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217Exclude Segments During Contact Detection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218Effect Of Exclude Option:. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219Contacting Nodes and Contacted Segments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220Shell Thickness is taken into account according to: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220Friction Model Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221Stick-Slip Friction Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222Coulomb (Sliding) Friction Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223Shear (Sliding) Friction Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224Coulomb Sliding Friction Model use Stresses or Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225Glued Contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226Release Option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228Interference Check / Interference Closure Amount . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228Forces on Rigid Bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 5
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APPENDIX A The Mechanics of Elastomers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231Deformation States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232General Formulation of Elastomers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236Finite Element Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239Large Strain Viscoelasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240Large Strain Viscoelasticity based on Energy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240Illustration of Large Strain Viscoelastic Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
APPENDIX B Elastomeric Damage Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247Discontinuous Damage Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248Continuous Damage Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
APPENDIX C Aspects of Rubber Foam Models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257Theoretical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258Measuring Material Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
APPENDIX D Biaxial & Compression Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265Overall Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267The Experimental Apparatus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268Analytical Verification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277Attachment A: Compression Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
APPENDIX E Xmgr – a 2D Plotting Tool. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281Features of ACE/gr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282Using ACE/gr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283ACE/gr Miscellaneous Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
APPENDIX F Notes and Course Critique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292Course Critique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
6 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Ex
CHAPTER 1 Introduction
perimental Elastomer
This course is to provide a fundamental understanding of how material testing and finite element analysis are combined to improve your design of rubber and elastomeric products. Most courses in elastomeric analysis stop with finite element modeling, and leave you searching for material data. This experimental elastomer analysis course combines performing the analysis and the material testing. It shows how the material testing has a critical effect upon the accuracy of the analysis.
Analysis 7
Chapter 1: Introduction Course Objective: FEA & Laboratory
Course Objective: FEA & Laboratory
Left Brain
W C1 I1 3–( ) C2 I2 3–( )+=
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αn------ λ1
αn λ2αn λ3
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N
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ComputerAnalyticalObjectiveLogical
W NkT I1 3–( ) 2⁄=
W G12--- I1 3–( ) 1
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Right BrainLaboratory
ExperimentalSubjectiveIntuitive
8 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Course Objective: FEA & Laboratory Chapter 1: Introduction
Course Objective
Discuss the TESTCURVE FIT
ANALYSIS
cycle specific to rubber and elastomers.
Limit scope to material models such as Mooney-Rivlin and Ogden form strain energy models.
Test Material Specimen
Material Model (curve fit)
Test Part
?Correlation
? Analyze Part
Analyze Specimen
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 9
Chapter 1: Introduction Course Objective: FEA & Laboratory
Course Objective (cont.)
Some important topics covered are:
❑ What tests are preferred and why?
❑ Why aren’t ASTM specs always the answer?
❑ What should I do about pre-conditioning?
❑ Why are multiple deformation mode tests important?
❑ How can I judge the accuracy of different material models?
❑ How do I double check my model against the test data?
10 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Course Schedule Chapter 1: Introduction
Course Schedule
DAY 1
Begin End Topic Chap.9:00 10:15 Introduction,
Macroscopic Behavior of Elastomers1, 2, 3
10:30 12:00 Laboratory Orientation 412:00 1:00 Lunch
1:00 3:00 Tensile Testing
3:15 5:00 Tensile Test Data Fitting 5FEA of Tensile Test Specimen 6
5:00 Adjourn
DAY 2 - Chapter 6 + Lab
Begin End Topic9:00 10:30 Equal Biaxial Testing, Compression, Volumetric
Equi-Biaxial Test Data Fitting, Comp., Volumetric
10:45 12:00 FEA of Biaxial Specimen, Comp., Volumetric
12:00 1:00 Lunch
1:00 3:00 Planar Shear Testing
3:15 5:00 Planar Shear Test Data Fitting
Data Fitting with All Test Modes
FEA of Planar Test Specimen
5:00 Adjourn
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 11
Chapter 1: Introduction Course Schedule
Course Schedule (cont.)
Keep Involved:
Tell Me and I’ll ForgetShow Me and I’ll Remember
Involve Me and I’ll Understand
DAY 3
Begin End Topic Chap.9:00 10:30 Viscoelastic Testing
Viscoelastic Data Fitting 610:45 12:00 FEA of Viscoelastic Test Specimen
12:00 1:00 Lunch
1:00 3:00 Contact and Case StudiesSpecimen Test, FEA, Part Test Correlation
7
3:15 5:00 Concluding Remarks 5:00 Adjourn
12 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
About MSC.Marc Products Chapter 1: Introduction
About MSC.Marc Products
MSC.Marc Products are in use at thousands of sites around the world to analyze and optimize designs in the aerospace, automotive, biomedical, chemical, consumer, construction, electronics, energy, and manufacturing industries. MSC.Marc Products offer automated nonlinear analysis of contact problems commonly found in rubber and metal forming and many other applications. For more information see www.marc.com.
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 13
Chapter 1: Introduction About Axel Products, Inc.
About Axel Products, Inc.
Axel Products is an independent testing laboratory, providing physical testing services for materials characterization of elastomers and plastics. See www.axelproducts.com.
14 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Data Measurement and Analysis Chapter 1: Introduction
Data Measurement and Analysis
❑ Experiment
In 1927, Werner Heisenberg first noticed that the act of measurement introduces an uncertainty in the momentum of an electron, and that an electron cannot possess a definite position and momentum at any instant. This simply means that:
Test Results depend upon the measurement
❑ Analysis
Analysis of continuum mechanics using FEA techniques introduces certain assumptions and approximations that lead to uncertainties in the interpretation of the results. This simply means that:
FEA Results depend upon the approximations
❑ Together
This course combines performing the material testing and the analysis to understand how to eliminate uncertainties in the material testing and the finite element modeling to achieve superior product design.
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 15
Chapter 1: Introduction Data Measurement and Analysis
Data Measurement and Analysis (cont.)
Linear Material, How is Young’s modulus, E, measured?
❑ Tension/Compression
❑ Torsion
❑ Bending
❑ Wave Speed
Do you expect all of these E’s to be the same for the same material?
EP A⁄
∆L( ) L⁄-------------------
=
E 2 1 υ+( ) Tc J⁄φ
------------- =
E PL3
3δI---------=
E c2ρ=
T φ,
P δ,
P ∆L,
16 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Typical Properties of Rubber Materials Chapter 1: Introduction
Typical Properties of Rubber Materials
❑ Properties:
It can undergo large deformations (possible strains up to 500%) yet remain elastic.
The load-extension behavior is markedly nonlinear.
Due to viscoelasticity, there are specific damping properties.
It is nearly incompressible.
It is very temperature dependent.
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 17
Chapter 1: Introduction Typical Properties of Rubber Materials
Typical Extension of Rubber Materials (cont.)
0 200 400 600Extension (per cent)
0
1
2
3
4
Ten
sile
str
ess
(N/m
m2 )
18 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Important Application Areas Chapter 1: Introduction
Important Application Areas
– Car industry (tires, seals, belts, hoses, etc.)
– Biomechanics (tubes, pumps, valves, implants, etc.)
– Packaging industry
– Sports and consumer industries
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 19
Chapter 1: Introduction Important Application Areas
20 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Ex
CHAPTER 2 The Macroscopic Behavior of Elastomers
perimental Elastomer
Elastomers (natural & synthetic rubbers) are amorphous polymers, random orientations of long chain molecules. The macroscopic behavior of elastomers is rather complex and typically depends upon:
– Time (strain-rate)
– Temperature
– Cure History (cross-link density)
– Load History (damage & fatigue)
– Deformation State
Analysis 21
Chapter 2: The Macroscopic Behavior of Elastomers Microscopic Structure
Microscopic Structure
❑ Long coiled molecules, with points of entanglement.Behaves like a viscous fluid.
❑ Vulcanization creates chemical bonds (cross-links) atthese entanglement points.Now behavior is that of a rubbery viscous solid.
❑ Initial orientation of molecules is random.Behavior is initially isotropic.
❑ Fillers, such as carbon black, change the behavior.
22 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Temperature Effects, Tg Chapter 2: The Macroscopic Behavior of Elastomers
Temperature Effects, Tg
❑ All polymers have a spectrum of mechanical behavior, frombrittle, or glassy, at low temperatures, to rubbery athigh temperatures.
❑ The properties change abruptly in the glass transition region.
❑ The center of this region is known as the Tg, the glass transition temperature.
❑ Typical values of Tg (in oC) are: -70 for natural rubber, -55for EPDM, and -130 for silicone rubber.
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 23
Chapter 2: The Macroscopic Behavior of Elastomers Time Effects, Viscoelasticity
Time Effects, Viscoelasticity
❑ Temp. & Time effects derive from long molecules slidingalong and around each other during deformation.
❑ A plot of shear modulus vs. test time:
❑ Material behavior related to molecule sliding (friction):
strain-rate effectscreep, stress-relaxationhysteresisdamping
24 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Time Effects, Viscoelasticity Chapter 2: The Macroscopic Behavior of Elastomers
Time Effects, Viscoelasticity (cont.)
❑ Different types of tests can be used to evaluate theshort-time and long-time stress-strain behavior.
❑ Our current favorite, the Stress-relaxation test:
❑ Gather data of strain, short-time stress, long-time stress.
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 25
Chapter 2: The Macroscopic Behavior of Elastomers Curing Effects (Vulcanization)
Curing Effects (Vulcanization)
❑ Curing creates chemical bonds – cross-linking.
❑ Cross-link density directly affects the stiffness.
❑ Cross-link density effect for Natural Rubber:
❑ Be careful that real parts and test specimens share the samecuring history, thus same stiffness.
26 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Damage, Early Time Chapter 2: The Macroscopic Behavior of Elastomers
Damage, Early Time
❑ Straining may break a fraction of the cross-links, reduces the overall stiffness and may cause plasticity.
❑ Low cycle damage is very evident in filled elastomers,due to breakdown of filler structure and changes in the conformation of molecular networks.
❑ Mullin’s Effect in carbon black filled NR:
❑ Be careful that real parts and test specimens share the sameload history, Preconditioning.
This is a textbook idealization. Real material behavior looks like: “Progressively Increasing Load History…” on page 58
(The loading curve and unloading curve are not coincident).
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 27
Chapter 2: The Macroscopic Behavior of Elastomers Damage, Fatigue
Damage, Fatigue
❑ Very early stages of understanding, see Gent’s Engineeringwith Rubber, Chapter 6, Mechanical Fatigue.http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1569902992/ref%3Ded%5Foe%5Fh/002-1221807-2520837
❑ Beyond scope of this course.
Damage, Chemical Causes
❑ Many other chemicals are known to damage elastomersand degrade the mechanical behavior:
Ozone Brake FluidOxidation Hydraulic FluidUltraviolet RadiationOil, Gasoline
❑ Sometimes preconditioning of test specimens can be helpful in gauging these effects.
❑ Typically, however, these are longer time effects.
28 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Deformation States Chapter 2: The Macroscopic Behavior of Elastomers
Deformation States
❑ Shearing vs. Bulk Compression
❑ Shearing Modulus, , typical ~ 1 - 10 MPa
❑ Bulk Modulus, , typical ~ 2 GPa
hence
and
❑ Ordinary solid (e.g. steel): and are the same order ofmagnitude. Whereas, in rubber the ratio of to is of the
order ; hence the response to a stress is effectivelydetermined solely by the shear modulus when the material can shear.
❑ We say rubber is (nearly) incompressible in those caseswhen it is not highly confined.
G
K p∆V V0⁄-----------------=
KG---- 10
3∼ ∞→
υ 12---→
K G
K G
103
G
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 29
Chapter 2: The Macroscopic Behavior of Elastomers Deformation States
Deformation States (cont.)
❑ FEA Material Model calibration requires certain types of tests.
❑ They require states of “pure” stress and strain, that isthat the stress/strain state be homogeneous.
homogeneous = uniform throughout(isotropic = identical in all directions)
Or at least homogeneous throughout a large area/volume of the test specimen (minimize end effects).
❑ It is good practice to model and analyze the test specimenitself to prove homogeneity.
❑ The “button compression” test is notoriously bad fromthis perspective.
❑ Keep in mind that many ASTM test standards are definedfor characterization, or process control purposes. ManyASTM specs are NOT suitable for material modelcalibration.
30 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Ex
CHAPTER 3 Material Models, Historical Perspective
perimental Elastomer
It is useful to know the historical evolution of rubber material models. We will cover Neo-Hookean, Mooney, Mooney-Rivlin, and Ogden material models. Each model is based on the concept of strain energy functions, which guarantees elasticity.
Analysis 31
Chapter 3: Material Models, Historical Perspective Engineering Materials and Analysis
Engineering Materials and Analysis
Clearly metals have been with us for a long time, unfortunately elastomers (natural and synthetic rubber) have just arrived relative to metals some 160 years ago. The study of elastomers has only spanned the last 60 years as shown in Table 1. If elastomers are to attain the position they seem to deserve in engineering applications, they must be studied comprehensively as have, for example, steel and other commonly used metals.
TABLE 1. History of Metals, Elastomers, and Analysis
Date Metal Elastomer Analysis
-4000 Copper, Gold
-3500 Bronze Casting
-1400 Iron Age
-1 Damascus Steel
1660 Hookean Materials
1800 Titanium 3D Elasticity
1840 Aluminum Vulcanization
1850 Parkesine
1879 Rare earth metals Colloids
1929 Aminoplastics
1933 Polyethylene
1933 PMMA
1939 Nylon
1940 Neo-Hookean
1940 PVC
1941 Polyurethanes
1943 PTFE
1949 Mooney-Rivlin
1950 Hill’s Plasticity
1955 Polyester
1965 FEA Software
1970 Foams
1975 Treloar
1980 > 200 Polymer compounds
1990 Recycle
32 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Neo-Hookean Material Model Chapter 3: Material Models, Historical Perspective
Neo-Hookean Material Model
❑ Definitions, Stretch ratios, Engineering Strain:
❑ Incompressibility:
❑ From Thermodynamics and statistical mechanics,First order approximation (neo-Hookean):
λ i
Li ∆Li+
Li-------------------- 1 εi+= = eng. strain, εi ∆Li Li⁄( )=
t1 t1
t2
t2
t3
t3
λ1L1
λ2L2λ3L3
L1
L2
L3
λ1λ2λ3 1=
W12---G λ1
2 λ22 λ3
23–+ +( )=
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 33
Chapter 3: Material Models, Historical Perspective Neo-Hookean Material Model
Neo-Hookean Material Model (cont.)
❑ Experimental Verification using Simple Extension
Hence:
Engineering Stress:
True Stress:
❑ Simple, one parameter material model
❑ Positive G guarantees material model stability
λ1 λ= λ2 λ3 1 λ⁄= =
W12---G λ2 2
λ--- 3–+
=
σ dW dλ⁄ G λ 1
λ2-----–
= = =
G 1 ε 1
1 ε+( )2-------------------–+
=
t σ1 λ⁄---------- λσ G λ2 1
λ---–
= = =
34 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Neo-Hookean Material Extension Deformation Chapter 3: Material Models, Historical Perspective
Neo-Hookean Material Extension Deformation
Theory versus experiments:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Extension ratio
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
En
gin
eeri
ng
str
ess
(N/m
m2 )
theory
experiment
Extension ratio
En
gin
eeri
ng
str
ess
(N/m
m2 )
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 35
Chapter 3: Material Models, Historical Perspective Neo-Hookean Material Shear Deformation
Neo-Hookean Material Shear Deformation
❑ Experimental Verification using Simple Shear:
If , then and
Equivalent shear strain :
Strain energy function:
Shear stress depends linearly on shear strain
X
Y
γatan
λ1 λ= λ21λ---= λ3 1=
γ
γ λ 1λ---–=
W12---G λ2 1
λ2----- 2–+
12---Gγ2
= =
τ γ
τ Wdγd
-------- Gγ= =
36 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Neo-Hookean Material Shear Deformation Chapter 3: Material Models, Historical Perspective
Neo-Hookean Material Shear Deformation (cont.)
Theory versus experiments:
0 1 2 3 4 5Shear strain
0.0
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.6
Sh
ear
stre
ss (
N/m
m2 )
theory
experiment
Sh
ear
stre
ss (
N/m
m2 )
Shear strain
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 37
Chapter 3: Material Models, Historical Perspective Neo-Hookean Material Summary
Neo-Hookean Material Summary
Neo Hookean
direct stresses
shear stress
Note: Shear Stress-Strain Relation is the same for Hookean and Neo Hookean.
TABLE 2. Basic Deformation Modes
Mode
Biaxial
Planar Shear
Uniaxial
Simple Shear
λ1 λ2 λ3
λ λ λ 2–
λ 1 λ 1–
λ λ 1 2⁄– λ 1 2⁄–
1 γ2
2----- γ 1 γ2
4-----++ + 1 γ2
2----- γ 1 γ2
4-----+–+ 1
W12---G λ1
2 λ22 λ3
23–+ +( )=
σλ∂
∂W σ ε( )= =
τγ∂
∂W Gγ= =
38 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Neo-Hookean Material Summary Chapter 3: Material Models, Historical Perspective
Neo-Hookean Material Summary (cont.)
TABLE 3. Hookean versus Neo Hookean Values of
ModeHookean
=
Hookean as Neo Hookean
=
Biaxial
Planar Shear
Uniaxial
σ G⁄
σ G⁄ υ 0→ σ G⁄
2 1 ν–( )1 2υ–( )
--------------------ε 2ε 2 1 ε 1 ε+( ) 5––+{ }
2 1 ν– ν2–( )
1 2υ–( )-------------------------------ε 2ε 1 ε 1 ε+( ) 3–
–+{ }
2 1 υ+( )ε 2ε 1 ε 1 ε+( ) 2––+{ }
-1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0-10.0
-5.0
0.0
5.0
10.0
Hookean and Neo Hookean Material ModelsPoisson’ Ratio = 0.45
Hookean BiaxialHookean Planar ShearHookean UniaxialNew Hookean BiaxialNeo Hookean Planar ShearNeo Hookean Uniaxial
Engineering Strain
Eng
inee
ring
Str
ess/
She
ar M
odul
us
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 39
Chapter 3: Material Models, Historical Perspective A Word About Simple Shear
A Word About Simple Shear
The simple shear mode of deformation is called simple shear because of two reasons: first it renders the stress strain relation linear for a Neo-Hookean material; secondly it is simple to draw.
Linear Stress Strain Relation comes from substituting the simple shear deformations modes of:
into
and then
Secondly the mode is simple to draw.
λ2
11 γ2
2----- γ 1 γ2
4-----++ +=
λ22
1 γ2
2----- γ 1 γ2
4-----+–+=
λ23
1=( )
W12---G λ1
2 λ22 λ3
23–+ +( ) 1
2---Gγ2
= =
τγ∂
∂W Gγ= =
γatan
τ
40 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
2-Constant Mooney Extensional Deformation Chapter 3: Material Models, Historical Perspective
2-Constant Mooney Extensional Deformation
❑ Basic assumptions:
(1) The rubber is incompressible and isotropic
(2) Hooke’s law is obeyed in simple shear
❑ Strain energy function with two constants:
❑ Simple shear:
Hence
or
W C1 λ12 λ2
2 λ32
3–+ +( ) C21
λ12
----- 1
λ22
-----+ 1
λ32
----- 3–+
+=
W C1 C2+( ) λ12 1
λ12
----- 2–+
C1 C2+( )γ2= =
τ dW dγ⁄ 2 C1 C2+( )γ= =
G 2 C1 C2+( )=
σ 2 λ 1
λ2-----–
C1C2
λ------+
= σ2 λ 1 λ2⁄–( )------------------------------ C1
C2
λ------+=
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 41
Chapter 3: Material Models, Historical Perspective 2-Constant Mooney Extensional Deformation
2-Constant Mooney Extensional Deformation (cont.)
Theory versus experiments
A
B
C
DE
F
G
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.01/λ
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
σ/2(
λ−1/
λ2 ) (N
/mm
2 )σ/
2(λ–
1/λ2 )
(N
/mm
2 )
1/λ
42 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Other Mooney-Rivlin Models Chapter 3: Material Models, Historical Perspective
Other Mooney-Rivlin Models
❑ Basic assumptions:
(1) The rubber is incompressible and isotropic in the unstrained state
(2) The strain energy function must depend on even powers of
❑ The three simplest possible even-powered functions (invariants):
❑ Incompressibility implies that , so that:
❑ Mooney material in terms of invariants:
(Mooney’s original notation)
(Mooney-Rivlin notation)
λ i
I1 λ12 λ2
2 λ32
+ +=
I2 λ12λ2
2 λ22λ3
2 λ32λ1
2+ +=
I3 λ12λ2
2λ32
=
I3 1=
W W I1 I2,( )=
W C1 I1 3–( ) C2 I2 3–( )+=
W C10 I1 3–( ) C01 I2 3–( )+=
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 43
Chapter 3: Material Models, Historical Perspective Other Mooney-Rivlin Models
Other Mooney-Rivlin Models (cont.)
❑ Some other proposed energy functions:
The Signiorini form:
The Yeoh form:
Third order Deformation Form(James, Green, and Simpson):
W C10 I1 3–( ) C01 I2 3–( ) C20 I1 3–( )2+ +=
W C10 I1 3–( ) C20 I1 3–( )2C30 I1 3–( )3
+ +=
W C10 I1 3–( ) C01 I2 3–( ) C11 I1 3–( ) I2 3–( )+ + +=
C20 I1 3–( )2C+ 30 I1 3–( )3
44 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Ogden Models Chapter 3: Material Models, Historical Perspective
Ogden Models
❑ Slightly compressible rubber:
and are material constants,
is the initial bulk modulus, and
is the volumetric ratio, defined by
The order of magnitude of the volumetric changes per unitvolume should be 0.01
Usually, the number of terms taken into account inthe Ogden models is or .
Wµn
αn------ J
αn–3
---------
λ1αn λ2
αn λ3αn+ +( ) 3– 4.5K J
13---
1–
2
+
n 1=
N
∑=
µn αn
K
J
J λ1λ2λ3=
N 2= N 3=
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 45
Chapter 3: Material Models, Historical Perspective Foam Models
Foam Models
❑ Elastomer foams:
, and are material constants
Wµn
αn------ λ1
αn λ2αn λ3
αn+ + 3–[ ]µn
βn----- 1 J
βn–( )n 1=
N
∑+
n 1=
N
∑=
µn αn βn
46 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Viscoelastic Models Chapter 3: Material Models, Historical Perspective
Viscoelastic Models
❑ MSC.Marc has the capability to perform both small strain and large strain viscoelastic analysis. The focus here will be on the use of the large strain viscoelastic material model.
❑ MSC.Marc’s large strain viscoelastic material model is based on a multiplicative decomposition of the strain energy function
where is a standard Mooney-Rivlin or Ogden form strain energy function for the instantaneous deformation.
And is a relaxation function in Prony series form:
where is a nondimensional multiplier and is the associated time constant.
W Eij t,( ) W Eij( ) R t( )×=
W Eij( )
R t( )
R t( ) 1 δn1 t λn⁄–( )exp–( )
n 1=
N
∑–=
δn λn
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 47
Chapter 3: Material Models, Historical Perspective Model Limitations and Assumptions
Model Limitations and Assumptions
❑ This material model assumes that the rate of relaxation is independent of the load magnitude. For instance, for relaxation tests at 20%, 50%, and 100% strain, the percent reduction in stress at any time point should be the same.
❑ The relaxation is purely deviatoric, there is no relaxation associated with the dilatational (bulk) behavior.
When used with a Mooney-Rivlin form model, the material is assumed to be incompressible. In MSC.Marc some small compressibility is introduced for better numerical behavior, namely if no bulk modulus is specified, then MSC.Marc computes the following for the bulk modulus:
When used with an Ogden model, the material may be made slightly compressible.
K 10000 C10 C01+( )=
48 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Determining Model Coefficients Chapter 3: Material Models, Historical Perspective
Determining Model Coefficients
❑ This material model requires two different types of tests beconducted and two separate curve fits be performed.
❑ The time-independent function, , is determined fromstandard uniaxial, biaxial, etc., stress-strain tests. These tests are covered in more detail in Chapter 5.
❑ The time-dependent function, , is determined from one or more stress relaxation tests. This is a test at constant strain,where one measures the stress over a period of time.
W Eij( )
R t( )
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 49
Chapter 3: Material Models, Historical Perspective Determining Model Coefficients
50 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Ex
CHAPTER 4 Laboratory
perimental Elastomer
Need to know:
What are the actual tests used to measure elastomeric properties.
The limitations of common laboratory tests.
How to specify a laboratory experiment as required by your product requirements.
Let’s understand the specimen testing better to achieve better correlation and confidence in our component analysis.
Analysis 51
Chapter 4: Laboratory Lab Orientation
Lab Orientation
Safety
Tour of Lab
Laboratory Dangers
High Pressure Hydraulics
Class II Lasers
Instrument Crushing
Wear Safety Glasses
Don’t Look Into Lasers
Don’t Touch Specimens or Fixtures When Testing
52 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Basic Instrumentation Chapter 4: Laboratory
Basic Instrumentation
Electromechanical Tensile Testers
Servo-hydraulic Testers
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 53
Chapter 4: Laboratory Basic Instrumentation
Basic Instrumentation (cont.)
Wave Propagation Instrument
Automated Crack Growth System
Aging Instrumentation
54 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Measuring Chapter 4: Laboratory
Measuring
Force
Strain Gage Load Cells
Position
Encoders and LVDT’s
Strain
Clip-on Strain GagesVideo ExtensometersLaser Extensometers
Temperature
Thermocouples
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 55
Chapter 4: Laboratory Measurements
Measurements
Force, Position, Strain, Time, Temperature
Testing Instrument Transducers
Load Cell (0.5% - 1% of Reading Accuracy in Range)
Position Encoder (Approximately +/- 0.02 mm at the Device)
Position LVDT (Between +/- 0.5 to +/- 1.0% of Full Scale)
Video Extensiometer (Function of the FOV)
Laser Extensiometer (+/- 001 mm)
Time (Measured in the Instrument or at the Computer)
Thermocouple
56 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
What about Shore Hardness? Chapter 4: Laboratory
What about Shore Hardness?
Perhaps the Most Common Rubber Test
Useful in General
Easy to Perform at the Plant
Generally Useless for Analysis!
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 57
Chapter 4: Laboratory Testing the Correct Material
Testing the Correct Material
Consistent within The Experimental Data Set
Cut All Specimens from the Same Slab
Verify that The Tested Material is the Same as the Part
Processing
Color
Cure
Progressively Increasing Load History…
Cut Specimens from Same Material150mm x 150mm x 2mm Sheet
All Are Same Compound
58 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Tensile Testing in the Lab Chapter 4: Laboratory
Tensile Testing in the Lab
What is Simple Tension?
Uniaxial Loading
Free of Lateral Constraint
Gage Section: Length: Width >10:1
Measure Strain only in the Region where a Uniform State of Strain Exists
No Contact
1
2
3
Cut Specimens from Same Material150mm x 150mm x 2mm Sheet
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 59
Chapter 4: Laboratory Tensile Testing in the Lab
Tensile Testing in the Lab (cont.)
Some Common Elastomers Exhibit Dramatic Strain Amplitude and Cycling Effects at Moderate Strain Levels.
Conclusions:
Test to Realistic Strain Levels
Use Application Specific Loadings to Generate Material Data
60 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Compression Testing in the Lab Chapter 4: Laboratory
Compression Testing in the Lab
It is Experimentally Difficult to Minimize Lateral Constraint due to Friction at the Specimen Loading Platen Interface
Friction Effects Alter the Stress-strain Curves
The Friction is Not Known and Cannot be Accurately Corrected
Even Very Small Friction Levels have a Significant Effect at Very Small Strains
1
2
3
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 61
Chapter 4: Laboratory Compression Testing in the Lab
Compression Testing in the Lab (cont.)
Friction Effects on Compression Data
Analysis by Jim Day, GM Powertrain
62 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Equal Biaxial Testing Chapter 4: Laboratory
Equal Biaxial Testing
Why?
Same Strain State as Compression
Cannot Do Pure Compression
Can Do Pure Biaxial
Analysis of the Specimen justifies Geometry
1
2
3
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 63
Chapter 4: Laboratory Compression and Equal Biaxial Strain States
Compression and Equal Biaxial Strain States
There is also no ASTM Specification for equal biaxial strain tests. None the less, in common practice either square or circular frames shown below are used. The equal biaxial strain state is identical to the compression
button’s strain state, simply substitute .Λ λ 2–=
λ3 Λ=
λ1 Λ 1 2⁄–=
Λ λ 2–=
λ2 Λ 1 2⁄–=
λ3 λ 2–=
λ1 λ=
λ2 λ=
64 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Volumetric Compression Test Chapter 4: Laboratory
Volumetric Compression Test
Direct Measure of the Stress Required to Change the Volume of an Elastomer
Requires Resolute Displacement Measurement at the Fixture
Initial Slope = Bulk Modulus
Typically, only highly constrained applications require an accurate measure of the entire Pressure-Volume relationship.
1
2
3
Bulk Modulus = 2.1 GPa
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Pre
ssur
e (M
Pa)
Volumetric Strain
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.100.00
VOLCOMP_B
Base Data Set
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 65
Chapter 4: Laboratory Planar Tension Test
Planar Tension Test
Uniaxial Loading
Perfect Lateral Constraint
All Thinning Occurs in One Direction
Strain Measurement is Particularly Critical
Some Material Flows from the Grips
The Effective Height is Smaller than Starting Height so >10:1 Width:Height is Needed
Similar Stress-strain Shape to Simple Tension and Biaxial Extension
Match Loadings between Strain States 1
2
3
Base Data Set
Eng
inee
ring
Str
ess
(MP
a)
Planar Tension
Engineering Strain
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
PT23C_B
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.00.0
66 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Planar Tension Test Chapter 4: Laboratory
Planar Tension Test (cont.)
A Small but Significant amount of Material will Flow From the Planar Tension Grips.
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 67
Chapter 4: Laboratory Viscoelastic Stress Relaxation
Viscoelastic Stress Relaxation
Viscoelastic BehaviorCan be Assumed to Reasonably Follow Linear Viscoelastic Behavior in Many Cases
Is not the same as aging!
Describes the short term reversible behavior of elastomers.
Tensile, shear and biax have similar viscoelastic properties!
A totally “relaxed” Stress-strain Curve can be Constructed. Decades of data in time are equally valuable for fitting purposes.
Strain = 30 %
Strain = 50 %
Time (s)
Str
ess
(MP
a)
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.00 2000 4000 6000 8000
Time (Seconds)
Str
ess
(MP
a)
Str
ess
Strain
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
68 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Dynamic Behavior – Testing Chapter 4: Laboratory
Dynamic Behavior – Testing
Types of Dynamic Behavior
Large strains at high velocity
Small sinusoidal strains superimposed on large mean strains
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 69
Chapter 4: Laboratory Dynamic Behavior – Testing
Dynamic Behavior – Testing (cont.)
Mean Strain and Amplitude Effects are Significant
70 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Friction Test Chapter 4: Laboratory
Friction Test
Friction is the force that resists the sliding of two materials relative to each other. The friction force is:
(1) approximately independent of the area of contact over a wide limit and
(2) is proportional to the normal force between the two materials.
These two laws of friction were discovered experimentally by Leonardo da Vinci in the 13th century, and latter refined by Charles Coulomb in the 16th century.
Coulomb performed many experiments on friction and pointed out the difference between static and dynamic friction. This type of friction is referred to as Coulomb friction today.
In order to model friction in finite element analysis, one needs to measure the aforementioned proportionally factor or coefficient of friction, . The measurement of is depicted here where a sled with a rubber bottom is pulled along a glass surface. The normal force is known and the friction force is measured. Various lubricants are placed between the two surfaces which greatly influence the friction forces measured.
Friction Test
Fric
tion
Forc
e
Position
Incr
easi
ng N
orm
al F
orce
µ µ
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 71
Chapter 4: Laboratory Data Reduction in the Lab
Data Reduction in the Lab
The stress strain response of a typical test are shown at the right as taken from the laboratory equipment. In its raw form, it is not ready to be fit to a hyperelastic material model. It needs to be adjusted.
The raw data is adjusted as shown below by taking a stable upload cycle. In doing this, Mullins effect and hysteresis are ignored. This upload cycle then needs to be shifted such that the curve passes through the origin. Remember hyperelastic models must be elastic and have their stress vanish to zero when the strain is zero.This shift changes the apparent gauge length and original cross sectional area.
There is nothing special about using the upload curve, the entire stable cycle can be entered for the curve fit once shifted to zero stress for zero strain. Fitting a single cycle gives an average hyperelastic behavior to the hysteresis in that cycle. Also one may enter more data points in important strain regions than other regions. The curve fit will give a closer fit were there are more points.
Fit for Arruda-Boyce
Adjusted Data
Raw Data
72 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Data Reduction in the Lab Chapter 4: Laboratory
Data Reduction in the Lab (cont.)
Data Reduction Considerations for Data Generated using Cyclic Loading
1. Slice out the selected loading path.
2. Subtract and note the offset strain.
3. Divide all strain values by (1 + Offset Strain) to account for the “new” larger stabilized gage length.
4. Multiply all stress values by (1+ Offset Strain) to account for “new” smaller stabilized cross sectional area.
5. The first stress value should be very near zero but shift the stress values this small amount so that zero strain has exactly zero stress.
6. Decimate the file by evenly eliminating points so that the total file size is manageable by the particular curve fitting software.
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 73
Chapter 4: Laboratory Model Verification Experiments
Model Verification Experiments
Attributes of a Good Model Verification Experiment
The geometry is realistic.
All Relevant Constraints are Measurable.
The Analytical Model is Well Understood
74 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Model Verification Experiments Chapter 4: Laboratory
Model Verification Experiments (cont.)
The Contribution of the Flashing on the Part was Unexpected, Initially Not Modeled, But Very Significant to the Actual Load Deflection.
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 75
Chapter 4: Laboratory Testing at Non-ambient Temperatures
Testing at Non-ambient Temperatures
Testing at the Application Temperature
Measure Strain at the Right Location
Perform Realistic Loadings
Elastomers Properties Can Change by Orders of Magnitude in the Application Temperature Range.
76 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Loading/Unloading Comparison Chapter 4: Laboratory
Loading/Unloading Comparison
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 77
Chapter 4: Laboratory Test Specimen Requirements
Test Specimen Requirements
Where do these specimen shapes come from?
1. The states of strain imposed have an analytical solution.
2. A significantly large known strain condition exists free of gradients such that strain can be measured.
3. The state of strain is homogeneous for homogeneous materials.
4. The specimen shapes are such that different states of strain can be measured under similar loading conditions.
5. The specimen shapes are such that different states of strain can be measured with the same material.
78 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Fatigue Crack Growth Chapter 4: Laboratory
Fatigue Crack Growth
Provides Great Potential.
Not well understood.
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 79
Chapter 4: Laboratory Experimental and Analysis Road Map
Experimental and Analysis Road Map
TABLE 4. Experimental Tests
Test Description Notes
1 Uniaxial
1a Uniaxial - Rate Effects
2 Biaxial
2a Biaxial - Temperature Effects
3 Planar Shear
4 Compression Button
5 Viscoelastic
6 Volumetric Compression
7 Friction Sled
8 Foam Planned
9 Tube Crush Planned
TABLE 5. Analysis Workshop Models
Model Description Notes
1 Uniaxial
2 Biaxial
3 Planar Shear
4 Compression Button mu=0.4
5 Viscoelastic
6 Volumetric Compression Planned
7 Friction Sled Planned
8 Foam Planned
9 Tube Crush Planned
10 Damage Planned
80 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Ex
CHAPTER 5 Material Test Data Fitting
perimental Elastomer
The experimental determination of elastomeric material constants depends greatly on the deformation state, specimen geometry, and what is measured.
Analysis 81
Chapter 5: Material Test Data Fitting Major Modes of Deformation
Major Modes of Deformation
Uniaxial Tension
Biaxial Tension (equivalent strain as uniaxial compression)
1
2
3
λ1 λ2 λ= = λ2 λ3 1 λ2⁄= =
1
3
2
λ1 λ2 λ= = λ3 1 λ2⁄=
82 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Major Modes of Deformation Chapter 5: Material Test Data Fitting
Major Modes of Deformation (cont.)
Planar Tension, Planar Shear, Pure Shear
Simple Shear
λ1 λ= λ2 1= λ3 1 λ⁄=
1
2
3
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 83
Chapter 5: Material Test Data Fitting Major Modes of Deformation
Major Modes of Deformation (cont.)
Volumetric (aka Hydrostatic, Bulk Compression)
FF
Confined Hydrostatic CompressionCompression
84 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Confined Compression Test Chapter 5: Material Test Data Fitting
Confined Compression Test
Strain State:
Stress State:
For this deformation state we have
,
and the uniaxial strain is equal to the volumetric strain or
.
The bulk modulus becomes
MSC.Marc Mentat uses the pressure, , versus a “uniaxial equivalent” of
the volumetric strain namely, , to determine the bulk
modulus as shown on the right. Take care to divide the volumetric strain by 3, because you may forget.
F L,
λ1 1= λ2 1= λ3 L L0⁄=
σ1 σ2 σ3 F Ao⁄– p= = = =
λ1λ2λ3 V V0⁄ L L0⁄= =
0.000 0.010 0.020 0.030 0.040Equivalent Uniaxial Strain [1]
0.0
100.0
200.0
300.0
400.0
Pre
ssur
e [M
pa]
Volumetric DataFor Mentat Curve Fitting
13---
∆V V0⁄
p
∆L L0⁄ ∆V V0⁄=
K p∆V V0⁄------------------= p
∆L L0⁄-----------------=
p
13---
∆V V0⁄
∆V V0⁄ ∆L L0⁄=
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 85
Chapter 5: Material Test Data Fitting Hydrostatic Compression Test
Hydrostatic Compression Test
Strain State:
Stress State:
For this strain state we have
and since
the uniaxial strain becomes one third the volumetric strain or
.
The bulk modulus becomes
Again MSC.Marc Mentat uses the pressure, , versus a “uniaxial equivalent” of the volumetric strain namely, , to determine the
bulk modulus.
F L,
λ1 λ2 λ3 λ V V0⁄( )1 3⁄= = = =
σ1 σ2 σ3 F Ao⁄– p= = = =
λ 1 ∆V+ V0⁄( )1 3⁄1 1
3---
∆V V0⁄+≅=
λ 1 ∆L L0⁄+=
∆L L0⁄ 13---
∆V V0⁄=
K p∆V V0⁄------------------= p
3 ∆L L0⁄( )--------------------------=
p13---
∆V V0⁄
86 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
General Guidelines Chapter 5: Material Test Data Fitting
General Guidelines
❑ Its just curve fitting!
No Polymer physics as basis
Don’t use too high order fit
Remember polynomial fit lessons (high school?)
❑ Number of Data Points
Don’t use too many Regularize if needed
Add/Subtract points if needed
Weighting of Points
❑ Range and Scope of Data
Check fit outside range of data
Check fit in other modes of deformation – scope
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 87
Chapter 5: Material Test Data Fitting Mooney, Ogden Limitations
Mooney, Ogden Limitations
❑ Phenomenological models – not material “law”
These models are mathematical forms, nothing more
❑ Summary of phenomenological models given byYeoh (1995)
“Rivlin and Saunders (1951) have pointed out that the agreement between experimental tensile data and the Mooney-Rivlin equation is somewhat fortuitous. The Mooney-Rivlin model obtained by fitting tensile data is quite inadequate in other modes of deformation, especially compression.”
❑ Using only uniaxial tension data is dangerous!
❑ Mooney model in MSC.Marc allows no compressibility
Ogden model does allow compressibility
88 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Visual Checks Chapter 5: Material Test Data Fitting
Visual Checks
❑ Extrapolations can be dangerous
❑ Always visually check your model’s predictedresponse
Check it outside of the data’s range (see below)
Check it outside the test’s scope
PredictedResponse
DATA
Real Material
PredictedResponse
Real Materialσ
dσ dε 0>•
dσ dε 0<•
ε
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 89
Chapter 5: Material Test Data Fitting Material Stability
Material Stability
❑ Unstable material model -> numerical difficultiesin FEA
❑ Druckers stability postulate,
❑ Graphically:
❑ Remember effects of Newton-Raphson andstrain range
dσ dε• 0>
σ
ε
dσ11 dε11 0>• dσ11 dε11 0<•
90 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Future Trends Chapter 5: Material Test Data Fitting
Future Trends
❑ Statistical Mechanics Models
Based on single-chain polymer chain physics
Build up to network level using non-gaussian statistics
❑ 8 Chain model by Arruda-Boyce (1993)
2 parameter model, can be expressed in terms of I1
Paper: “A three-dimensional constitutive model for the large stretch behavior of rubber elastic materials”, J. Mech. Phys. Solids, V41 N2, pp 389-412.
❑ Also similar is the Gent model (1996)
Paper: “A new Constitutive Relation for Rubber”,Rubber Chem. and Technology, v. 69, pp 59-61.
❑ Claim: alleviates need to gather test data frommultiple modes
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 91
Chapter 5: Material Test Data Fitting Adjusting Raw Data
Adjusting Raw Data
The stress strain response of the three modes of deformation are shown below as taken from the laboratory equipment. In its raw form
it is not ready to be fit to a hyperelastic material model. It needs to be adjusted.
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0Engineering Strain [1]
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
Eng
inee
ring
Str
ess
[Mpa
]
The Raw Data4 Data Points/Second
Equal BiaxialPure ShearTension
92 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Adjusting Raw Data Chapter 5: Material Test Data Fitting
Adjusting Raw Data (cont.)
The raw data is adjusted as shown below by taking the 18th upload cycle. In doing this Mullins effect is ignored. This 18th upload cycle
then needs to be shifted such that the curve passes through the origin. Remember hyperelastic models must be elastic and have their stress vanish to zero when the strain is zero.
This shift changes the apparent gauge length and original cross sectional area.
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0Engineering Strain [1]
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
Eng
inee
ring
Str
ess
[Mpa
]
Adjusting The Raw DataShift to the Origin
Equal Biaxial ShiftedEqual BiaxialPure Shear ShiftedPure ShearTension ShiftedTension
ε ε’ εp–( ) 1 εp+( )⁄=
σ σ’ 1 εp+( )=
εp
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 93
Chapter 5: Material Test Data Fitting Adjusting Raw Data
Adjusting Raw Data (cont.)
There is nothing special about taking the upload cycle, for instance the curve fitting may be done on the download path or both upload and download paths as shown below. The intended application can help you
decide upon the most appropriate way to adjust the data prior to fitting the hyperelastic material models.
0 1
0
1
uniaxial/experiment uniaxial/neo_hookean
1
1
0
0
Engineering Strain [1]
Eng
inee
ring
Str
ess
[Mpa
]
Fit to upload & download
Fit to upload
94 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Consider All Modes of Deformation Chapter 5: Material Test Data Fitting
Consider All Modes of Deformation
The plot below illustrates the danger in curve fitting only the tensile data, namely the other modes may become too stiff. This is why MSC.Marc Mentat always draws the other modes even when no experimental data is present.
Below, a 3-term Ogden provides a great fit to the tensile data, but spoils the other modes. This can be avoided by looking for a balance between the various deformation modes.
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 95
Chapter 5: Material Test Data Fitting The Three Basic Strain States
The Three Basic Strain States
After shifting each mode to pass through the origin, the final curves are shown below. Very many elastomeric materials have this basic shape of the three modes, with uniaxial, shear, and biaxial having
increasing stress for the same strain, respectively. Knowledge of this and the actual shape above where say at a strain of 80%, the ratio of equal biaxial to uniaxial stress is about 2 (i.e. 1.3/0.75 = 1.73) will be come very important as we fit this data with hyperelastic material models. Furthermore, this fit reduces the 10,000 data points taken from the laboratory to just a few constants.
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0Engineering Strain [1]
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
Eng
inee
ring
Str
ess
[Mpa
]
The Three Basic Strain StatesGeneral Elastomer Trends
Equal BiaxialPure ShearTension
96 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Curve Fitting with MSC.Marc Mentat Chapter 5: Material Test Data Fitting
Curve Fitting with MSC.Marc Mentat
Objective: Fit experimental data of Mooney or Ogden materials with MSC.Marc Mentat. Begin at the main menu.
MATERIAL PROPERTIESTABLESREAD
RAW(name of file)TABLE TYPEexperimental_dataOKRETURN
EXPERIMENTAL DATA FITTINGUNIAXIAL(pick table1)OK
ELASTOMERSNEO-HOOKEAN
UNIAXIALCOMPUTEAPPLYOKSCALE AXES
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 97
Chapter 5: Material Test Data Fitting Curve Fitting with MSC.Marc Mentat
Curve Fitting with MSC.Marc Mentat (cont.)
The resulting display of the material model is similar to this. The numerical coefficients for the model are shown in the pop-up menu. Use the APPLY button to copy these coefficients to your material model.
Notice that the uniaxial, biaxial, planar shear and simple shear modes are shown, where the uniaxial mode matches the material input. To turn some modes off, or make other display modifications go to PLOT OPTIONS.
PLOT OPTIONSSIMPLE SHEAR (this toggles it off)PLANAR SHEAR (this toggles it off)RETURN
SCALE AXES
98 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Curve Fitting with MSC.Marc Mentat Chapter 5: Material Test Data Fitting
Curve Fitting with MSC.Marc Mentat (cont.)
Objective: Fit experimental data of Viscoelastic materials with MSC.Marc Mentat. Begin at the main menu.
MATERIAL PROPERTIESTABLESREAD
RAW(name of file)TABLE TYPEexperimental_dataOKRETURN
EXPERIMENTAL DATA FITTING
ENERGY RELAX(pick table1),OK
ELASTOMERSENERGY RELAX
RELAXATION# OF TERMS 3COMPUTEAPPLY, OKSCALE AXES
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 99
Chapter 5: Material Test Data Fitting Curve Fitting with MSC.Marc Mentat
Curve Fitting with MSC.Marc Mentat (cont.)
❑ Mooney-Rivlin fitting is linear, uses least squares fitting
❑ The least squares error is given by either:
The and are relative or absolute respectively is the total number of data points
is the calculated stress
is the measured engineering stress
❑ Relative error is the default
Engineering judgement is best to determine the best fit based upon physical not mathematical reasons.
errorR
1σcalc
i
σimeasured
------------------------– 2
i
Ndata
∑= or
errorA σi
measured σcalci
–( )2
i
Ndata
∑=
errorR
errorA
Ndata
σcalci
σimeasured
100 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Curve Fitting with MSC.Marc Mentat Chapter 5: Material Test Data Fitting
Curve Fitting with MSC.Marc Mentat (cont.)
❑ Ogden fitting is nonlinear, uses downhill-simplexmethod
❑ Downhill-simplex method is an iterative method
Uses a number of start points
Continues until:
is set using CONVERGENCE TOLERANCE
can be set with the ERROR LIMIT button
abs errormax errormin–( )abs errormax errormin+( )---------------------------------------------------------------- tol
2-------<
tol
errormin
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 101
Chapter 5: Material Test Data Fitting Curve Fitting with MSC.Marc Mentat
Curve Fitting with MSC.Marc Mentat (cont.)
❑ Viscoelastic fitting is linear, uses least squares fitting
❑ A Prony series (exponential decay) is fit to thetest data
❑ The least squares error is given by:
❑ For a good fit, the number of Prony series terms should equal the number of time decades in the test data
errorR
1σcalc
i
σimeasured
------------------------– 2
i
Ndata
∑=
102 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Ex
CHAPTER 6 Workshop Problems
perimental Elastomer
These problems are to provide self paced examples to develop skills in performing elastomer material curve fitting and finite element analysis using MSC.Marc and MSC.Marc Mentat.
Please note the directory hierarchy of:
eea/wkshops_A/ or eea/wkshops_B/
uniaxial
biaxial
planarcomp
visco
test_data (raw data)
Analysis 103
Chapter 6: Workshop Problems Some MSC.Marc Mentat Hints and Shortcuts
Some MSC.Marc Mentat Hints and Shortcuts
1. Enter MSC.Marc Mentat to begin, Quit to stop
2. Mouse in Graphics: Left to pick, Right to accept pick
3. Mouse in Menu: Left to pick another menu or function, Middle for help, Right to return to previous menu.<cr> means keyboard return.
4. Save your work frequently. Go to FILES and select SAVE AS and specify a file name. Use SAVE from then on.This will save the current MENTAT database to disk.
5. Dialog region at the lower left of screen displays currentactivity and prompts for input. Check this regionfrequently to see if input is required.
6. Dynamic Viewing can be used to position the model in the graphics area. When activated, the mouse buttons:
Left – translates the modelRight – zooms in/outMiddle – rotates in 3D
Use RESET VIEW and FILL to return to original view.Be sure to turn off DYNAMIC VIEW before pickingin the graphics area.
7. CTRL P/N recall Previous/Next commands entered.
104 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Model 1: Uniaxial Stress Specimen Chapter 6: Workshop Problems
Model 1: Uniaxial Stress Specimen
Objective: To model an elastomeric material under a uniaxial stress deformation mode.
To focus on curve fitting elastomeric test data, a fully runnable procedure file is provided that will build and (and run) an initial model. However, the model contains only a trivial neo-Hookean material model with C10 = 0.5. It will be your job to modify the model by reading in the test data and curve fitting it using various material models.
In a terminal window, use the cd command to move to the wkshops_A/uniaxial or the wkshops_B/uniaxial directory.
Type “mentat” to start the MSC.Marc Mentat program, then starting from the main menu proceed as follows:
UTILSPROCEDURES
EXECUTEpick the file named uni_neo05.procOKOK
This will produce and run a uniaxial stress model. Please familiarize yourself with this model. Look at the BC’s, the material specification, the contact bodies and contact table, and the loadcase.
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 105
Chapter 6: Workshop Problems Model 1: Uniaxial Stress Specimen
After the procedure file is finished the final picture on your screen will look like this.
Here is a brief summary of the uniaxial model we have created:
• A single brick element, full integration, Herrmann.
• Boundary conditions onx=0 & y=0 faces to prevent free translation in space.
• Material model is neo-Hookean with C10 = 0.5
• Rigid contact surfaces are used to impose deformation.
lower rigid body, cbody2, is stationary.
upper rigid body, cbody3, is moved so as to first push, then pull,the brick element.
• Loading is performed in 40 equal time increments. Increment 10 is full compression of 50%, increment 30 is full extension of 200%, increment 40 returns the brick to it’s original configuration.
Now let’s look at the results of this analysis before curve fitting our uniaxial test data.
106 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Model 1: Uniaxial Stress Specimen Chapter 6: Workshop Problems
All of the postprocessing functions are accessed from RESULTS, which is located on the topmost MAIN menu. We are especially interested in deformed shape plots and XY plots of stress vs. strain.
MAINRESULTS
OPEN DEFAULTDEF & ORIGSKIP TO INC10 <cr>PLOT
SURFACES WIREFRAMEREGENRETURN
CONTOUR BANDSCALAR
Displacement Z, OKSCALAR PLOT SETTINGS
#LEVELS5 <cr>, RETURN
SKIP TO INC30 <cr>FILLREWINDMONITOR
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 107
Chapter 6: Workshop Problems Model 1: Uniaxial Stress Specimen
Now let’s generate the stress-strain plot that the MSC.Marc analysis has calculated. When we curve fit the actual test data, this analysis stress-strain curve should match the curve fit response exactly.
HISTORY PLOT
COLLECT GLOBAL DATANODE/VARIABLES
ADD GLOBAL CRV.Pos Z cbody3Force Z cbody2FIT, RETURN
Since the original area is one, and since the original length in the z-direction is one, the above plot is the engineering stress versus the engineering strain for a uniaxial stress specimen with neo-Hookean behavior. We use the Body 2 force just to get the sign correct.
Another way of getting engineering stress-strain output is to use the user subroutine PRINCA.F. This is a plotv routine that calculates principal values of engineering stress & strain as well as principal stretch ratio. If available try re-running this analysis with the princa.f routine.
Q: Why is it ok to use a one element model for this problem?
A: ____________________________________________________
RETURN, CLOSE, SHORTCUTS SHOW MODELOK, MAIN
108 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Model 1: Uniaxial Curve Fit Chapter 6: Workshop Problems
Model 1: Uniaxial Curve Fit
Using this model file, go to the material definition stage and redefine the material by reading the uniaxial data, filename st_18.data, and proceed to re-run the problem using neo-Hookean, Mooney 2-term, Mooney 3-term, and Ogden 2-term fits.
MATERIAL PROPERTIESEXPERIMENTAL DATA FITTING
TABLESREAD
RAWFILTER: type *.data pick file st_18.data, OK
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 109
Chapter 6: Workshop Problems Model 1: Uniaxial Curve Fit
Make the table type experimental_data, and associate this data with the uniaxial button. Your screen should look similar to the one below, and we are ready to start curve fitting the data.
TABLE TYPEexperimental_data, OK, RETURN
UNIAXIALtable2
110 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Model 1: Uniaxial Curve Fit Chapter 6: Workshop Problems
Choose the neo-Hookean curve fitting routine and base the curve fit on just uniaxial data. The compute button will compute the model coefficients. By default, responses for many modes are plotted. The single neo-Hookean coefficient, C10, is 0.265.
ELASTOMERSNEO-HOOKEAN
UNIAXIALCOMPUTE, OK
SCALE AXESPLOT OPTIONS
SIMPLE SHEAR, RETURN (this turns off simple shear)
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 111
Chapter 6: Workshop Problems Model 1: Uniaxial Curve Fit
Comments:
We have just fit a neo-Hookean model using only uniaxial data. MSC.Marc Mentat by default shows the model’s response in all major modes of deformation. This is very important. You should always know your model’s response to each mode of deformation.
Look again at the previous stress-strain plot. Notice the relative magnitude of the responses. Uniaxial is the lowest magnitude, the planar shear is higher, and the biaxial response is the highest. This is typical of most elastomers. See, for example, the stress-strain plot on the front cover of these notes.
Always start fitting with simple models first. If a simple model captures the curvature of the test data, use it! Proceed to higher order and more complex models only as needed.
Go back and use the EXTRAPOLATION feature and replot the neo-Hookean results from -0.5 to 2.0 strain. It is very important to look at the model’s response over a wide range of strain, including both tension and compression. We are looking for stability limits (maxima in the stress-strain curve). Mooney form models with all positive coefficients guarantee stability in all modes, for all strain. The simpler the material model, the higher probability it will be stable over a wider strain range.
Later, after curve fitting several choices of models and selecting the best one, we will re-run our simple analysis.
112 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Model 1: Uniaxial Curve Fit Chapter 6: Workshop Problems
Here’s how to use the extrapolation feature to extend the strain range over which we plot the model’s response. We see that our neo-Hookean model is stable for all deformation modes.
NEO-HOOKEANEXTRAPOLATION
EXTRAPOLATELEFT BOUND, enter -0.5, <cr>RIGHT BOUND, enter 2.0, <cr>, OK
COMPUTE, OKSCALE AXES
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 113
Chapter 6: Workshop Problems Model 1: Uniaxial Curve Fit
Now fit a Mooney 2-term material model. Turn the extrapolation feature off for now. The Mooney coefficients are C10 = 0.074 and C01 = 0.280. Positive coefficients guarantee stability. Notice the relative magnitudes now – the biaxial stiffness is about 4 times the earlier material model. Of course, the fit to the uniaxial data is better, with more terms this model can capture a higher curvature in the stress-strain data.
MOONEY(2)EXTRAPOLATION
EXTRAPOLATE, OK (we want to turn it off)COMPUTE, OK
SCALE AXES
114 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Model 1: Uniaxial Curve Fit Chapter 6: Workshop Problems
Now fit a Mooney 3-term material model. The Mooney coefficients are C10 = -0.735, C01 = 1.21, and C11 = 0.194. The uniaxial response is fantastic! The presence of a negative coefficient means that the material model might be unstable. We need to visually determine the stability range of the model. Note that the peak stress for the biaxial response has gone from 1.0 (neo-Hookean), to 4.5 (Mooney 2-term), to 36 (Mooney 3-term). Which one is correct?
MOONEY(3)COMPUTE, OK
SCALE AXES
MOONEY(3), EXTRAPOLATIONEXTRAPOLATE, OK
COMPUTE, OKSCALE AXES (after viewing this turn extrapolate back off)
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 115
Chapter 6: Workshop Problems Model 1: Uniaxial Curve Fit
Comments:
Which biaxial fit is correct? Well, we don’t know because we haven’t (yet) performed a biaxial test. This is the great difficulty with the Mooney form and Ogden form material models – they are just curve fits. There is no “rubber physics” embedded in these equations. As we see here, a curve fit to uniaxial data will have a good response for that mode of deformation. But the responses for the other modes of deformation are all over the map. A rule of thumb based on observations of natural rubber and some other elastomers is that the tensile equi-biaxial response should be about 1.5 to 2.5 times the uniaxial tension response. We have seen many instances of higher order Mooney and Ogden models (using only uniaxial data) returning biaxial responses that are far too high. These are clearly bad material models.
Try playing with the POSITIVE COEFFICIENTS option to see how much the responses change.
For the curve fitting examples, you may need to toggle certain things on & off to better view and understand the computed fit. Keep these features in mind throughout all of these exercises:
• EXTRAPOLATION on/off
• PLOT OPTIONS, PREDICTED MODES(select subsets of UNIAXIAL, BIAXIAL, PLANAR SHEAR)
• PLOT OPTIONS, LIMITS, YMAX, etc.(you may need to set plot limits by hand for better viewing)
116 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Model 1: Uniaxial Curve Fit Chapter 6: Workshop Problems
Now fit an Ogden 2-term material model. The uniaxial response is very good, but the biaxial response is now even higher than the Mooney 3-term. Ogden coefficients come in pairs, the moduli are and the exponents are . If each and have the same sign then stability is guaranteed. If a is positive and its corresponding is negative (or vice versa) then the material model might be unstable. Thus we may need to visually determine the stability range of the model.
OGDENCOMPUTE, OK
This plot is to the same scale (ymax) as the Mooney 2-term plot.
µi
α i µi α i
µi α i
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Comments:
We are now finished with the curve fitting portion of this uniaxial exercise. We see that the Mooney 3-term and Ogden 2-term fit the uniaxial test data very well. However, we are concerned (or should be!) that the equi-biaxial response for some models (M 3-term, O 2-term) are too high and could make the material model overly stiff if that mode of deformation exists in our analysis. We need equi-biaxial test data to get a better fit to that mode.
Let’s run this uniaxial analysis with the Ogden 3-term model.We select the curve fit model by pressing the APPLY button. Now go back and view the material model. Submit the analysis, then we will post-process and show the analysis calculated stress-strain curve.
OGDEN# OF TERMS = 3, OKCOMPUTE, APPLY, OKPLOT OPTIONS (turn off all – leave uniaxial only)> XY (sends to generalized xy plotter)
RETURN (thrice)MECH. MATERIALS TYPE, MOREOGDEN (look at the material properties)
OKFILES
SAVE AS ogden3, OKMAIN
JOBSRUN
SUBMIT1MONITOR
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Now go to postprocessing and generate the engineering stress-strain curve (we did this earlier with the original model). We will also save the analysis generated stress-strain curve to an external file for comparison to the test data.
MAINRESULTS
OPEN DEFAULTHISTORY PLOT
COLLECT DATA14 30 1 <cr> (this collects just the tensile part)NODE/VARIABLES
ADD GLOBAL VAR.Pos Z cbody 3Force Z cbody 2FIT, RETURN> XY (send results to generalized xy plotter)
SAVE type ogden3.tab
This last command saves the table to an external file named ogden3.tab (.tab is just to remind us that it is table data).
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To compare the two stress-strain curves, we will use MSC.Marc Mentat’s generalized plotter feature.
UTILSGENERALIZED XY PLOTFITSHOW IDS = 0
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Zoom in and tilt the plot and you will notice three curves: the data, the fit, and the response of our model.
Note that the model must follow the hyperelastic material model (Ogden(3)) exactly.
Data
Ogden
(3) f
it
Respon
se
Eng
inee
ring
Str
ess
Engineering Strain
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One may also use xmgr to read the file ogden3.tab that was generated in MSC.Marc Mentat. From a terminal window type:
xmgr st_18.data ogden3.tab
A graphics screen will appear in which the experimental data is shown in black and the analysis generated stress-strain curve is shown in red. Of course, the test data only extends to about 100% strain whereas we performed our analysis out to 200% strain.
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Model 1C: Tensile Specimen with Continuous Damage Chapter 6: Workshop Problems
Model 1C: Tensile Specimen with Continuous Damage
Objective: To model an elastomeric material under a cyclical uniaxial deformation mode subjected to damage accumulated from continuously varying strain cycles. For instance, looking at the test data below, we notice that upon repeated cycling the peak stress decays.
This damage can be due to polymer chain breakage, multi-chain damage, and detachment of filler particles from the network entanglement.
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0Engineering Strain [1]
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Eng
inee
ring
Str
ess
[Mpa
]
Tensile DataContinuous Damage
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Chapter 6: Workshop Problems Model 1C: Tensile Specimen with Continuous Damage
In this workshop problem, we will simulate this behavior using the continuous damage model discussed in Appendix B. To clarify the behavior let’s plot the peak stress versus the cycle number as shown below.
If our application experiences, this kind of behavior then we may wish to simulate this continuous damage. We would start by doing any normal hyperelastic curve fit. However, we would use the 1st cycle of the stress strain curve, not the steady state behavior in the file st_18.data which was for the 10th cycle shown above. We are now ready to begin modeling this continuous damage. In a terminal window, use the cd command to move to the wkshops_A/uniaxial or the wkshops_B/uniaxial directory.
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0Cycle Number
0.90
0.95
1.00
1.05
1.10
Eng
inee
ring
Str
ess
[Mpa
]
Tensile DataContinuous Damage for Engineering Strain = 1.00
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Model 1C: Tensile Specimen with Continuous Damage Chapter 6: Workshop Problems
From NT (Windows 2000) just click on the uni_neo05.proc file or from unix Type “mentat” to start the MSC.Marc Mentat program, then starting from the main menu proceed as follows:
UTILSPROCEDURES
EXECUTEpick the file named uni_neo05.procOKMAIN
This will produce and run a uniaxial stress model. Using this model file, we will go to the material definition stage and redefine the material by reading the uniaxial data, filename st_1st.tab, damage data, st_cont.tab, loading data st_load.tab and proceed to re-run the problem using an Ogden 1-term fit with continuous damage.
MATERIAL PROPERTIESEXPERIMENTAL DATA FITTING
TABLESREAD
NORMALFILTER: type st* pick file st_1st.tab, OK (different data from st_18.data)
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Chapter 6: Workshop Problems Model 1C: Tensile Specimen with Continuous Damage
Your screen should look similar to the one below
While we are here let’s read some more tables.
READNORMALFILTER: type st*pick file st_cont.tabpick file st_load.tabRETURN
Now we are ready to start curve fitting the data.
UNIAXIALtable2
CONSTANTpick st_const table
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ELASTOMERSMORECONTINUOUS DAMAGE
CONSTANTNUMBER OF TERMS = 2FREE ENERGY = 1.07 (this is just the 1st peak stress)
COMPUTEAPPLY, OK, RETURN
OGDENUNIAXIALNUMBER OF TERMS = 1COMPUTE, APPLY, OK
SCALE AXESPLOT OPTIONS
SIMPLE SHEAR (this turns off simple shear)
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Chapter 6: Workshop Problems Model 1C: Tensile Specimen with Continuous Damage
RETURN (twice)
Let’s review the material properties to check that the curve fit has been properly applied to the selected material.
MAINMATERIAL PROPERTIES
MOREOGDEN, DAMAGE EFFECTS - RUBBER, OKOK
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Now we can complete the model and run the analysis. The remaining item to finish is to attach a table to the contact body to cycle the loading several times from a strain of 0 to a strain of 1.
MAINCONTACT
CONTACT BODIESEDIT (pick cbody3)
RIGIDPOSITION(Z) TABLE (pick table st_load)OK (twice)
MAINLOADCASE
MECHANICAL
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STATICTOTAL LOADCASE TIME = 940# STEPS = 20OK
MAINFILES
SAVE AS ogden_damage OKMAIN
JOBSRUN, SUBMIT1, MONITOR, OK
MAINRESULTS
OPEN DEFAULTHISTORY PLOT
COLLECT DATA1 19 2NODE/VARIABLES
ADD GLOBAL VAR.TimeForce Z cbody 2FIT, RETURN> XY (send results to generalized xy plotter)
SAVE type ogden_damage.tab
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Here we see the peak engineering stress drop upon subsequent applications of the prescribed displacements. Let’s run this same example but increase the number of load cycles by using the BEGIN/END SEQUENCE feature of MSC.Marc. This can be done by closing the post file, going to jobs, editing the input file to MSC.Marc then executing the edited input file.
MAINRESULTS
CLOSEMAIN
JOBSRUN
ADVANCED JOB SUBMISSIONEDIT INPUT
Here we need to locate the first occurrence of the “auto load” keyword.
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Before this keyword, we need to enter the following:
begin sequence, 100,
Now locate the second occurrence of the keyword continue and insert after it the following:
end sequence
Now delete all input records after the end sequence record inserted. The tail end of the input data set will look like:
begin sequence,100,
auto load
1 0 10
time step
4.700000000000000+1
motion change
2
2 0
0.000000000000000+0 0.000000000000000+0 0.000000000000000+0 0.000000000000000+0
3 -1
0.000000000000000+0 0.000000000000000+0 1.000000000000000+0 0.000000000000000+0
continue
auto load
1 0 10
time step
4.700000000000000+1
motion change
2
2 0
0.000000000000000+0 0.000000000000000+0 0.000000000000000+0 0.000000000000000+0
3 -1
0.000000000000000+0 0.000000000000000+0 0.000000000000000+0 0.000000000000000+0
continue
end sequence
This change to the input file will run with 100 repetitions of the load sequence above.
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Save the input file and run the job by selecting the execute button, namely:
OKRUN, EXECUTE1, MONITOR, OK
MAINRESULTS
OPEN DEFAULTHISTORY PLOT
COLLECT DATA1 1999 2NODE/VARIABLES
ADD GLOBAL VAR.TimeForce Z cbody 2FIT, RETURN
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Chapter 6: Workshop Problems Model 1C: Tensile Specimen with Continuous Damage
We now see that the engineering stress asymptotically approaches a value of 0.972 [Mpa] from its initial value of 1.114 [Mpa].
As shown below, the peak stress drops by about 13% from the initial load to an infinite number of repeated loadings. Although this drop may not appear to be large, other materials may demonstrate larger drops in peak stress upon repeated loadings and be more worthy of damage modeling.
Should one desire to use a Mooney material model, the model would have to be converted to an updated Lagrangian formulation, by changing to element type 7, and choosing the “LARGE STRAIN-UPDATED LAGRANGE” rubber elasticity procedure.
Finally, the hyperelastic fit above can be made better by simultaneously using other deformation modes as we shall see in subsequent exercises.
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0Engineering Strain [1]
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Eng
inee
ring
Str
ess
[Mpa
]
Tensile Simulation - Continuous Damage1-Term Ogden and Original Data
1-Term OgdenOriginal Data
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Model 1: Realistic Uniaxial Stress Specimen Chapter 6: Workshop Problems
Model 1: Realistic Uniaxial Stress Specimen
Extra Credit Problem Statement:
This problem is in the subdirectory named ./uniaxial/big.
Geometry is 55 L x 4 H x 2 W (mm) between grips, 10 mm length under grip.
Elements are 1 mm x 1mm in XY, 0.5 mm in Z.
Read model from file uni_f4.mud or uni_f6.mud.
Grips are modeled as discrete rigid surfaces, with a friction coefficient of 0.4 (uni_f4) and 0.6 (uni_f6).
Run analysis with Mooney 1-term model and plot engineering stress-strain, compare with original test data. Use princa.f usersub if possible.
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Results: uni_f4.mud
Mooney 1 Term C = 0.265
1 Element
600 Element
Engineering Strain
Eng
inee
ring
Str
ess
L
A=4mm^2
d
L=27.5mm
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Results: uni_f4.mud
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0Engineering Strain
-1.0
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
Eng
inee
ring
Str
ess
[Mpa
]
Model 1 Stress Strain DiagramSpecimen, Data, Test Element Mooney C1=0.265
Specimen (Grip Force)/4 versus (Grip Disp)/27.5Uniaxial DataTest Element
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Model 1: Realistic Uniaxial Stress Specimen (cont.)
What happened to our specimen model with 600 elements?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
How does the specimen model compare to the one element test case?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
How would we convert measured force versus stroke to engineering stress versus engineering strain? How realistic is this?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Where is the actual gauge length in the specimen model?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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Model 2: Equi-Biaxial Stress Specimen Chapter 6: Workshop Problems
Model 2: Equi-Biaxial Stress Specimen
Objective: To model an elastomeric material under a equi-biaxial stress deformation mode.
To focus on curve fitting elastomeric test data, a fully runnable procedure file is provided that will build and (and run) an initial model. However, the model contains only a trivial neo-Hookean material model with C10 = 0.5. It will be your job to modify the model by reading in the test data and curve fitting it using various material models.
In a terminal window, use the cd command to move to the wkshops_A/biaxial or the wkshops_B/biaxial directory.
Type “mentat” to start the MSC.Marc Mentat program, then starting from the main menu proceed as follows:
UTILSPROCEDURES
EXECUTEpick the file named eb_neo05.procOKOK
This will produce and run a biaxial stress model. Please familiarize yourself with this model. Look at the BC’s, the material specification, the contact bodies and contact table, and the loadcase.
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After the procedure file is finished the final picture on your screen will look like this.
Here is a brief summary of the biaxial model we have created:
• A single brick element, full integration, Herrmann.
• Boundary conditions on y=0 face to prevent free translation in space.
• Material model is neo-Hookean with C10 = 0.5
• Rigid contact surfaces are used to impose deformation.
cbody2 & cbody5 are stationary.
cbody3 & cbody4 are moved so as to impose displacements in the Z & X directions respectively.
• Loading is performed in 30 equal time increments. Increment 10 is biaxial compression of 50% (compression in X & Z), increment 30 is biaxial extension of 200%(extension in X & Z).
Now let’s look at the results of this analysis before curve fitting our biaxial test data.
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All of the postprocessing functions are accessed from RESULTS, which is located on the topmost MAIN menu. We are especially interested in deformed shape plots and XY plots of stress vs. strain.
MAINRESULTS
OPEN DEFAULTDEF & ORIGSKIP TO INC10 <cr>CONTOUR BANDSCALAR
Displacement Z, OK
SCALAR PLOT SETTINGS#LEVELS5 <cr>, RETURN
SKIP TO INC30 <cr>REWINDMONITOR
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Now let’s generate the stress-strain plot that the MSC.Marc analysis has calculated. When we curve fit the actual test data, this analysis stress-strain curve should match the curve fit response exactly.
HISTORY PLOTSET NODES(pick node 8 shown)END LISTCOLLECT DATA0 30 1 <cr>NODE/VARIABLES
ADD VARIABLEDisplacement ZForce Z cbody 2FIT, RETURN
RETURNCLOSE, MAIN
Since the original area is one, and since the original length in the z-direction is one, this plot is the engineering stress versus the engineering strain. We use the Body 2 force just to get the sign correct.
Notice how much different compression is for biaxial than uniaxial behavior. Of course, biaxial compression is very hard to simulate with a physical test, and only tension is usually done.
Pick
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Model 2: Equi-Biaxial Curve Fit
Now we will read in both the uniaxial and biaxial test data and simply repeat fitting the four material models. The difference is that we will now use both sets of data. Start from the MAIN menu.
MATERIAL PROPERTIESEXPERIMENTAL DATA FITTING
TABLESREAD
RAWFILTER: type *.data pick file st_18.data, OK
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Since we will be reading more than one set of test data, let’s name the datasets. Then make the table type experimental_data, and associate this data with the uniaxial button.
NAMEuniaxial
TABLE TYPEexperimental_data, OK, RETURN
UNIAXIALuniaxial
Repeat the above sequence to read in the file eb_18.data and name this dataset biaxial. Associate this dataset with the biaxial button. Your screen should look similar to the one below and we are ready to start curve fitting the data.
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Choose the neo-Hookean curve fitting routine and base the curve fit on all the data. The compute button will compute the model coefficients. By default, responses for many modes are plotted. Turn off the plotting of simple shear.
ELASTOMERSNEO-HOOKEAN
USE ALL DATACOMPUTE, OK
SCALE AXESPLOT OPTIONS
SIMPLE SHEAR, RETURN (this turns off simple shear)
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Comments:
We have just fit a neo-Hookean model using both uniaxial and biaxial data. MSC.Marc Mentat by default shows the model’s response in all major modes of deformation. This is very important. You should always know your model’s response to each mode of deformation.
Compare this plot with the uniaxial only stress-strain plot on (page 111). Both plots are very similar. The uniaxial only C10 was 0.265, while the new material model based on both uniaxial and biaxial data gives C10 = 0.280. These neo-Hookean coefficients are quite close, telling us that the earlier model was pretty good. We would prefer to use the latest model since it is based on more information and gives a better fit to the biaxial test data.
If you can accept the differences between the test data and fitted response, this material model is quite adequate (and stability is guaranteed because the coefficient is positive). For scoping analysis and the initial stage of an analysis, this model is sufficient.
146 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Model 2: Equi-Biaxial Curve Fit Chapter 6: Workshop Problems
Now fit a Mooney 2-term material model. Make sure extrapolation is off. The Mooney coefficients are C10 = 0.247 and C01 = 0.0270. Notice the relative magnitudes now – the biaxial response is much different than before (page 114) and the coefficients are much different as well. (Uniaxial coeff’s were C10 = 0.074 and C01 = 0.280). This confirms our suspicion that the earlier Mooney 2-term model based on only uniaxial data misrepresented the biaxial behavior.
MOONEY(2)COMPUTE, OK
SCALE AXES
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To see the old (uniaxial data only) fit response plotted along with the new data, use the EVALUATE feature.
MOONEY(2)EVALUATEtype in the old coeff’s as prompted at the command lineENTER C10: 0.074 <cr>ENTER C01: 0.280 <cr>All coefficients entered. Continue? y <cr>
So this is the uniaxial only model response. Notice how overly stiff the biaxial model response (yellow/light grey line) is compared to the actual biaxial test data (yellow/light grey line with squares).
148 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
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Now fit a Mooney 3-term material model. The Mooney coefficients are C10 = 0.246, C01 = 0.029, and C11 = -0.0004. This is essentially the same as the Mooney 2-term material model from the previous page. The biaxial data is adding additional constraint to the fit. The third term is almost zero, thus the fit has not changed. One would not choose this model over the Mooney 2-term fit.
MOONEY(3)COMPUTE, OK
SCALE AXES
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Now fit an Ogden 2-term material model. The uniaxial and biaxial model responses are slightly better than the Mooney models. However, the first pair of coefficients (modulus term of -2.55E-6 and exponent of -10.5) only contribute to the response at high strains. Set the NUMBER OF TERMS to 1 and re-fit the data.
OGDENCOMPUTE, OK
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Comments:
We are now finished with the curve fitting portion of this uniaxial and biaxial data exercise. As you saw, the addition of biaxial information was very valuable. The earlier Mooney and Ogden uniaxial only fits were way off base! However, it is interesting to note that the earlier neo-Hookean fit was pretty decent. This gives more merit to keeping the material as simple as possible.
Let’s run this biaxial analysis with the Mooney 2-term model.
Go back to MOONEY(2) and fit it again, press the APPLY button. Submit the analysis, then we will postprocess and show the analysis calculated stress-strain curve.
MOONEY(2) COMPUTEAPPLY, OKPLOT OPTIONS, > XY, RETURN
RETURN (twice)MECHANICAL MATERIALS TYPE, MOREMOONEY look at the material properties
OKFILES
SAVE AS moon2, OKRETURN (twice)
JOBSRUN
SUBMIT1MONITOR
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Now go to postprocessing and generate the engineering stress-strain curve (we did this earlier with the original model). We will also save the analysis generated stress-strain curve to an external file for comparison to the test data.
MAINRESULTS
OPEN DEFAULTHISTORY PLOT
SET NODES(pick node 8 shown)END LISTCOLLECT DATA14 30 1 <cr>NODE/VARIABLES
ADD VARIABLEDisplacement ZForce Z cbody2FIT, RETURN
> XYSAVE type moon2.tab
This last command saves the table to an external file named moon2.tab (.tab is just to remind us that it is table data).
Pick
152 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
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To compare the two stress-strain curves we will use MSC.Marc Mentat’s generalized plotter feature.
UTILSGENERALIZED XY PLOTFITSHOW IDS = 0
Eng
inee
ring
Str
ess
[Mpa
]
Engineering Strain
Biaxial Fit
Biaxial Data
Biaxial Response
Uniaxial Fit
Uniaxial Data
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Chapter 6: Workshop Problems Model 2: Equi-Biaxial Curve Fit
To compare the two stress-strain curves we will use XMGR. From a terminal window type:
xmgr eb_18.data moon2.tab
A graphics screen will appear in which the experimental data is shown in black and the analysis generated stress-strain curve is shown in red. Of course, the test data only extends to about 100% strain whereas we performed our analysis out to 200% strain.
154 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Model 2: Realistic Equal-Biaxial Stress Specimen Chapter 6: Workshop Problems
Model 2: Realistic Equal-Biaxial Stress Specimen
Extra Credit Problem Statement:
This problem is in the subdirectory named ./biaxial/big.
Geometry is 86 Dia x 2 Thick (mm), 16 Grips around full circumference (22.5 deg). Mesh uses symmetry at X=0, Y=0, and Z=0. Read model from file bi_glue.mud.
Grips are modeled as discrete rigid surface, Grips are 10 mm in dia., placed on a 71 mm dia., friction coefficient is infinite.
Run analysis with Ogden 3-term model and plot engineering stress-strain, compare with original test data. Use princa.f usersub if possible.
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 155
Chapter 6: Workshop Problems Model 2: Realistic Equal-Biaxial Stress Specimen
Results: bi_glue.mud
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0Engineering Strain
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
Eng
inee
ring
Str
ess
[Mpa
]
Model 2 Equal-BiaxialSpecimen Model versus Data
Specimen DataSpecimen Model
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Model 2: Realistic Equal-Biaxial Stress Specimen Chapter 6: Workshop Problems
Model 2: Realistic Equal-Biaxial Stress Specimen (cont.)
What happened to our specimen model with 1128 elements?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
How does the specimen model compare to the test data?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
How would we convert measured force versus stroke to engineering stress versus engineering strain? How realistic is this?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Where is the actual gauge length in the specimen model?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 157
Chapter 6: Workshop Problems Model 3: Simple Compression, Button Comp.
Model 3: Simple Compression, Button Comp.
Objective: To model a neo-Hookean elastomeric material under a compressive deformation mode with and w/o friction.
In a terminal window use the cd command to move to the wkshops_A/comp or the wkshops_B/comp directory.
In MSC.Marc Mentat, go to FILES and read in the comp_start.mud file.This file contains two separate models.
We will call the top model the “uniaxial” model, meaning that its end conditions are free of friction and the specimen will not barrel. The bottom model (lower in Z) we will call the “button” compression model, meaning that its ends are glued to the platens simulating a high friction condition, or actual bonding.Both models already have boundary conditions and material properties assigned.
OPEN choose file comp_start, OKSAVE AS type in comp, OK
PLOTELEMENTS SOLIDREGEN, RETURN
VIEWLOAD VIEW
(select file OBL.VIEW from list), OKRETURN
MAIN
158 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
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CONTACTCONTACT BODIESDEFORMABLE, OKELEMENTS ADD(pick top elements)NAME, uniaxialNEWDEFORMABLE, OKELEMENTS ADD(pick bottom elems)NAME, buttonNEWRIGIDDISCRETE, OKSURFACES ADD(pick z=30 surface)NAME, uni_botNEWRIGIDDISCRETE, OKSURFACES ADD(pick z=43 surface)NAME, uni_topID BACKFACES
(Make sure gold side of surfaces touch the deformable brick. If not flip surfaces until this happens, otherwise, continue.)
SAVE
z=0
z=13
z=30
z=43
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Chapter 6: Workshop Problems Model 3: Simple Compression, Button Comp.
CONTACT (cont’d)NEWRIGIDDISCRETE, OKSURFACES ADD(pick z=0 surface)NAME, but_botNEWRIGIDDISCRETE, OKSURFACES ADD(pick z=13 surface)NAME, but_top
(Make sure gold side of surfaces touch the deformable brick. If not flip surfaces until this happens, otherwise, continue.)
EDIT uni_top, OKRIGID
VELOCITY PARAMETERSVELOCITY Z=-6OK (twice)
(repeat the above sequence for the but_top contact surface)
SAVE, RETURN
160 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
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Construct your contact table to look like the one below.
Notice that the elements “uniaxial” touch uni_bot and uni_top,while elements “button” are glued to but_bot and but_top.
All separation forces are zero. Return to the MAIN menu.
CONTACT TABLENEW
PROPERTIES
Make elements “uniaxial” touch uni_bot and uni_top, while elements “button” are glued to but_bot and but_top.
OK, MAIN
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LOADCASESMECHANICAL
STATICSTEPPING PROCEDURE FIXED PARAMETNERS
# OF STEPS=12 <cr>, OK (twice), MAINJOBS
MECHANICALlcase1ANALYSIS OPTIONS
LARGE DISPLACEMENT, OKJOB RESULTS
CAUCHY STRESSTOTAL STRAIN, OKOK
INITIAL LOADSxsymysym
CONTACT CONTROLINITIAL CONTACT
CONTACT TABLEctable1OK (3 times)
JOBSSAVERUNSUBMIT1MONITOROK, MAIN
162 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
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RESULTSOPEN DEFAULTDEF & ORIGSKIP TO INC12 <cr>PLOT
SURFACES WIREFRAMEREGENRETURN
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 163
Chapter 6: Workshop Problems Model 3: Simple Compression, Button Comp.
POST PROCESSINGHISTORY PLOT
Construct time history of Pos Z uni_top vs. Force Z uni_top. This is the true uniaxial response.Construct the same for Pos Z but_top vs. Force Z but_top.
This is response that mixes shearing and bulk compression (remember bulk, or hydrostatic, compressive stiffness is many times higher than the shear stiffness)
164 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Model 3: Simple Compression, Button Comp. Chapter 6: Workshop Problems
POST PROCESSINGHISTORY PLOTCOLLECT GLOBAL DATANODES/VARIABLESADD GLOBAL CURVEPOS Z UNI_TOPFORCE Z UNI_TOPADD GLOBAL CURVEPOS Z BUT_TOPFORCE Z BUT_TOP
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 165
Chapter 6: Workshop Problems Model 4: Planar Shear Specimen
Model 4: Planar Shear Specimenalso known as Planar Tension, Pure Shear
Objective: To model an elastomeric material under a planar shear stress deformation mode.
To focus on curve fitting elastomeric test data, a fully runnable procedure file is provided that will build and (and run) an initial model. However, the model contains only a trivial neo-Hookean material model with C10 = 0.5. It will be your job to modify the model by reading in the test data, and curve fitting it using various material models.
In a terminal window, use the cd command to move to thewkshops_A/planar or the wkshops_B/planar directory.
Type “mentat” to start the MSC.Marc Mentat program, then starting from the main menu proceed as follows:
UTILSPROCEDURES
EXECUTEpick the file named ps_neo05.procOKOK
This will produce and run a planar shear stress model. Please familiarize yourself with this model. Look at the BC’s, the material specification, the contact bodies and contact table, and the loadcase.
166 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Model 4: Planar Shear Specimen Chapter 6: Workshop Problems
After the procedure file is finished, the final picture on your screen will look like this.
Here is a brief summary of the planar shear model we have created:
• A single brick element, full integration, Herrmann.
• Boundary conditions on y=0 face to prevent free translation in space.
• Material model is neo-Hookean with C10 = 0.5
• Rigid contact surfaces are used to impose deformation.
cbody2, cbody4 & cbody5 are stationary.
cbody3 is moved so as to impose displacement in the Z direction.
• Loading is performed in 30 equal time increments. Increment 10 is compression of 50% (compression in Z), increment 30 is extension of 200% (extension in Z).
Now let’s look at the results of this analysis before curve fitting our planar shear test data.
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 167
Chapter 6: Workshop Problems Model 4: Planar Shear Specimen
All of the postprocessing functions are accessed from RESULTS, which is located on the topmost MAIN menu. We are especially interested in deformed shape plots and XY plots of stress vs. strain.
MAINRESULTS
OPEN DEFAULTDEF & ORIGSKIP TO INC10 <cr>CONTOUR BANDSCALAR
Displacement Z, OK
SETTINGS#LEVELS5 <cr>, RETURN
SKIP TO INC30 <cr>REWINDMONITOR
168 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Model 4: Planar Shear Specimen Chapter 6: Workshop Problems
Now let’s generate the stress-strain plot that the MSC.Marc analysis has calculated. When we curve fit the actual test data, this analysis stress-strain curve should match the curve fit response exactly.
HISTORY PLOTSET NODES(pick node 8 shown)END LISTCOLLECT DATA0 30 1 <cr>NODE/VARIABLES
ADD VARIABLEDisplacement ZForce Z cbody2FIT, RETURN
RETURN
Since the original area is one, and since the original length in the z-direction is one, this plot is the engineering stress versus the engineering strain. We use the Body 2 force just to get the sign correct.
You will usually see this test performed only in tension, but some labs will perform a plane strain compression test.
CLOSE, MAIN
Pick
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 169
Chapter 6: Workshop Problems Model 4: Planar Shear Curve Fit
Model 4: Planar Shear Curve Fit
Now we will read in both the uniaxial, biaxial, and planar shear test data and repeat fitting the four material models. The difference is that we will now use all sets of data. Start from the MAIN menu.
MATERIAL PROPERTIESEXPERIMENTAL DATA FITTING
TABLESREAD
RAWFILTER: type *.data pick file st_18.data, OK
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Model 4: Planar Shear Curve Fit Chapter 6: Workshop Problems
Since we will be reading more than one set of test data, let’s name the datasets. Then make the table type experimental_data, and associate this data with the uniaxial button.
NAMEuniaxial
TABLE TYPEexperimental_data, OK, RETURN
UNIAXIALuniaxial
Repeat the above sequence to read in the file eb_18.data and name this dataset biaxial. Associate this dataset with the biaxial button. Repeat again to read in the file ps_18.data and name this dataset planar. Associate this dataset with the planar shear button.
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 171
Chapter 6: Workshop Problems Model 4: Planar Shear Curve Fit
Choose the neo-Hookean curve fitting routine and base the curve fit on all the data. The compute button will compute the model coefficients. By default, responses for many modes are plotted. Turn off the plotting of simple shear.
ELASTOMERSNEO-HOOKEAN
USE ALL DATACOMPUTE, OK
SCALE AXESPLOT OPTIONS
SIMPLE SHEAR, RETURN (this turns off simple shear)
172 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Model 4: Planar Shear Curve Fit Chapter 6: Workshop Problems
Summary of neo-Hookean fits:
We have just fit a neo-Hookean model using three sets of data, uniaxial, biaxial, and planar shear. MSC.Marc Mentat by default shows the model’s response in all major modes of deformation. This is very important. You should always know your model’s response to each mode of deformation.
Compare this plot with the uniaxial only stress-strain plot on (page 111), and the uniaxial+biaxial fit on (page 145). All the plots are very similar. The uniaxial only C10 was 0.265, the uniaxial and biaxial data gives C10 = 0.280, and the fit of all three sets of data simultaneously gives C10 = 0.276. These neo-Hookean coefficients are quite close, telling us that all of the neo-Hookean models are pretty good. We would prefer to use the latest model since it is based on more information and gives a better fit to all the test data.
If you can accept the differences between the test data and fitted response, this material model is quite adequate (and stability is guaranteed because the coefficient is positive). For scoping analysis and the initial stage of an analysis, this model is sufficient.
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 173
Chapter 6: Workshop Problems Model 4: Planar Shear Curve Fit
Now fit a Mooney 2-term material model. Make sure extrapolation is off. The Mooney coefficients are C10 = 0.244 and C01 = 0.0270. Compare these results to those of the uniaxial+biaxial fit on page 147. There is very little difference in the fit and the coefficients have changed only slightly.
MOONEY(2)COMPUTE, OK
SCALE AXES
174 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Model 4: Planar Shear Curve Fit Chapter 6: Workshop Problems
Summary of Mooney 2-term fits:
We have now completed a series of Mooney 2-term fits that used progressively more information as the basis for the curve fitting. The table below summarizes the coefficients calculated in each case.
The conclusion is that adding biaxial data had a big influence on the quality of the fit and changed the coefficients greatly. Adding the planar shear data did not cause further big changes.
Mooney 2-term Fitting Summary
Uniaxial Data
Uniaxial + Biaxial Data
Uniaxial+Biaxial+Planar Shear Data
C10 0.074 0.247 0.244
C01 0.280 0.027 0.027
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 175
Chapter 6: Workshop Problems Model 4: Planar Shear Curve Fit
Now fit a Mooney 3-term material model. The Mooney coefficients are C10 = 0.239, C01 = 0.035, and C11 = -0.0015. This is essentially the same as the Mooney 2-term material model from the previous page. The third term is almost zero, thus the fit has not changed. One would not choose this model over the Mooney 2-term fit.
MOONEY(3)COMPUTE, OK
SCALE AXES
176 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Model 4: Planar Shear Curve Fit Chapter 6: Workshop Problems
Summary of Mooney 3-term fits:
We have now completed a series of Mooney 3-term fits that used progressively more information as the basis for the curve fitting. The table below summarizes the coefficients calculated in each case.
The conclusion is that adding biaxial data had a big influence on the quality of the fit and changed the coefficients greatly. Adding the planar shear data did not cause further big changes.
Mooney 3-term Fitting Summary
Mooney 2-term Fitting Summary
Uniaxial Data
Uniaxial + Biaxial Data
Uniaxial+Biaxial+Planar Shear Data
C10 -0.735 0.246 0.239
C01 1.21 0.029 0.035
C11 0.194 -0.0004 -0.0015
Uniaxial Data
Uniaxial + Biaxial Data
Uniaxial+Biaxial+Planar Shear Data
C10 0.074 0.247 0.244
C01 0.280 0.027 0.027
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 177
Chapter 6: Workshop Problems Model 4: Planar Shear Curve Fit
Now fit an Ogden 2-term material model. The fit is similar to the earlier one based on just uniaxial and biaxial data. Indeed, adding the planar shear data has caused the biaxial fit to be worse.
OGDENCOMPUTE, OK
178 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Model 4: Planar Shear Curve Fit Chapter 6: Workshop Problems
Just for fun, try fitting an Ogden 3-term material model to just the uniaxial and planar shear data. You will have to clear the table associated with the biaxial button to do this. The results should look like the figure below. Removing the biaxial data is like removing a constraint. The uniaxial and planar shear response improve quite a bit. However, the biaxial fit response is very bad, with a stability point at about 30% strain.
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 179
Chapter 6: Workshop Problems Model 4: Planar Shear Curve Fit
Summary of Ogden 2-term fits:
We have now completed a series of Ogden 2-term fits that used progressively more information as the basis for the curve fitting. The table below summarizes the coefficients calculated in each case.
We know the uniaxial only data fit had too little information as its basis, and it’s biaxial response was very bad. The last two fits, however, were relatively similar and yet their coefficients are markedly different. We see this in many Ogden fits and it is attributed to the many local minima that exist in the Ogden equation set.
Ogden 2-term Fitting Summary
Uniaxial Data
Uniaxial + Biaxial Data
Uniaxial+Biaxial+Planar Shear Data
-3.01 -2.55E-6 -0.353
0.733 -10.5 -.582
-0.861 1.00 0.592
-4.91 1.18 1.60
µ1
α1
µ2
α2
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Model 4: Planar Shear Curve Fit Chapter 6: Workshop Problems
Comments:
We are now finished with the curve fitting portion of this exercise. The further addition of planar shear data did not change the material models very much.
Let’s run this planar shear analysis with the Mooney 2-term model.
Go back to MOONEY(2) and fit it again, press the APPLY button. Submit the analysis, then we will postprocess and show the analysis calculated stress-strain curve.
MOONEY(2) COMPUTEAPPLY, OK
RETURN (twice)MECHANICAL MATERIALS TYPE, MOREMOONEY (look at the material properties)
OKFILES
SAVE AS moon2, OKRETURN (twice)
JOBSRUN
SUBMIT1MONITOR, OK
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Chapter 6: Workshop Problems Model 4: Planar Shear Curve Fit
Now go to postprocessing and generate the engineering stress-strain curve (we did this earlier with the original model). We will also save the analysis generated stress-strain curve to an external file for comparison to the planar shear test data.
MAINRESULTS
OPEN DEFAULTHISTORY PLOT
SET NODES(pick node 8 shown)END LISTCOLLECT DATA14 30 1 <cr>NODE/VARIABLES
ADD VARIABLEDisplacement ZForce Z cbody 2 FIT, RETURN> XY
SAVE type moon2.tab
This last command saves the table to an external file named moon2.tab (.tab is just to remind us that it is table data).
Pick
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Model 4: Planar Shear Curve Fit Chapter 6: Workshop Problems
For the moment, we shall use the generalized xy plotter to compare the response of the model to the curve fit.
MAINRESULTSCLOSE, RETURN
UTILSGENERALIZED XY PLOT
DATA FITFIT, FILL
Planar Shear Response
Planar Shear Curve Fit
Planar Shear Data
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Chapter 6: Workshop Problems Model 4: Planar Shear Curve Fit
To compare the two stress-strain curves we will use XMGR. From a terminal window type:
xmgr ps_18.data moon2.tab
A graphics screen will appear in which the experimental data is shown in black and the analysis generated stress-strain curve is shown in red. Of course, the test data only extends to about 100% strain whereas, we performed our analysis out to 200% strain.
Planar Shear Response
Planar Shear Data
184 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Model 4: Realistic Planar Shear Specimen Chapter 6: Workshop Problems
Model 4: Realistic Planar Shear Specimen
Extra Credit Problem Statement:
This problem is in the subdirectory named ./planar/big.
Geometry is 75 L x 12 H x 2 W (mm) between grips.
Read model from file pt_45.mud.
Grips are modeled as discrete rigid surfaces, with glue.
Run analysis with Mooney 1-term model and plot engineering stress-strain, compare with original test data. Use princa.f usersub if possible.
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 185
Chapter 6: Workshop Problems Model 4: Realistic Planar Shear Specimen
Results: pt_45.mud
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0Engineering Strain
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
Eng
inee
ring
Str
ess
[Mpa
]
Model 4: Planar Shear (pt_45.mud)Neo Hookean: G = 2(2.71964-1)
G(1+x-(1+x)^-3)max princ engg. stress l [124]max princ engg. stress l [614]max princ engg. stress l [615]
186 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Model 4: Realistic Planar Shear Specimen Chapter 6: Workshop Problems
Model 4: Realistic Planar Stress Specimen (cont.)
What happened to our specimen model with 612 elements?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
How does the specimen model compare to the test data?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
How would we convert measured force versus stroke to engineering stress versus engineering strain? How realistic is this?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Where is the actual gauge length in the specimen model?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 187
Chapter 6: Workshop Problems Model 5: Viscoelastic Specimen
Model 5: Viscoelastic Specimen
Objective: To model a viscoelastic neo-Hookean elastomeric material under a uniaxial stress deformation mode with a load to 50% strain and hold for 7200 seconds. Begin at the main menu.
To focus on curve fitting elastomeric test data, a fully runnable procedure file is provided that will build an initial model. However, the model contains only a trivial neo-Hookean material model with
C10 = 0.5. It will be your job to modify the model by reading in the test data, and curve fitting it to add viscoelastic effects.
In a terminal window, use the cd command to move to the wkshops_A/visco or the wkshops_B/visco directory.
Type “mentat” to start the MSC.Marc Mentat program, then starting from the main menu proceed as follows:
UTILSPROCEDURES
EXECUTEpick the file named visco.procOKOK
This will produce a uniaxial stress model. Please familiarize yourself with this model. Look at the BC’s, the material specification, the contact bodies and contact table, and the loadcase.
188 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Model 5: Viscoelastic Specimen Chapter 6: Workshop Problems
After the procedure file is finished the final picture on your screen will look like this.
Here is a brief summary of the uniaxial model we have created:
• A single brick element, full integration, Herrmann.
• Boundary conditions on x=0 & y=0
faces to prevent free translation in space.
• Material model is neo-Hookean with C10 = 0.5, no viscoelastic
properties are included.
• Rigid contact surfaces are used to impose deformation.
lower rigid body, cbody2, is stationary.
upper rigid body, cbody3, is position controlled and moves +0.5 in the Z direction at time zero to achieve 50% strain.
• Seven loadcases are used to mirror the test data sampling times.
This problem is not run in this trivial form since no viscoelastic properties have been added yet. We will now read in the material data and perform the curve fit(s).
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 189
Chapter 6: Workshop Problems Model 5: Viscoelastic Curve Fit
Model 5: Viscoelastic Curve Fit
For curve fitting, we need two different types of test data. First we need to create a table of instantaneous strain, stress data to fit a standard Mooney or Ogden model. Then we need to read a file of time, stress information that will be used to curve fit a relaxation function.
We will create the instantaneous table from our viscoelastic test data. For this exercise, we have 30% strain and 50% strain visco tests. Look at the first line from each data file – named 30percent.data and 50percent.data. We will take the first stress point from each file as the instantaneous stress. These first stress points are 0.7524 and 1.1695 respectively.
Go to the material definition stage and create the following table of instantaneous strain, stress data.
MAINMATERIAL PROPERTIES
EXPERIMENTAL DATA FITTINGTABLES
NEWADD POINT0, 0 <cr>0.30, 0.7524 <cr>0.50, 1.1695 <cr>SAVE
190 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Model 5: Viscoelastic Curve Fit Chapter 6: Workshop Problems
Make the table type experimental_data, and associate this data with the uniaxial button. Your screen should look similar to the one below, and we are ready to start curve fitting the data.
TABLE TYPEexperimental_data, OK, RETURN
UNIAXIALtable2
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Chapter 6: Workshop Problems Model 5: Viscoelastic Curve Fit
Choose the neo-Hookean curve fitting routine and base the curve fit on just uniaxial data. The compute button will compute the model coefficients. By default, responses for many modes are plotted. The single neo-Hookean coefficient, C10, is 0.542. Notice that the model’s uniaxial response does not exactly match the data.
ELASTOMERSNEO-HOOKEAN
UNIAXIALCOMPUTE, APPLY, OK
SCALE AXES
192 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Model 5: Viscoelastic Curve Fit Chapter 6: Workshop Problems
Comments:
For simplicity, we have fit a neo-Hookean model using only uniaxial data. All of the previously discussed issues regarding using only one mode of deformation still apply here! We are simply ignoring them for purposes of this exercise.
We have used the first data point from the stress relaxation test to define our “instantaneous” or short time behavior. We could have used data from a separate simple tension test (non-relaxation), but this would add to our uncertainty. Test sample differences (cure, preconditioning, etc.), test strain-rate differences, and other such influences may cause correlation difficulties.
We have based our neo-Hookean model on both 30% and 50% strain data. If we wanted near perfect correlation between one test and one analysis, we could have based the neo-Hookean model on just the 50% strain test.
Now we are ready to read in one set of relaxation test data, curve fit, and run our uniaxial stress relaxation analysis.
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 193
Chapter 6: Workshop Problems Model 5: Viscoelastic Curve Fit
For the 50 durometer silicone rubber we have been using in this class, we will perform 2 stress relaxation tests – one at 30% strain and at 50% strain. For completeness, we show these two sets of data below.
194 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Model 5: Viscoelastic Curve Fit Chapter 6: Workshop Problems
Remember, that a key limitation of this large strain viscoelastic material model is that it assumes the relaxation rate (and thus overall stress relaxation at any time) is independent of the imposed strain. It would be reasonable to check our test data to see if this material satisfies this assumption. We do so by normalizing each dataset (the 30% and 50% strain stress relaxation datasets) and plotting both. This has been done and is shown below. Our 50 durometer silicone rubber satifies this assumption nicely within this range of strain.
Q: What to do if your material shows markedly different relaxation rates at different strain levels?
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 195
Chapter 6: Workshop Problems Model 5: Viscoelastic Curve Fit
Continuing from our previous location in the menu hierarchy, we will now read in one set of stress relaxation data. Choose the 50% strain data (we have set up the analysis for 50% strain loading).
RETURNTABLES
READRAWFILTER: type *.datapick file 50percent.data, OK
TABLE TYPEexperimental_data, OK, RETURN
ENERGY RELAX.table3
ELASTOMERSENERGY RELAXATION
RELAXATIONCOMPUTE, OK
SCALE AXES
We have done this initial fit with the default of two terms in the prony series. This is a pretty crude fit. A rule of thumb is to use as many terms as there are time decades of data. We have 5 decades of data. Re-fit the data using 3, then 4, then 5 terms and watch especially the relaxation time values. Notice that finally you will have a relaxation time value in each decade.
196 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Model 5: Viscoelastic Curve Fit Chapter 6: Workshop Problems
The final 5 term prony series fit will look like this. Note the coefficients in the upper right portion of the screen. We are happy with this fit and are ready to APPLY it to the current material definition.
From the menu shown below, do the following:
APPLY, OK
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 197
Chapter 6: Workshop Problems Model 5: Viscoelastic Curve Fit
Comments:
We are now finished with the curve fitting portion of this viscoelastic exercise. Let’s save our changes to the model and run the analysis.
SAVEMAINJOBS
RUNSUBMIT1MONITOROK (when finished)
198 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Model 5: Viscoelastic Curve Fit Chapter 6: Workshop Problems
Now go to postprocessing and generate the engineering stress-time relaxation curve. We will also save the analysis generated stress-time curve to an external file for comparison to the test data.
MAINRESULTS
OPEN DEFAULTHISTORY PLOT
COLLECT DATA1 60 1 <cr>NODE/VARIABLES
ADD GLOBAL CRVTimeForce Z cbody 2FIT, RETURN> XY
RETURN
SAVE type visco50.tab
This last command saves the table to an external file named visco50.tab (.tab is just to remind us that it is table data).
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 199
Chapter 6: Workshop Problems Model 5: Viscoelastic Curve Fit
We can now use the GENERALIZED XY PLOTTER to compare the response with the data.
CLOSEUTILSGENERALIZED XY PLOT
DATA FIT (this get the data fit curves)
200 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Model 5: Viscoelastic Curve Fit Chapter 6: Workshop Problems
To compare the two stress-strain curves we will use XMGR.From a terminal window type:
xmgr 50percent.data visco50.tab
A graphics screen will appear in which the experimental data is shown in black and the analysis generated stress-time curve is shown in red (and dashed). You will not see all the text labels.
Q: Why is there a difference between the two lines?
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 201
Chapter 6: Workshop Problems Model 5: Viscoelastic Curve Fit
Q: Why is there a difference between the two lines?
A: Recall from (page 197) that the 5 term prony series fit the data extremely well, the fit and data lines were virtually indistinguishable. So why does the MSC.Marc result also not lie directly on top of the test data? The difference is caused by the error in the instantaneous neo-Hookean model. Remember (page 192) that the neo-Hookean model with C10 = 0.542 did not pass exactly through the 50% strain point.
This error causes all the difference in the stress-time plot shown on the previous page. To achieve a better correlation of MSC.Marc result to the 50% strain test data, base the neo-Hookean fit on just the 50% strain data. Doing so gives a C10 = 0.554 and the MSC.Marc results will now match the relaxation test data very closely.
202 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Ex
CHAPTER 7 Contact Analysis
perimental Elastomer
This features allows for the automated solution of problems where contact occurs between deformable and rigid bodies. It does not require special elements to be placed at the points of contact. This contact algorithm automatically detects nodes entering contact and generates the appropriate constraints to insure no penetration occurs and maintains compatibility of displacements across touching surfaces.
Analysis 203
Chapter 7: Contact Analysis Definition of Contact Bodies
Definition of Contact Bodies
Contact Body - Any group of elements or geometric entities that may contact themselves or others.
Types of Contact Bodies:Deformable – Collection of elements. Rigid – Collection of geometric entities or heat transfer elements
Add elements to contact body, here 90 elements are added to contact body, cbody1.
Analytic contact may be used to smooth facets of element edges or faces.
By default Rigid bodies are controlled with displacement, unless specified here.
Geometric curves/surfaces have to be properly oriented.
204 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Definition of Contact Bodies Chapter 7: Contact Analysis
Definition of Contact Bodies (cont.)
Contact Body – Any group of elements or geometric entities that may contact themselves or others.
Types of Contact Bodies:Deformable – Collection of elements. Rigid – Collection of geometric entities or heat transfer elements
Add elements to contact body, here 1 curve is added to body, cbody2.
This bodies position is controlled by a table.
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 205
Chapter 7: Contact Analysis Control of Rigid Bodies
Control of Rigid Bodies
Rigid bodies can be controlled by their velocity, position, or load.
❑ Prescribe translational and/or rotational velocity as a function of time using a time table.
❑ Prescribe position/rotation as a function of time.
❑ Prescribe force on rigid body as a function of time:
✻ define force on additional node
✻ connect node to rigid contact body
✻ motion of rigid contact body is in direction of applied force; motion in perpendicular direction is constrained
206 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Contact Procedure Chapter 7: Contact Analysis
Contact Procedure
Deformable to Rigid Body Contact
with:
:incremental displacement vector of node
: unit normal vector with proper orientation:contact distance (Default = h/20 or t/4):separation force (Default = Maximum Residual)
Case 1:Node A does not touch, no constraint applied.Case 2:Node A is near rigid body within tolerance, contact constraint
pulls node to contact surface if .
Case 3:Node A penetrates within tolerance, contact constrain pushes node to contact surface.
Case 4:Node A penetrates out of tolerance and increment gets split (loads reduced) until no penetration.
D DA
n∆uA
Rigid Body
Deformable Body 32Case 1 4(set of elements)
(set of curvesor surfaces)
∆uA n d–• D≤
d
Cases 2, 3: Contact detected when
Case 1: Contact not detected when∆uA n• D d–<
Case 4: Penetration detected when∆uA n• D d+>
∆uA A
nDFs
F Fs<
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 207
Chapter 7: Contact Analysis Bias Factor
Bias Factor
By default, the contact tolerance is equally applied to both sides of a segment; this can be changed by introducing a bias factor ( ):
Choosing may be useful to
• reduce increment splitting, since the distance to cause penetration is increased
• improve accuracy, since the distance below which a node comes into contact is reduced:
B 0 B 1≤ ≤
Dcontact
DcontactDcontact 1 B+( )
Dcontact 1 B–( )
default with bias factor
B 0>
default with bias factor
208 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Deformable-to-Deformable Contact Chapter 7: Contact Analysis
Deformable-to-Deformable Contact
Discrete deformable contact (default) is based on piecewise linear geometry description of either 2-node edges in 2 dimensions or 4-node faces in 3 dimensions on the outer surface of all contacting meshes.
Then the contact constraint:
✻ defines tying relation for displacement component of contacting node in local -direction
✻ applies correction on position in local -direction
actual geometry
finite element approximation
contacted body
contacting bodycontact tolerance
yx
A
y
y
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 209
Chapter 7: Contact Analysis Potential Errors due to Piecewise Linear Description:
Potential Errors due to Piecewise Linear Description:
Tying relation may be not completely correct due to the assumption that the normal direction is constant for a complete segment.
If contacting node slides from one segment to another, a discontinuity in the normal direction may occur.
The correction on the position of the contacting node may be not completely correct.
Analytical Deformable Contact Bodies:
Replace 2-node linear edges by cubic splines (2D) or 4-node bi-linear patches by bi-cubic Coons surfaces (3D).
You must take care of nodes (2D) and edges (3D) where the outer normal vector is discontinuous.
You may wish to use extended precision.
Advantages are smoother contact where in 2D, -continuity is obtained,
and in 3D, at least pointwise -continuity is obtained. Analytical deformable contact must be turned on, whereas, rigid bodies default to analytic contact where the curves or surfaces are represented as NURBS during contact.
C1
C1
210 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Contact Flowchart Chapter 7: Contact Analysis
Contact Flowchart
Input
Initial set up of contact bodies
Incremental data input
Check on contact
Set up of contact constraints
Apply distributed loads
Assemble stiffness matrix; include friction
Apply contact constraints
Solve set of equations
Recover stresses
“Converged” solution?
Separation?
Penetration?
Last increment?
Stop
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Update contact constraints
No
No
Yes
begi
n in
crem
ent
begi
n ite
ratio
n
Splitincrement
Changecontact
constraints
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 211
Chapter 7: Contact Analysis Symmetry Body
Symmetry Body
Symmetry bodies often provide an easy way to impose symmetry conditions; they may be used instead of the TRANSFORMATION and SERVO LINK options that WILL CAUSE PROBLEMS in contact as these nodes come into contact. A symmetry plane is characterized by a very high separation force, so that only a movement tangential to the contact segment is possible The symmetry plane option can only be invoked for rigid surfaces
Y
Z
deformable_body
symmetry_plane_1
symmetry_plane_2
none
212 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Rigid with Heat Transfer Chapter 7: Contact Analysis
Rigid with Heat Transfer
Model 1: Deformable-rigid (stress or coupled analysis)
billet
channel
35
20o
44.75
50
R = 6
25
20
billet
channel
none
deformable-rigid (stress or coupled analysis)
geometrical entities(straight lines and acircular arc)
MARC element 10
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 213
Chapter 7: Contact Analysis Rigid with Heat Transfer
Model 2: Deformable-rigid (coupled analysis)
Model 3: Deformable-deformable (stress or coupled analysis)
billet
channel
none
deformable-rigid (coupled a
MARC element 40
MARC element 10
Rigid w Heat Transfer
billet
channel
none
deformable-deformable (stress or coupled analysis)MARC element 10
MARC element 10
214 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Contact Table Chapter 7: Contact Analysis
Contact Table
Contact Table Properties:
Single-sided Contact:
Only body 2 may contact itself
1
23
4
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 215
Chapter 7: Contact Analysis Contact Table
Contact Table (cont.)
Very useful for specifying parameters between contacting bodies.
Contact tables must be turned on initially in contact control, or during any loadcase to become active. With no contact tables active, all bodies can come into contact including self contact.
216 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Contact Areas Chapter 7: Contact Analysis
Contact Areas
Very useful for defining certain nodes of a body that may enter contact.
Like contact tables, contact areas must be turned on initially in contact control, or during any loadcase to become active. With no contact areas active, all nodes of all bodies can come into contact.
Both contact table and contact areas can reduce the amount of node to segment checking and can save compute time.
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 217
Chapter 7: Contact Analysis Exclude Segments During Contact Detection
Exclude Segments During Contact Detection
Exclude segment will influence the searching done for nodes detected in the contact zone during self contact.
Options to influence search for contact include:
❑ Contact table: define which bodies can potentially come into contact (defined per loadcase)
❑ Contact node: define which nodes of a body can potentially come into contact (defined per loadcase)
❑ Single-sided contact: searching for contact is not done with respect to bodies with a lower body number (defined for the whole analysis)
❑ Exclude: define which segments of a body can never be contacted (defined per loadcase)
Contact table, contact node and exclude affect the initial search for contact; once a node is in contact, this is not undone by these options.
218 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Effect Of Exclude Option: Chapter 7: Contact Analysis
Effect Of Exclude Option:
Standard contact
excluded segments
With exclude option
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 219
Chapter 7: Contact Analysis Contacting Nodes and Contacted Segments
Contacting Nodes and Contacted Segments
For 3D continua, an automatic check on the direction of the normal vectors is included:
Contact will not be accepted if
Shell Thickness is taken into account according to:
❑ 2D: one fourth of the shell thickness only if the body is contacted.
❑ 3D: one fourth of the shell thickness for both the contacting and the contacted body.
Contacting body nodes Contacted body patches
nnode npatch⋅ 0.05>
220 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Friction Model Types Chapter 7: Contact Analysis
Friction Model Types
Friction coefficient is specified in contact body or contact table. Although, the coefficient is entered a specific friction model type must be selected for friction to be active.
.
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 221
Chapter 7: Contact Analysis Stick-Slip Friction Model
Stick-Slip Friction Model
Discovered by Leonardo da Vinci in the 15th century and verified by experiments by Charles A. Coulomb in the 18th century, this stick-slip friction model uses a penalty method to describe the step function of Columb’s Law.
with:
:incremental tangential displacement
: slip to stick transition region (default
: coefficient multiplier (default 1.05)
: friction force tolerance (default 0.05)
: small constant, so that (fixed at )
∆ut
Ft
2β
2εβ
µFn
αµF
n
Ft µFn≤ static Ft αµFn≤, kinetic
∆ut
β 16–×10
α
e
ε εβ 0≈ 16–×10
222 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Coulomb (Sliding) Friction Model Chapter 7: Contact Analysis
Coulomb (Sliding) Friction Model
Implementation of this friction model has been done using nonlinear dashpots whose stiffness depend on the relative sliding velocity as:
MSC.Marc approximation:
with:
: “relative sliding velocity below which sticking is simulated”(Default = 1.0!)
slip
slip
MARC approximation
Ft
vr
stick
C
Ft µFn2π---
vr
C----
atan≤
C
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 223
Chapter 7: Contact Analysis Shear (Sliding) Friction Model
Shear (Sliding) Friction Model
This friction model has been done using nonlinear dashpots whose stiffness depend on the relative sliding velocity as:
However, the friction force depends upon a fraction of the shear strength of the material, not the normal force:
with:
: “relative sliding velocity below which sticking is simulated”(Default = 1.0!)
slip
slip
MARC approximation
σt
vr
stick
C
σt µ Y
3-------
2π---
vr
C----
atan≤
C
224 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Coulomb Sliding Friction Model use Stresses or Forces Chapter 7: Contact Analysis
Coulomb Sliding Friction Model use Stresses or Forces
Nodal stresses: (Applies to continuum elements)
define distributed load in opposite direction of relative sliding velocity: ,where, , friction coefficient and, , normal stress in contact point
Nodal forces: (Always used for shell elements)
define nodal load in opposite direction of relative sliding velocity, , where, , friction coefficient and, , normal force in
contact point
pt
pt µσn= µ σn
vr
pt
Ft
Ft µFn= µ Fn
Ft
vr
Ft
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 225
Chapter 7: Contact Analysis Glued Contact
Glued Contact
Sometimes a complex body can be split up into parts which can be meshed relatively easy:
* define each part as a contact body
* invoke the glue option (CONTACT TABLE) to obtain tying equations not only normal but also tangential to contact segments
* enter a large separation force
Z
body 1
body 2
226 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Glued Contact Chapter 7: Contact Analysis
Glued Contact (cont.)
Gluing rigid to deformable bodies can help simulate testing because testing of materials generally involves measuring the force and displacement of the rigid grips. Here is an example of a planar tension
(pure shear) rubber specimen being pulled by two grips. The grip force versus displacement curve is directly available on the post file and can be compared directly to the force and displacement measured.
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 227
Chapter 7: Contact Analysis Release Option
Release Option
The release option provides the possibility to deactivate a contact body:
upon entering a body to be released, all nodes being in contact with this body will be released. Using the release option e.g. a spring-back effect can be simulated. Releasing nodes occurs at the beginning of an increment. Make sure that the released body moves away to avoid recontacting.
Interference Check / Interference Closure Amount
By means of the interference check, an initial overlap will be removed at the beginning of increment 1.
By means of an interference closure amount, an overlap or a gap between contacting bodies can be defined per increment:
* positive value: overlap
* negative value: gap
228 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Forces on Rigid Bodies Chapter 7: Contact Analysis
Forces on Rigid Bodies
During the analysis rigid bodies have all forces and moments resolved to a single point which is the centroid shown below.
This makes rigid bodies useful to monitor the force versus displacement behavior as shown at the right.
Body 3 Force Y
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 229
Chapter 7: Contact Analysis Forces on Rigid Bodies
Forces on Rigid Bodies (cont.)
Vector plotting External Force will show the forces at each node resulting from the contact constraints.
230 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Ex
APPENDIX A The Mechanics of Elastomers
perimental Elastomer
The macroscopic behavior of elastomers depends greatly upon the deformation states because the material is nearly incompressible.
Analysis 231
Appendix A: The Mechanics of Elastomers Deformation States
Deformation States
❑ Stretch ratios:
❑ Incompressibility:
❑ First order approximation (Neo-Hookean):
❑ Eliminate :
t1 t1
t2
t2
t3
t3
λ1L1
λ2L2λ3L3
L1
L2
L3
λ i
Li ∆Li+
Li-------------------- 1 ε+= = engineering strain ∆Li Li⁄( ) ε==
λ1λ2λ3 1=
W12---G λ1
2 λ22 λ3
23–+ +( )=
λ3
W12---G λ1
2 λ22 1
λ12λ2
2----------- 3–+ +
=
232 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Deformation States Appendix A: The Mechanics of Elastomers
❑ Two-dimensional extension:
Hence: , ,
❑ Engineering stresses : forces per unit undeformed area
❑ True stresses : forces per unit deformed area
dL1L1L2
dL
2F1
F1
F2
F2
dW F1dL1 F2dL2+ σ1dλ1 σ2dλ2+= =
dW∂W∂λ1---------dλ1
∂W∂λ2---------dλ2+=
σ1 G λ11
λ13λ2
2-----------–
=
σ3 0=
σ2 G λ21
λ12λ2
3-----------–
=
σi
ti
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 233
Appendix A: The Mechanics of Elastomers Deformation States
❑ Two-dimensional extension:
or:
and:
❑ Constant volume implies that a hydrostatic pressure cannot have an effect on the state of strain, so that the stresses are indeterminate to the extent of the hydrostatic pressure
t1 σ1 λ2λ3( )⁄ λ1σ1= =
t1 G λ12 λ3
2–( )=
t2 G λ22 λ3
2–( )=
t3 0=
p
234 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Deformation States Appendix A: The Mechanics of Elastomers
❑ (Nearly) incompressible material:
, hence
❑ Ordinary solid (e.g. steel): and are the same order of magnitude. Whereas, in rubber the ratio of to is of the order
; hence the response to a stress is effectively determined solely by the shear modulus
Bulk Modulus KShear Modulus G------------------------------------------ 2 1 ν+( )
3 1 2υ–( )------------------------=
υ 12---→ K
G---- ∞→
G KG K
104–
G
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 235
Appendix A: The Mechanics of Elastomers General Formulation of Elastomers
General Formulation of Elastomers
❑ Material points in undeformed configuration: ; material points in deformed configuration:
❑ Lagrange description:
is the deformation gradient tensor
❑ Green-Lagrange strain tensor:
❑ Right Cauchy-Green strain tensor:
❑ Some additional relations:
Xi
xi
xi xi Xj( )=
dxi FijdXj with Fij
xi∂Xj∂
--------= =
Fij
dx( )2dX( )2
– 2EijdXidXj=
dx( )2CijdXidXj=
Cij δij 2Eij+=
Cij
∂xk
∂Xi--------
∂xk
∂Xj-------- FkiFkj= =
Eij12---
∂xk
∂Xi--------
∂xk
∂Xj-------- δij–
12--- FkiFkj δij–[ ]= =
236 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
General Formulation of Elastomers Appendix A: The Mechanics of Elastomers
❑ Introduce displacement vector :
❑ With respect to principal directions:
❑ Invariants of :
❑ Strain energy function:
ui
xi Xi ui+=
Eij12--- ui j, uj i, uk i, uk j,+ +( )=
Cij δki uk i,+( ) δkj uk j,+( )=
Ci’j’
λ12
0 0
0 λ22
0
0 0 λ32
=
Cij
I1 Cii=
I212--- CiiCjj CijCij–( )=
I3 det Cij=
W*
W I1 I2,( ) h I3 1–( )+=
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 237
Appendix A: The Mechanics of Elastomers General Formulation of Elastomers
❑ Second-Piola Kirchhoff stresses:
❑ True or Cauchy stresses:
❑ Zero deformation:
hence:
so that the stresses can be expressed in terms of displacementsand the hydrostatic pressure
Sij 2∂W∂I1--------δij 2
∂W∂I2-------- δijCkk Cij–[ ] 2h
∂I3
∂Cij----------+ +=
tijρρ0----- δik ui k,+( )Skl δjl uj l,+( )=
Sij0
2∂W∂I1-------- 4
∂W∂I2--------+
02h+
0
δij=
p 2∂W∂I1--------–
04
∂W∂I2--------–
02h–=
238 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Finite Element Formulation Appendix A: The Mechanics of Elastomers
Finite Element Formulation
❑ Modified virtual work equation:
❑ In addition to the displacements, within an element we need to interpolate the pressure:
❑ The incremental stresses are related to the linear strain
increment by:
❑ The incremental set of equations to be solved reads:
with:
: the linear stiffness matrix
: the geometric stiffness matrix
: the nodal pressure coupling matrix
: nodal load vector
: internal stress vector
: vector quantity representing the incompressibility constraint
Sij
V∫ δEijdV Qiδui Vd
V∫– Tiδui Ad
A-∫– δλ I3 1–( ) Vd
V∫ 0=+
ui Xi( ) Nα Xi( )uiα
α∑= p Xi( ) hα Xi( )p
α
α∑=and
∆Sij Dijkln ∆Ekl
-∆p Cij
n( )1–
–=
K0( )
K1( )
+[ ] H[ ]–
H[ ] T– 0[ ]
∆uα
∆pα
P Rα
–
gα
=
K0( )[ ]
K1( )[ ]
H[ ]
P
R
g
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 239
Appendix A: The Mechanics of Elastomers Large Strain Viscoelasticity
Large Strain Viscoelasticity
The behavior of rubber is in most cases considered to be time independent elastic. This approximation is no longer valid, if specific hysteresis effects need to be taken into account. The theory of linear visco-elasticity cannot be applied directly since there is no linear relation between the applied strain and the resulting stress. Various forms are proposed in literature to describe nonlinear visco-elasticity.
In MSC.Marc, a rather simple form, based on an extension of the elastic energy function as proposed by Simo, is used. The model is based in the observation that for short time loading more energy is required then in a long term loading. Also if one loads at a high rate and keeps the deformation constant for a specific period of time, part of the elastic energy is released.
Large Strain Viscoelasticity based on Energy
For an elastomeric time independent material the constitutive equation is expressed in terms of an energy function W. For a large strain visco-elastic material Simo generalized the small strain visco-elasticity material behavior to a large strain visco-elastic material using the energy function. The energy functional is now a time dependent function and is written in the following form:
W Eij,Qijn( ) W
0Eij( ) Qij
nEij
n 1=
N
∑–=
240 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Large Strain Viscoelasticity based on Energy Appendix A: The Mechanics of Elastomers
where are the components of the Green-Lagrange strain tensor,
internal variables and the elastic strain energy density for instantaneous deformation.
In MSC.Marc, it is assumed that is the energy density for instantaneous deformations is given by the third order James Green and Simpson form, or the energy function as defined by Ogden.
The components of the second Piola-Kirchhoff stress then follow from:
The energy function can also be written in terms of the long term moduli
resulting in a different set of internal variables :
where is the elastic strain energy for long term deformations. Using this energy definition the stresses are obtained from:
Eij Qijn
W0
W0
Sij∂W∂Eij--------- ∂W
0
∂Eij---------- Qij
n
n 1=
N
∑–= =
Tijn
W Eij Tijn,( ) W
∞Eij( ) Tij
nEij
n 1=
N
∑+=
W∞
Sij∂W
∞E( )
∂Eij-------------------- Tij
n
n 1=
N
∑+=
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 241
Appendix A: The Mechanics of Elastomers Large Strain Viscoelasticity based on Energy
Observing the similarity with the equations for small strain visco-elasticity the internal variables can be obtained from a convolution expression:
where are internal stresses following from the time dependent part of the energy functions.
Let the total strain energy be expressed as a Prony series expansion:
Observing the difficulty in finding accurate expressions for the multiaxial aspect of the elastic energy in time independent rubber a further simplification is used. We assume that the energy expression for each term
is of similar form to the short time elastic energy and only different by
a scalar multiplier .
This equation can now be rewritten as:
Tijn
Sijn τ( ) t τ–( ) λn⁄–[ ] τ
.dexp
0
t
∫=
Sijn
Sijn ∂W
n
∂Eij----------=
W W∞
Wn
t λn⁄–( )exp
n 1=
N
∑+=
W0
Wn δW
0=
W W∞ δn
W0
t λn⁄–( )exp
n 1=
N
∑+=
242 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Large Strain Viscoelasticity based on Energy Appendix A: The Mechanics of Elastomers
where is a scalar multiplier for the energy function based on the short term values.
The stress strain relation is now given by:
Analogue to the derivation for small strain visco-elasticity, a recurrent relation can be derived expressing the stress increment as a function of the strain increment and the internal stresses at the start of the increment:
δn
Sij t( ) Sij∞
t( ) Tijn
t( )n 1=
N
∑+=
Sij∞ ∂W
∞
∂Eij----------- 1 δn
n 1=
N
∑– ∂W
0
∂Eij----------= =
Tijn δn
Sij0
t( ) t τ–( ) λn⁄–[ ] τ.
dexp
0
t
∫=
∆Sij tm( ) ∆Sij∞
tm( ) ∆Sijn
tm( )n 1=
N
∑+=
∆Sij∞
tm( ) Sij∞
tm( ) Sij∞
tm( )–=
∆Sijn
tm( ) βnh( ) Sij
ntm( ) Sij
ntm h–( )–[ ] α n
h( )Sijn
tm h–( )n 1=
N
∑–=
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 243
Appendix A: The Mechanics of Elastomers Large Strain Viscoelasticity based on Energy
The functions and are a function of the time step h in the time interval :
The equations above are based on the long term moduli. Since in the MSC.Marc program always the instantaneous values of the energy function are given on the MOONEY option, the equations are reformulated in terms of the short time values of the energy function:
It is assumed that the visco-elastic behavior in MSC.Marc acts only on the deviatoric behavior. The incompressible behavior is taken into account using special Herrmann elements.
α βtm 1 tm,–[ ]
αnh( ) 1 h–( ) λn⁄exp–=
βnh( ) αn
h( ) λn
h-----⋅=
∆Sij tm( ) 1 1 βnh( )–[ ]δn
n 1=
N
∑– Sij0
tm( ) Sij0
tm h–( )–=
αnSij
ntm h–( )
n 1=
N
∑–
∆Sijn
tm( ) βnh( )δn
Sij0
tm( ) Sijn
tm h–( )–[ ]=
αnh( )Sij
ntm h–( )–
244 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Illustration of Large Strain Viscoelastic Behavior Appendix A: The Mechanics of Elastomers
Illustration of Large Strain Viscoelastic Behavior
A large strain visco-elastic material is characterized by the following time dependent elastic energy function:
where is the energy function for very slow processes. is an extra amount of energy necessary for time dependent processes. To each amount , a characteristic time is associated.
At time zero (or for time processes: ), the elastic energy reduces to:
If we assume that the energy function for each time dependent part is different only by a scalar constant:
the equations reduce to:
or
W t( ) W∞
Wn
t λn⁄–( )exp
n 1=
N
∑+=
W∞
Wn
Wn
t λn<
W 0( ) W0
W∞
Wn
n 1=
N
∑+= =
Wn δn
W0
=
W0
W∞
W0 δn
n 1=
N
∑+= W∞
1 δn
n 1=
N
∑–
W0
=
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 245
Appendix A: The Mechanics of Elastomers Illustration of Large Strain Viscoelastic Behavior
The time dependent energy is then given by:
If we restrict ourselves for simplicity of the discussion to the case N = 1 we have:
W t( ) W0
W0 δn
W0 δn
t λn⁄–( )exp
n 1=
N
∑+
n 1=
N
∑–=
W0
1 δn1 t λn⁄–( )exp–( )
n 1=
N
∑–=
W∞
1 δ–( )W0
=
W t( ) W0
1 δ 1 t λn⁄–( )exp–( )–[ ]=
246 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Ex
APPENDIX B Elastomeric Damage Models
perimental Elastomer
Under repeated application of loads, elastomers undergo damage by mechanisms involving chain breakage, multi-chain damage, micro-void formation, and micro-structural degradation due to detachment of filler particles from the network entanglement. Two types of phenomenological models namely, discontinuous and continuous, exists to simulate the phenomenon of damage.
Analysis 247
Appendix B: Elastomeric Damage Models Discontinuous Damage Model
Discontinuous Damage Model
Discontinuous damage denotes the phenomenon where progressively increasing strain levels, the material regains its original stiffness (as in a single pull) until subsequent reloading as shown in the stress-strain plot below.
The higher the maximum attained strain, the larger is the loss of stiffness upon reloading. Hence, there is a progressive stiffness loss with increasing maximum strain amplitude. Also, most of the stiffness loss takes place in the few earliest cycles provided the maximum strain level is not increased. This phenomenon is found in both filled as well as natural rubber although the higher levels of carbon black particles increase the hysteresis and the loss of stiffness.
0.0 0.5 1.0Time
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Eng
inee
ring
Str
ain
Strain HistoryFor Discontinuous Damage
248 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Discontinuous Damage Model Appendix B: Elastomeric Damage Models
The free energy, W, can be written as
where is the nominal (undamaged) strain energy function, and
determines the evolution of the discontinuous damage. The reduced form of Clausius-Duhem dissipation inequality yields the stress as:
Mathematically, the discontinuous damage model has a structure very similar to that of strain space plasticity. Hence, if a damage surface is defined as:
The loading condition for damage can be expressed in terms of the Kuhn-Tucker conditions:
The consistent tangent can be derived as:
W K α β,( )W0
=
W0
α max W0( )=
S 2K α β,( ) ∂W
0
∂C----------=
Φ W α 0≤–=
Φ 0≤ α· 0≥ α· Φ 0=
C 4 K ∂2W
0
∂C∂C---------------
∂K
∂W0
---------- ∂W
0
∂C---------- ∂W
0
∂C----------⊗+=
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 249
Appendix B: Elastomeric Damage Models Discontinuous Damage Model
The parameters required for the damage model can be obtained using the experimental data fitting option MSC.Marc Mentat. To calibrate the Kachanov factor for the discontinuous damage mode, one measures at a stretch amplitude , the stress level. A loading history is thus:
The model is hyperelastic and assumes that unloading from say state 2 to the undeformed state, and subsequent reloading, occur along the same path. Viscoelastic effects tend to cause the reloading path to reside above the unloading path. Secondary damage effects tend to cause the reloading path to reside below the unloading path. We will now examine the stress-strain plot closely.
λ0
time
λ
λ0λ0
σ
12
34
5
12
3
λ
250 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Discontinuous Damage Model Appendix B: Elastomeric Damage Models
A procedure to get the discontinuous damage increasing strain table is shown below. The bottom curve is used to compute the damage parameters in MSC.Marc Mentat using a Prony series.
σ1
σ2
σn
σ2a
σ3a
σna
1σ1
σ1----=
σ1
σ2----
σ1
σn----
w1a
w1--------- 1–
w
2aw1
---------- 1– wna
w1---------- 1–
σ1 σ1a
=
wia
12---σiaε
iaSi,≅ 1 2 3…n, ,=
wia
12---σiaε
iaSi,≅ 1 2 3…n, ,=
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 251
Appendix B: Elastomeric Damage Models Discontinuous Damage Model
The results from the analysis show how the damage model works below.
0 0.60
0.4165
Engineering Strain [1]
Eng
inee
ring
Str
ess
[Mpa
]
252 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Continuous Damage Model Appendix B: Elastomeric Damage Models
Continuous Damage Model
The continuous damage model can simulate the damage accumulation for strain cycles for which the values of effective energy is below the maximum attained value of the past history as shown below:
This model can be used to simulate fatigue behavior. More realistic modeling of fatigue would require a departure from the phenomenological approach to damage. The evolution of continuous damage parameter is governed by the arc length of the effective strain energy as:
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0Engineering Strain [1]
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Eng
inee
ring
Str
ess
[Mpa
]
Tensile DataContinuous Damage
β ∂∂s ′-------W
0s ′( ) s′d
0
t
∫=
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 253
Appendix B: Elastomeric Damage Models Continuous Damage Model
Hence, β accumulates continuously within the deformation process. The Kachanov factor is implemented in MSC.Marc through both an additive as well as a multiplicative decomposition of these two effects as:
You specify the phenomenological parameters , while
is enforced to be such that at zero damage, K assumes a value of 1.
To calibrate the Kachanov factor for the continuous damage mode, one applies the following loading history to get the input file shown.
K α β,( )
K α β,( ) d∞
dnα
αηn------–
dmβ
β
λm------–
exp
m 1=
2
∑+exp
n 1=
2
∑+=
K α β,( ) d∞
dn α δnβ+
ηn-------------------–
exp
n 1=
2
∑+=
dnα
dnβ ηn λm dm
β δn, , , , ,
d∞
time
λ1 2 3 4
λ
σ 1
2σ2
σ1 W1
1 σ1
2 σ2
For the MSC.Marc Mentat implementation, the user needs to know the value of the Free Energy Function at point 1, W1.
254 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Continuous Damage Model Appendix B: Elastomeric Damage Models
Below is a sample of the continuous damage simulation using a 1-term Ogden model superimposed onto the original data.
The above damage model is available for deviatoric behavior and is flagged by means of the OGDEN and DAMAGE model definition options. If, in addition, viscoelastic behavior is desired, the VISCELOGDEN option can be included. Finally, a user subroutine UELDAM can be used to define damage functions different from the above.
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0Engineering Strain [1]
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Eng
inee
ring
Str
ess
[Mpa
]
Tensile Simulation - Continuous Damage1-Term Ogden and Original Data
1-Term OgdenOriginal Data
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 255
Appendix B: Elastomeric Damage Models Continuous Damage Model
256 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Ex
APPENDIX C Aspects of Rubber Foam Models
perimental Elastomer
Elastomeric foams (e.g. rubber foam) are widely used in industry. They exhibit linear elasticity at low stress followed by a long collapse plateau, truncated by a regime of densification in which the stress rises steeply. Furthermore, when loading is compressive, the plateau is associated with the collapse of the cells by elastic buckling. Unlike conventional rubber, foam can undertake large amounts of volumetric compression.
Analysis 257
Appendix C: Aspects of Rubber Foam Models Theoretical Background
Theoretical Background
Foams and convention rubber behave differently in tension and compression, with foams have a much larger difference as shown in the figure below:
Elastomer foams are modeled as a compressible Ogden Model with the strain energy density of:
, and are material constants and J is defined as
.
Densification
Plateau (Elastic Buckling)
σcr
E
Cell Wall Alignment
Wµn
αn------ λ1
αn λ2αn λ3
αn+ + 3–[ ]µn
βn----- 1 J
βn–( )n 1=
N
∑+
n 1=
N
∑=
µi α i βi
J λ1λ2λ3=
258 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Theoretical Background Appendix C: Aspects of Rubber Foam Models
The last term of the strain energy equation is the volumetric change, which can be as high as 90% engineering strain for foams in compression. For , there are no lateral effects. For the general theory of isotropic elasticity to be consistent with the classical theory in the linear approximation, the strain-energy function must satisfy:
Where , and are Lame’s constants. The initial bulk modulus K and the shear modulus G can be derived from the above as:
The initial Poisson’s ratio can be derived from above as:
βi 0=
W W λ1 λ2, λ3,( )=
W 1 1, 1,( ) 0=
λ i∂∂W
1 1, 1,( ) 0= i, 1 2 3, ,=
λ i λ j∂
2
∂∂ W
1 1, 1,( ) λ 2µδij+= i j,( ), 1 2 3, ,=
λ µ
K13--- µi α i 3βi–( )
i∑= G
12--- µiα i
i∑=
νβi–
α i 2βi–( )------------------------
i∑=
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 259
Appendix C: Aspects of Rubber Foam Models Theoretical Background
Blatz and Ko proposed a material model for rubber foams with the strain energy function defined as:
where:
By using the two-term MSC.Marc foam model, the generalized compressible Ogden model can be reduced to the Blatz-Ko model.
For temperature effects, the thermal principal stretches follow the temperature and the isotropic thermal expansion coefficient. The thermal principal stretches are defined as:
Wµf2----- I1 3
1 2ν–ν
--------------- I3
2ν–1 2ν–---------------
1–
+– +=
µ 1 f–( )2
------------------- I2 31 2ν–
ν--------------- I3
2ν–1 2ν–---------------
1–
+–
I1 λ12 λ2
2 λ32
+ +=
I2 λ12– λ2
2– λ32–
+ +=
I3 λ12λ2
2λ32
=
λT
i1 ∆Tα+= i, 1 2 3, ,=
260 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Theoretical Background Appendix C: Aspects of Rubber Foam Models
The total Lagrange method with conventional elements is used in MSC.Marc for the foam model. The virtual work equation can be formulated as:
where , is the second Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor, is the Green-Lagrange strain tensor, is the body force per unit undeformed volume, and is the prescribed surface tractions per unit undeformed area. All elements in MSC.Marc except Herrmann elements and be used in the foam model.
Sij
V∫ δEijdV Qiδui Vd
V∫– Tiδui Ad
A-∫– 0=
Sij Eij
Qi
Ti
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 261
Appendix C: Aspects of Rubber Foam Models Measuring Material Constants
Measuring Material Constants
Currently, only uniaxial testing is available in the experimental curve fitting option in MSC.Marc Mentat. An engineering stress, , and engineering strain with corresponding stretch, , table can then be constructed from specimen measurements. The material constants are found to satisfy the following two equations:
The specimen should be measured at different load levels. This makes a table of stress, strain, and cross sectional area for these load levels.
σ1
λ1
σ1
µi
λ1----- λ
α i
1Jβi–
i∑=
0 µiJλ1-----
12--- α i 1–( )
Jβi
12---–
λ1
12---
–i
∑=
262 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Ex
APPENDIX D Biaxial & Compression Testing
perimental Elastomer
Equibiaxial Stretching of Elastomeric Sheets, An Analytical Verification of Experimental Technique
by:Jim Day, GM Powertrain
Kurt Miller, Axel Products, Inc.
Analysis 263
Appendix D: Biaxial & Compression Testing Abstract
Abstract
Constitutive models for hyperelastic materials may require multiple complimentary strain states to get an accurate representation of the material. One of these strain states is pure compression. Uniaxial compression testing in the laboratory is inaccurate because small amounts of friction between the specimen and the loading fixture cause a mixed state of compressive, shear, and tensile strain.
Since uniaxial compression can also be represented by equibiaxial tension, a test fixture was developed to obtain compressive strain by applying equibiaxial tensile loads to circular sheets while eliminating the errors due to friction. This paper outlines an equibiaxial experiment of elastomeric sheets while providing analytical verification of its accuracy.
Figure 1. Biaxial Stretching Apparatus
264 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Introduction Appendix D: Biaxial & Compression Testing
Introduction
Constitutive models for hyperelastic materials are developed from strain energy functions and require nominal stress vs. nominal strain data to fit most models available. In general, it is desirable to represent the three major strain states which are:
uniaxial tension, uniaxial compression, and pure shear.
If compressibility is a concern, then bulk compressibility information is also recommended. The uniaxial tension strain state is easily obtained and the pure shear test can be performed using a planar tension test with excellent, repeatable accuracy.
However, the uniaxial compression test is difficult to perform without introducing other strain states that will affect the accuracy. The main cause of the inaccuracy is the friction between the specimen and the loading platens. The friction can also vary as the compressive load (normal force) increases.
To characterize the friction effect, an analysis of a standard ASTM D395, type 1 button under uniaxial compression loading was performed. A plot of compressive stress vs. compressive strain with varying coefficients of friction shows the variation caused by friction (see “Attachment A: Compression Analysis” on page 278).
The analysis of the standard button indicates that for small levels of friction the deviation from the pure uniaxial compressive strain state causes significant errors. An equibiaxial testing fixture is examined to determine if a pure compressive strain could be obtained accurately because an equibiaxial tension state of strain is equivalent to an uniaxial compressive strain.
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 265
Appendix D: Biaxial & Compression Testing Introduction
The equibiaxial straining apparatus described in this paper also has other advantages with respect to specimen availability and load control. These advantages include:
1. Achieving a strain condition equivalent to simple compression while avoiding the inherent experimental errors associated with compression.
2. Being able to perform strain and load control experiments as well as look at equilibrium behavior.
3. Testing on readily available test slabs.
4. Performing a test at the loading rates equivalent to tension and shear loading rates.
Several other experimental approaches to the biaxial straining of elastomers have been developed. In general, two approaches have been used.
The first involves the expansion of a thin elastomer membrane using air pressure. Strain control is difficult to obtain with this procedure making it difficult to create conditions that compliment the other strains states required to get a full set of data for fitting hyperelastic constitutive equations. The other problem is that the thickness of the sheets needs to be much thinner than the typical sheet thickness that is created.
The second approach involves the gripping of a rectangular specimen around the perimeter and stretching the specimen with multiple arms or cable bearing systems. This approach has been used with great success by several investigators. Difficulties arise with the measurement of strain and the calculation of stress. The advantage of this approach is that while somewhat complex, it allows the
266 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Overall Approach Appendix D: Biaxial & Compression Testing
investigator to examine elastomer deformation in unequal biaxial deformation states. Since the objectives herein do not involve the need for unequal biaxial straining, the mechanical aspects of the experimental approach can be greatly simplified and the relations between forces and stresses in the specimen can be ascertained with greater certainty by restricting the apparatus to equal biaxial straining.
Overall Approach
The overall approach is to strain a circular specimen radially. Constant stress and strain around the periphery of the disk will create an equibiaxial state of stress and strain in the disk independent of thickness or radial position.
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 267
Appendix D: Biaxial & Compression Testing The Experimental Apparatus
The Experimental Apparatus
Applying Radial Forces
In the apparatus, 16 small grips mechanically attach to the perimeter of an elastomer disk using spring force attachment. The grips are moved radially outward by pulling with thin flexible cables which are redirected around pulleys to a common loading plate (Figure 1 on page 264). When the loading plate is moved all of the attachment points move equally in a radial direction and a state of equal biaxial strain is developed in the center of the disk shaped specimen, Figure 2.
Figure 2. Biaxial Apparatus Schematic
268 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
The Experimental Apparatus Appendix D: Biaxial & Compression Testing
The Specimen
The actual shape of the specimen is not a simple disk as shown in Figure 3. There are radial cuts introduced into the disc specimen so that there are no tangential forces between the grips. This is necessary because the grips are not attached to the outer edge of the specimen. They are attached to the top and bottom surfaces of the specimen which does not allow material to flow within the grip. Small holes are introduced at the ends of the radial cuts so that the specimen is less likely to tear.
Figure 3. Biaxial Test Specimen Outline
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 269
Appendix D: Biaxial & Compression Testing The Experimental Apparatus
Strain Measurement
The relationship between grip travel and actual straining in the center area of the specimen is not known with certainty because of the unknown strain field around the grips and the compliance that may exist in the loading cables and the material flowing from the grips. To determine the strain, a laser non contacting extensometer is used to measure the strain on the surface of the specimen away from the grips.
Force Measurement
The total force transmitted by the 16 grips to the common loading plate is measured using a strain gage load cell.
Relating Force Measured to Stress The nominal equibiaxial stress contained inside the specimen inner diameter (Di) is calculated as follows:
where: Di = Diameter as measured between punched holesF = Sum of radial forcest = Original thickness
= Engineering stress
σ F ΠDit( )⁄=
σ
270 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Analytical Verification Appendix D: Biaxial & Compression Testing
Analytical Verification
Once the closed form solution has shown that a circular disk pulled with a uniform circumferential load produces a biaxial stress and strain field we then need to verify that pulling the disk from 16 discrete grip locations is an acceptable approximation.
The following analytical procedure will examine the effects of the boundary conditions imposed by the experimental approach on the ideal closed form solution. The experimental aspects of concern are:
A. The specimen is not gripped continually around the circumference.
B. Cuts are introduced between the grips that alter the strain field.
C. The relationship between force and stress is based on the “inside” diameter indicated in Figure 3.
First finite element analysis is used to verify the closed form solution on a representative specimen model. The following steps will show how the proposed specimen will be compared to the closed form solution.
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 271
Appendix D: Biaxial & Compression Testing Analytical Verification
Closed Form Solution Comparison
The disk specimen finite element model used to verify the closed form solution is shown in Figure 4. Radial loads are applied at every node around the perimeter.
Figure 4. FEA model of uncut specimen with radial loads applied at every perimeter node.
The nominal finite element stress calculated within each element was compared to the stress calculated with the formula below and found to be equivalent.
where: D = Original outside diameterF = Sum of radial forcest = Original thickness
= Engineering stress
This formula can now be used in a testing environment since all the parameters are known.
σ F ΠDt( )⁄=
σ
272 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Analytical Verification Appendix D: Biaxial & Compression Testing
Analysis of the Experimental Condition
The next step needs to show that using a cut specimen with 16 grips (FEA model shown in Figure 5) will accurately represent the “ideal” loading condition of the previous finite element analysis.
Figure 5. FEA model of specimen with slits and punched holes, radial loads applied at 16 grip locations.
The original outside diameter used in the above stress formula will be equal to the diameter measured at the inside edges of the punched holes at the ends of the radial slits between the grips. For the proposed configuration this dimension is 50 mm.
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 273
Appendix D: Biaxial & Compression Testing Analytical Verification
A deformed shape sequence of this configuration under loads is shown in Figure 6.
Figure 6. Specimen Deformed Shape
A nominal stress vs. nominal strain comparison of this configuration vs. FEA “closed form” results is shown for two hyperelastic material representations.
274 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Analytical Verification Appendix D: Biaxial & Compression Testing
The first (Figure 7) represents a simple 2nd order polynomial approximation and the second (Figure 8) represents an Ogden 5-term approximation. Both show excellent correlation between the proposed test configuration and the theoretical results.
Figure 7. 2nd Order Polynomial Fit
Figure 8. 5-term Ogden Fit
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 275
Appendix D: Biaxial & Compression Testing Analytical Verification
Summary
The equibiaxial experiment as proposed in this paper does an excellent job of obtaining the pure strain state required for hyperelastic constitutive models. The error due to the boundary condition approximations are small but consistent as opposed to the uniaxial compression test where the experimental error depends on friction which is unknown and varies as a function of the test material and the normal force. The testing done in this manner can provide excellent consistent and accurate compression strain states while using standard ASTM slabs and a minor amount of specimen preparation to perform.
276 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
References Appendix D: Biaxial & Compression Testing
References1. Kao, B. G. and Razgunas, L.,”On the Determination of Strain Energy
Functions of Rubbers”, SAE Paper 860816, (1986)
2. Treloar, L. R. G., “Stresses and Birefringence in Rubber Subjected to General Homogeneous Strain,” Proc. Phys. Soc., London, 60, 135-144 (1948)
3. Rivlin, R. S. and Saunders, D. W., “Large Elastic Deformations of Isotropic Materials, VII, Experiments on the Deformation of Rubber,” Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., London, 243 (Pt. A), 251-288 (1951)
4. Zapas, L. J., “Viscoelastic Behaviour Under Large Deformations,” J. Res. Natl. Bureau of Standards, 70A (6), 525-532 (1966)
5. Blatz, P. J. and Ko, W. L., “Application of Finite Elastic Theory to the Deformation of Rubbery Materials,” Trans. Soc. Rheol., 6, 223-251 (1962)
6. Ko, W. L., “Application of Finite Elastic Theory to the Behavior of Rubberlike Materials.” PhD Thesis, California Ins. Tech., Pasadena, California (1963)
7. Hutchinson, W. D., Becker, G. W. and Landel, R. F., “Determination of the Strain Energy Function of Rubberlike Materials,” Space Prams Summary No. 37-31, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California, IV, 34-38 (Feb. 1965)
8. Becker, G. W., “On the Phenomenological Description of the Nonlinear Deformation Behavior of Rubber-like High Poymers,” Jnl Polymer Sci., Part C (16), 2893-2903 (1967)
9. Obata, Y., Kawabata, S. and Kawai, H., “Mechanical Properties of Natural Rubber Vulcanizates in Finite Deformation,” J. Polymer Sci. (Part A-2), 8, 903-919 (1970)
10. Burr, A., Mechanical Analysis and Design, Elsevier, New York, 1981, p.315
11. Timoshinko, S.P., Goodier, J.N., Theroy of Elasticity, p 69, 3rd Ed, McGraw hill, New York, 1951
12. ABAQUS v5.8 User’s Manual Vol. 1, Section10.5.1
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 277
Appendix D: Biaxial & Compression Testing Attachment A: Compression Analysis
Attachment A: Compression Analysis
The effect of friction between the compression loading platens and the specimen under test is examined analytically. The ASTM D395, type 1 button which is used in ASTM 575 Standard Test Methods for Rubber Properties in Compression was modeled and analytically strained. The coefficient of friction was altered to see the effect of friction on the resulting stress-strain data.
278 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Attachment A: Compression Analysis Appendix D: Biaxial & Compression Testing
A coefficient of friction value of zero corresponds to a perfect state of simple uniaxial compression (Figures A1 and A2). From the analysis, one can conclude even very small levels of friction significantly effect the measured stiffness and this effect is apparent at both low and high strains.
Figures A1 and A2 Friction Effects on Stress
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 279
Appendix D: Biaxial & Compression Testing Attachment A: Compression Analysis
280 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Ex
APPENDIX E Xmgr – a 2D Plotting Tool
perimental Elastomer
ACE/gr is a 2D plotting tool for X Window System. It uses an Motif based user interface, which is the reason why it’s also known as Xmgr.
For more detail see:
http://plasma-gate.weizmann.ac.il/Xmgr/
Analysis 281
Appendix E: Xmgr – a 2D Plotting Tool Features of ACE/gr
Features of ACE/gr
• User defined scaling, tick marks, labels, symbols, line styles, colors.
• Batch mode for unattended plotting.
• Read and write parameters used during a session.
• Regressions, splines, running averages, DFT/FFT, cross/auto-correlation, . . .
• Support for dynamic module loading.
• Hardcopy support for PostScript, HP-GL, FrameMaker, and InterLeaf formats.
An example of ACE/gr is shown below:
282 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Using ACE/gr Appendix E: Xmgr – a 2D Plotting Tool
Using ACE/gr
The use of ACE/gr or xmgr will be to read in from a file existing xy data (Block Data) and overlay plots. To read in block data click on File, and select Read, then Block Data. This brings up the file browser below:
Here you can select the data you have stored from test data or MSC.Marc Mentat history plots. Let’s suppose that we have two Block Data files that look like:
file1 file2
0 1 0 1.1382
1.66667 3.77778 1.66667 3.39864
3.33333 12.1111 3.33333 10.1483
5 26 5 30.3025
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 283
Appendix E: Xmgr – a 2D Plotting Tool Using ACE/gr
Using the file browser, select file1 and identify from which column you want x and y to come from in the menu below:
Clicking Accept will bring in the first curve then autoscale by picking the icon below:
Pick x column
Pick y column
Pick this to Auto Scale the plot.
284 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Using ACE/gr Appendix E: Xmgr – a 2D Plotting Tool
Here is the resulting plot:
To place symbols on the plot, simply click on a curve and select a symbol desired. To place a Title or Axis Labels, click in the Title area or Axis area and fill in the menu.
Title Area
X-Axis Area
Y-A
xis
Are
a
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 285
Appendix E: Xmgr – a 2D Plotting Tool ACE/gr Miscellaneous Plots
ACE/gr Miscellaneous Plots
Multiple Graphs:
Menus:
286 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
ACE/gr Miscellaneous Plots Appendix E: Xmgr – a 2D Plotting Tool
Axis Summary:
Symbol Summary:
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 287
Appendix E: Xmgr – a 2D Plotting Tool ACE/gr Miscellaneous Plots
Log Plots:
Bar Charts:
288 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Ex
APPENDIX F Notes and Course Critique
perimental Elastomer
The purpose of this appendix is to provide pages for notes and the course critique.
Analysis 289
Appendix F: Notes and Course Critique Notes
Notes
290 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Notes Appendix F: Notes and Course Critique
Notes
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 291
Appendix F: Notes and Course Critique Notes
Notes
292 Experimental Elastomer Analysis
Course Critique Appendix F: Notes and Course Critique
Course CritiquePlease use this form to provide feedback on your training program. Your comments will be reviewed, and when possible included in the remainder of your course.
Lecture Materials excellent average poor
Is the level of technical detail appropriate? ❑ ❑ ❑Are the format and presentation correctly paced? ❑ ❑ ❑Are the discussions clear and easy to follow? ❑ ❑ ❑What changes do you suggest?
What additional information would you like?________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Workshop excellent average poor
Are the available problems relevant? ❑ ❑ ❑Was the technical assistance prompt and clear? ❑ ❑ ❑Was the equipment satisfactory? ❑ ❑ ❑What changes do you suggest?
What additional information would you like?________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Laboratory excellent average poor
Are the available specimens relevant? ❑ ❑ ❑Was the technical assistance prompt and clear? ❑ ❑ ❑Was the equipment satisfactory? ❑ ❑ ❑What changes do you suggest?
What additional information would you like?________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
General
How would you change the balance of time spent on theory, workshop, and laboratory
❑ no change ❑ more theory ❑ more workshop ❑ more laboratory
Your Name:______________________________________ Date: ___________________
Instructor(s):_____________________________________
Experimental Elastomer Analysis 293
Appendix F: Notes and Course Critique Course Critique
294 Experimental Elastomer Analysis