MA Book Design dissertation

5/19/2018 MA Book Design dissertation

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A comparative analysis of the design of childrens

science textbooks (1114 years) in India and the UK

Analysis of four titles:

Living Science and NCERT (India)

Letts and CGP (UK)

Vidhushri Ladha

Dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the

requirements for the Master of Arts in Book Design,

University of Reading, 2014


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ABSTRACT

This dissertation identifes features that contribute to the design of science

textbooks being used in India and the UK, for children of the age group of

1114 years. Two samples of science textbooks for this age group have been

selected from each of the two countries. These are analysed using a frame-

work adapted from existing models. Theories related to strategic reading, the

design of instructional text and the design of textbooks have been incorpo-

rated into the framework to make it suitable for this analysis. The books are

compared and described under the three levels of the framework micro,

macro and meta (Gillieson: 2008). The analysis of this dissertation identifies

the similarities and differences between the chosen samples of textbooks

and highlights design features that contribute to the effect of page layout in

childrens science textbooks.

Studying has been described as a process of selective reading. Students

are known to apply a number of reading strategies while approaching

instructional text. Science textbooks for children are identified as complex

information documents that need to have a clear layout so that children can

comprehend the most out of them. Features like grids, navigation system,

illustrations and diagrams; hierarchy, typographic differentiation, the use of

colour and the spatial arrangement of elements in layout, have been found

to contribute to the overall appearance and impact of childrens science

textbooks that are being used in both countries.

Layout & Typesettingby Vidhushri Ladha

Photography and scans by Vidhushri Ladha

Printedat the University of Reading


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OUTLINE

1. Introduction

2. Literature Review

2.1 Existing frameworks for graphic description

2.1.1 Anderson and Armbrusters strategy foranalysis of textbooks (1985)

2.1.2 Kostelnick and Roberts taxonomy forvisual vocabulary (1998)

2.1.3 Gilliesons framework for graphicdescription in book design (2008)

2.2 Instructional text

2.2.1 Strategic reading2.2.2 Layout and typography

2.2.3 Illustrations, diagrams and colour

2.3 A framework for analysing the design of

childrens science textbooks

3. Methodology

3.1 Education system in India and the UK

3.2 Samples of textbooks for analysis

3.3 Method of analysis

4. Analysis

4.1 Meta-level

4.2 Macro-level

4.3 Micro-level

5. Conclusion

Appendices

Bibliography


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1. INTRODUCTION

A textbook belongs to the genre1of books that is used by students to study

and learn. It is an information document that needs to be read strategically,

in order to be comprehended. Every student develops an individual way of

learning and hence, a textbook can be used in several different ways. Text-

books need to be designed in a way to reflect the needs of the reader. The

appropriate design and production of school textbooks is of vital importance.

Textbooks occupy the heart of education in schools even today and serve

as important sources of information for the students. Richaudeau (1980)

emphasises that the choice of textbook can play a fundamental role in the

formulation of ideas and the development of the future generations.

There have been several theories and experiments related to the design of

instructional text for children. While Burt (1959) and Tinker (1965) shed

light on the psychological study of typography and the basis of effective read-

ing, Hartley (1982, 1994) has published several experiments and studies on

the structural use of typography. Waller (1982, 1985) has analysed the use of

format to signal argument structures in non-fiction texts and also provides

design research for selective reading strategies. In recent times Waller

(2012) has revisited the importance of typographic organisation and layout

in communicating graphic argument. Other models by Twyman (1979,

1985), Ashwin (1979), Goldsmith (1980), Brody (1982), Richards (1984) and

serve as helpful tools to analyse illustrations and diagrams and their rela-

tionship with the corresponding text.

Similar to the design of other genres of books, factors like legibility, content,

typography, layout, illustrations, production and materials, contribute to the

making of a textbook. Economic considerations and cultural influences are

two important factors that can affect the design of a textbook. The content of

various textbooks might be similar for a particular age group, but the budget

also has an effect on the quality of communication. The choice of illustra-

tions, printing technique, materials, and quality of text are all affected to

some extent by economic boundaries and decisions.

This dissertation aims at performing a comparative analysis to study the

design of childrens science textbooks being used in India and the UK,

for the age group of 1114 years. For this purpose two samples of science

1 Waller (2012) describes genres as natural categories identified by a language community.Textbooks, newspapers, magazines all are the names of genres. Textbook is a everyday genrewhich owes its being to its layout. Readers recognise a textbook when they see one.


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textbooks from the age group have been chosen from both countries and

studied in terms of design. Drawing from existing frameworks and research

models, a framework has been adapted for the analysis of childrens science

textbooks. This framework incorporates several features related to the design

of instructional text and is used to analyse the chosen samples of textbooks

under the micro, macro and meta levels of design. These three levels are

borrowed and adapted from Gilliesons framework (2008). This disserta-

tion analyses the similarities and differences in these samples and identifies

features that affect the design and impact of the textbooks.

This dissertation is structured as follows:

Chapter 2 summarises the research under two broad categories

(2.1) elaborates on three chosen frameworks for the graphic description and

analysis of documents

(2.2) outlines theories and studies related to strategic reading and the designof instructional text.

The chapter concludes with the description of a framework that is based on

these existing models and adapted for this dissertation.

Chapter 3 introduces the samples of textbooks chosen for the analysis,

explaining in brief the education system of the U.K. and India and the

reasons for the choice of the particular samples. This chapter also describes

the process used for the analysis of these samples.

Chapter 4 documents the analysis under the three levels of the framework

(4.1) Meta-level features which include navigation, grids, colour and the

physical features of the book

(4.2) Macro-level features that consider various elements of layout and their

spatial arrangement

(4.3) Micro-level features including details within typography and the use of

graphic elements.


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2. LITERATUREREVIEW

This chapter provides a summary of the research conducted for this disser-

tation under two main sections. The first section describes three models

that are useful sources in adapting a framework for the analysis of childrens

science textbooks. Textbooks deal with instructional text and belong to a

genre recognised for its layout and designed specifically for the purpose of

studying. Several factors need to be kept in mind while designing instruc-

tional material for children. The second section brings together theories and

studies that elaborate on the process of designing for instructional text.

2.1 EXISTING FRAMEWORKSFOR GRAPHICDESCRIPTION

Several theories and models provide basis for the analysis and visual descrip-

tion of books. Some studies help in understanding the readability, legibility

and structure of texts. Examples include: Tinkers research on effective

reading and comprehension (1965), Wallers model for typographic commu-

nication (1988) and his study on reading strategies and access structures

(1979), Ecos model for text analysis (1979), Walkers study on typography

for children (1954), Crystal and Davys linguistic framework (1969). Some

other models help in analysing pictures, typography, hierarchy, picture-text

relationship and the overall layout. These include theories like Bernhardts

continuum of visual organization (1985), Twymans schema for graphic

language (1979), models for studying diagrams and illustrations by Richard

(1984), Bertin (1967), Ashwin (1979) a nd Goldsmith (1980), Hartleys writ-

ings on designing for instructional text (1994) and several others.

In order to analyse childrens science textbooks, it is useful to draw on exist-

ing frameworks for graphic description. This section describes three such

frameworks that are useful in analysing textbooks and therefore it is import-

ant to consider them for this study.

2.1.1Anderson and Armbrusters strategy for analysis of textbooks (1985)

Anderson and Armbruster (1985) suggest that the design of textbooks can

affect how effectively students are able to read and comprehend information.

This is based on their combined notions on effective studying and the effect

of text on comprehension. This study refers to four general characteristics

structure, coherence, unity and audience appropriateness, which were stud-

ied during an investigation of childrens textbooks. (Anderson, Armbruster


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& Kantor 1980, 1983). Each of these characteristics are described and

discussed. This provides a simple model to analyse and investigate chil-

drens textbooks. While the other two frameworks discussed in sections 2.1.2

and 2.1.3 are for generic graphic documents, this study is specific to text-

books and thus becomes an important consideration for this dissertation.

2.1.1 (A) Structure2

Anderson and Armbruster define structure as a system of arrangement

of ideas in text and the nature of relationships connecting these ideas.

According to them, a textbook is a hierarchical arrangement of text units

and frames. Text units are the basic building blocks within a text structure

whereas the kind of text that informs the reader about a generic concept is

called a text frame. Their research suggests that the organisation of these

within a textbook influences the amount of information and the kind of

knowledge acquired by the student. They go on to elaborate that the authorspurpose dominates the structure of the text. The authors message should be

evident to the reader from the titles and headings and even a cursory glance

must give a fair idea of the topics covered. The text frames should have a

consistent structure as this helps the reader form expectations as the

book progresses.

2.1.1 (B) Coherence

The seamlessness with which ideas are woven together within text, and

presented to the reader, is what Anderson and Armbruster have called

coherence. Coherence operates at both global and local levels3. Anderson

and Armbruster emphasise that it is very important for the relationships

amongst ideas to be stated explicitly. If not done so, the reader often does not

get the intended message. In addition to this the referents should be made

clear. Obscure pronoun references are common in textbooks. These confuse

the readers and thus hinder the intended communication. The sequencing

of events also plays an important role in binding the text together. According

to the research, the sequencing should be unidirectional and must follow a

chronology so that the student can comprehend more effectively.

2.1.1 (C) Unity

Anderson and Armbruster define unity as the degree to which the text

addresses a single purpose. This is based on the notion of a limited capacity

and posits that short-term memory can hold only five to nine items at any

given time (Miller, 1956). Anderson and Armbruster state that the more

disunified the text, lower is the probability of integration. According to them

2 Structure is used here to refer to one of the four characteristics described byAnderson and Armbruster (1985)

3 Global refers to the level of the entire text and local refers to the level of individual sentences.


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each idea in the text unit or frame should contribute directly to the authors

purpose. It is helpful for the reader if text units that are less related to the

main text are set aside. For example, in appendices or boxed-in areas. Some

uses of pull-out boxes discussed in this model include

1. Teaching the necessary skills for understanding texts that follow

2. Lending authenticity to certain ideas present in the text

3. Elaborating on information present in the content area

4. Enhancing interest value through their attractive features.

2.1.1 (D) Audience Appropriateness

This refers to the extent to which the text matches the readers knowledge

base. According to Anderson and Armbruster, the possession of relevant

topic knowledge prior to reading, affects comprehension. Another line

of research related to this has focussed on vocabulary or word knowledge

(Anderson and Freebody, 1979).

In addition to structure, coherence, unity and audience appropriateness,

there are details that need to be investigated in a complex document such as

a textbook. This includes typography, diagrams, illustration, spatial arrange-

ment of elements, and the instructional quality of text. The following two

frameworks provide a platform to study these details and analyse both, the

text and the visual elements in a page layout.

2.1.2 Kostelnick and Roberts taxonomy for visual vocabulary (1998)

Kostelnick and Roberts (1998) believe that the key to analysing a profes-

sional document is to observe what is going on visually and find a way to

categorise it. Their research provides an interesting framework for exam-

ining visual language which distinguishes between various levels of design

in a professional document: intra, inter, extra and supra. Within this frame-

work, the intra and inter levels pertain primarily to text design, the extra-

level includes non-textual elements and the supra level considers the docu-

ment as a whole. Each of these levels, in turn, may contain design elements

in three coding modes: textual mode, spatial mode and graphic mode.

These modes supply the raw material of design the lines, the numbers,

the graphic elements and the spatial positioning of these elements on a

page. The three levels and the modes together form a 12-cell visual language

matrix [Table 1].This matrix is to be used as a tool for describing the visual

vocabulary of a given document. Each document is said to be unique in its

combination of cells on the matrix. However large or small the differences

may be, each document is said to have its own visual signature.


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2.1.2 (A) Intra-level

This level controls the local variations within text. It makes up the building

blocks of visible text. The textual mode includes type style, type size, case

and treatment. The spatial mode includes local spacing between textual

units whereas the graphic mode is about punctuation marks and a variety of

other local marks in a document.

2.1.2 (B) Inter-level

Inter-level includes elements that help the audience in understanding the

text by providing cues. Design within this level, arranges and divides the

text into units, making it more accessible to the reader. In the textual mode,

heading and numbers create units and hierarchy within text. The spatial

mode deals with paragraphs, indentation, justification, and the overall spac-

ing of units of text across the page. Listing devices like bullets, boxed inserts,

tables and charts form the graphic mode at this level.

2.1.2 (C) Extra-level

This level includes pictures, data, display, and other elements that

operate from outside the main text as individual entities with their own

visual vocabulary and conventional forms. Text is used as a supportive

element in this case and plays a descriptive role. Textual elements include

labels, titles and legends that help in understanding data and displays better.

The spatial mode deals with size, shape, and area and at times perspective,

that is covered by various diagrams like pie charts, bar graphs, and line

graphs. The graphic mode adds a third layer to these displays. It includes

textures, colours and other elements that are used to make these diagrams

visually richer.

2.1.2(D) Supra-level

This level includes elements that visually define the structure of the docu-

ment as a whole. It is closely connected to the other three levels and often

influences design decisions taken at those levels as well. Textual mode

includes elements that signal major breaks in the document or aid in

pagination. In the spatial mode, supra-level design includes arrangement of

extra-level elements within the document as well as elements like the orien-

tation of the page, page size and shape, paper thickness, folds, flaps, and

the like. The graphic mode at this level consists of marks, icons, colour, line

work and logos that unify pages or sections of the document; or that create

greater divisions.

Kostelnick and Roberts (1998) developed their studies focussing on techni-

cal communication and documents. Therefore, though their matrix has a

graphic mode, it focuses more on particular kind of graphics like graphs that

Textual Spatial Graphic

Intra 1type style, type size,case, treatment: italic,bols, shadow, outline

2spacing betweencharacters, spacingbetween words, verticalspacing

3punctution marks,symbols, treatment:underline, strikethrough

Inter 4headings, levels ofheadings numbers orletters that signal itemsin lists

5paragraphs,indentation, hangingindents, lists, justifiedand unjustified, centredtext, line lengths,margins, text arrangedin tables and organisa-tional charts, leading

6bullets and listingdevices, gray scaleshighlighting text,linework in tables,organisation charts,decision trees

Extra 7labels, call-outs,captions for picturesand data displays,numerical labels,legends for datadisplays

8data displays andpictures, the orien-tation, size, viewingangles, perspective

9line weights or shadingon pictures and datadisplays, details onpictures, use of colourfor pictures or datadisplays

Supra 10page headers or foot-ers, navigational bars,major section orchapter headings, tablebels, titles on thecover or the spine,initial letters signal-ling the start of a textsegment

11shape, thicknessand size of the page,orientation of thepage, section dividers,embossing, placementof data displays andpictures in thedocument

12colour or texture ofpaper page borders,boxes and lines aroundpictures, lines in pageheaders or footers,pictures of icons placedbehind the text in thewhole document

Table 1.Visual language matrix. adapted from Kostelnick (2008)


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are used in technical communication. While analysing science textbooks, it

is also important to study diagrams and illustrations, which form an inte-

gral part of science textbooks. While Kostelnick and Roberts matrix (1998)

is useful in analysing the spatial arrangement of elements in a page layout,

there is a need to consider some other models that help in analysing illustra-

tions and diagrams and provide a framework that is more specific to books.

Gilliesons framework (2008), which is described next, brings together

several such models and theories.

2.1.3 Gilliesons framework for graphic description in book design (2008)

Gillieson (2008) developed a framework as a schema for graphic description

in book design. The framework aims to organise graphic features of books.

As stated by Gillieson,

A fundamental aim of the framework is to incorporate various

relevant models into a unifying system, to help standardise these and

to show how apparently different descriptive schemas are related.

(2008: 148)

In order to include a wide variety of books, she has developed this frame-

work with reference to a corpus of childrens science books. Gillieson

uses this framework to demonstrate how comparative descriptions can be

produced of chosen books.

The broad framework is reproduced in Table 2. The main organising prin-

ciple of the framework is the distinction between the two descriptive catego-

ries of rule and context that are laid out on the vertical axis. The other formal

categories fall into micro, macro and meta-level features and make up the

rows in the framework. Each of these levels incorporates several models and

theories that have been listed down with a short description.4

Rule Context

Micro

Macro

Meta

Table 2.A summary of Gilliesons framework for graphic description

4 Detailed description of each of the features can be found in Gilliesons 2008 thesis.


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2.1.3 (A) Micro-level features

This level brings together theories that study the building blocks of a docu-

ment. Gillieson has described these components as being analogues to

Engelhardts elementary graphic objects (2002: 15). These features include

description of typographic elements, illustrations, photographs, and the tone

of writing. This level consists of six informative models that can be organ-

ised into four broad themes writing, graphic elements, diagrammatic

representation, and polysemic illustration and photography.

a) Typographic and editorial layout parts (Twyman 1982, Schriver 1997)

At this level a matrix is produced [Table 3]that helps assessing typography

with reference to Schrivers components of book design (1997) and in terms

of basic functions and qualities after Twyman (1982). Gillieson assembles a

list of editorial parts based on Schrivers (1997) and Bernhadt (1985). Thisincludes body text, footnote text, headings and subheadings, itemised

lists, indented quotes, taglines and captions. These are analysed against

Twymans (1982:11) definitions of intrinsic and extrinsic features of typogra-

phy. Intrinsic features of typography are those characteristics of letterforms

themselves that result from the technology of production whereas extrinsic

qualities relate to the configuration of these.

b) Register and tone of writing (Nash, 1980)

This model brings together Nashs categories of the register of writing

(1990: 121124) and the tone of writing (1980: 153). He describes variants

within each of these categories. The register of writing defines the speaking

style and reflects the occupation and voice of the speaker. This includes the

informant, the instructor, the disputant and the entertainer. Within the four

registers, the writing may follow either a formal tone or an informal tone.

c) Graphic formats for quantitative date (Macdonald-Ross, 1977)

This category involves diagrams and graphs that are identified as discrete

and elemental components of layout according to Macdonald-Rosss lexicon

for quantitative data formats for graphic description (1977). This includes

terminology for identifying whole diagrams as well as their constituent

parts. Macdonald-Ross reviews the ways in which quantitative information

can be presented with a list of principal formats (1977: 364368).

d) Formal features of diagrams and graphic elements (Bertin, 1967)

Bertins schema [Figure 1]is a reductive graphic syntax that applies to the

formal qualities of graphic components. Running clockwise from the top the

figure this includes basic elements of size, value, pattern, colour, orientation

and shape. This model can be used to study and describe the formal quali-

ties of diagrams and charts found in several complex texts.

Intrinsic qual it ies Extrinsic qual it ies

Body text

Footnote text

Headings (andsubheadings)

Itemised lists

Indented quotes andcall-outs

Taglines

Captions

Table 3.Typographic and editorial layout parts (after Twyman 1982and Schriver 1997)

Figure 1Bertins schema of the basic elements of the graphicsystem (1967: 43)


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e) Variables for describing illustration (Ashwin, 1979)

Ashwins analysis of graphic imagery leads to a series of visual syntax vari-

ables in seven categories (1979: 5765): consistency, gamut, framing, place-

ment, proxemics, kinetic and naturalism. These offer a simple and direct

vocabulary to describe polysemic illustration of all kinds.

f) Variables for describing pictorial representation (Twyman, 1985)

Twymans model takes into account the inherit complexity of visual form, in

response to what he sees as a lack of understanding of them (1985: 305). He

proposes descriptive categories to describe pictorial representation keeping

in mind factors such as means of reproduction, the element of time as well

as issues that arise due to interpretation (1985: 260295).

2.1.3 (B) Macro-level features

Macro-level components combine to form larger groupings on the page. The

two-page spread forms the boundary for macro-level descriptions. This level

includes groups of graphic elements and the relationships between them. It

brings together several models that describe visual relationships, picture-text

relationships and also analyse illustrations and diagrams. The macro-level

includes seven categories

a) Gestalt forms and page layout

This category engages the five central principles of Gestalt psychology

good continuation, proximity, similarity, closure and figure strength. The

unifying principle of Gestalt theory is that the brain makes assumptions

about images in order to perceive them. In her discussion of Gestalt princi-

ples and their application to graphic communication, Schriver suggests that

Gestalt-induced cues can affect a readers interpretation of a text (1997: 306).

b) Schema for describing graphic language (Twyman, 1979)

Twymans schema (1979) presents a number of theoretical possibilities in

terms of approaches to graphic language. The matrix developed [Table 4]is

based on the intersection of variables of graphic structure and modality. The

horizontal axis describes methods of configuration. This represents a slow

transition from pure linearity to extreme non-linearity, depicting the degree

to which the reading order is prescribed by the order of graphic elements.

The vertical axis represents the mode of symbolism, which describes the

form of graphic language used. This matric can be used to answer two

fundamental questions as stated by Twyman (1979: 117): What should be the

mode of symbolisation and what should be the mode of configuration?

PureLinear

LinearInter-rupted

List Linearbranching

Matrix Non-lineardirectedviewing

Non-linearmostoptionsopen

Verbal/numerical

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Pictorial& verbalnumerical

8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Pictorial 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

Schematic 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

Table 4.Twymans schema for describing graphic language (1979, reproduced from 1982: 8)


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c) Model for analysing illustration (Goldsmith, 1980)

Goldsmiths model (1980) has been developed as an analytical tool for

teachers and students [Table 5]. The vertical axis shows the three levels of

response of viewers to a picture syntax, semantics and pragmatics (1980:

204) and the horizontal axis intersects with the four visual factors common

to all supportive illustration unity, location, emphasis and text parallels

(1987: 54). This model helps to analyse several features of illustration includ-

ing its relation to its surrounding text.

d) Model for analysing diagrams (Richards, 1984)

Richards (1984) presents a model for analysing the structure of diagrams

[Figure 2]. This model is built on the three semiotic levels as used by Gold-

smith (1980). It is also based on three variables, out of which two, Richard

argues, are essential in the creation of a diagram the mode of correspon-

dence, the mode of depiction and the mode of organisation. The boundaryline between the various categories in this diagram is flexible, thus making

it an appropriate model in describing a wide variety of diagrams.

e) Picture-text relationships

This category is concerned with the relationship between the text and visual

elements in a page layout. It brings together terms proposed by Hegarty

et al. (1991: 648652), Schriver (1997: 41213) and Barthes (1977: 3741).

Redundant, complementary, supplementary, juxtapositional, stage-setting

and relaying, are terms that arise from Barthes and Hegarty et als discus-

sion and can be used to describe picture-text relationships in a wide variety

of material.

f) Rhetorical clusters

This category identifies Schrivers rhetorical clusters (1997) as an import-

ant group of elements responsible for the semantic unity on a page. Schriver

proposes the compilation of a list of generic layout elements contained in a

typical document, text parts that constitute different kind of rhetorical clus-

ters (1997: 3434) illustrations with annotations, body text with footnotes,

series and front matter. This category works with the micro-level category of

typographic and editorial layout parts to identify conventional groupings on

a page.

g) Discursive structures (Nash 1980)

This category highlights two variables discussed by Nash discourse struc-

tures (Nash 1980: 95) which are helpful in studying the shape of written

text and linking structures (Nash 1980: 2140) which focus on how specific

terms are linked to others within a page layout. Among other applications,

this category can be useful in identifying books in which verbal and graphic

languages seem to be at odds with one another.

Unity Location Emphasis Text parallels

Syntax

Semantics

Pragmatics

Table 5.Goldsmiths model for analysing illustrations (1980)

Figure 2Richards taxonomy of diagrams (1984: 9/5)


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2.1.3 (C) Meta-level features

This level includes underlying principles that govern the overall design of

the book. This is the level that makes this framework customised for analys-

ing books specifically. Characteristics like the artefact structure, book format

and province, facing pages, grid, granularity and density; design maxims 5

and book access parts are taken into consideration at the meta-level. These

are organised into two groups that could overlap models describing struc-

tures6and models describing design maxims. This category also includes

the structural qualities of the book object: size, printing, specifications

and binding.

2.1.3 (D) Rule and context

Rule and context are the two categories on the vertical axis of this frame-

work. These are conceptual distinctions that allow graphic features to be

assessed in light of different critical perspectives. Rule-based featurespertain to the internal logic of a book and how it reflects constraints of

printing technology, as well as the rules of language and typography. Context

based features are one that emerge from the surroundings of a book and

draw on shared social or historical codes for rhetorical significance. Sauss-

ure (1922), Waller (1987), Twyman (1985), Gombrich (1968), and several

others draw parallels to this concept of rule and context. Because rule

and context are ways of interpreting descriptions, this analysis, which is

a comparison of spreads focussing on formal differences, follows a largely

rule-oriented description.

Out of the three frameworks described here, Gilliesons framework is best

suited to take as a basis for this dissertation; for two major reasons: (1) It

brings together several descriptive models relevant to visual communication,

in turn providing a tool for performing well-structured and thorough

analysis. (2) Gillieson developed this framework taking into reference a

corpus of childrens science books. This makes it more relevant to the topic

of this dissertation.

While Gilliesons framework, described above, brings together some models

that would be useful in analysing childrens science textbooks, Kostelnick

and Roberts matrix (1998) can be used for studying details in typogra-

phy and layout. Hence, bringing selected parts of both these frameworks

together might help in laying out a framework specific to the requirements

of this dissertation. In addition to this, some writers like Hartley (1994)

5 Design maxims (after Bonsiepe, 1968) deals with the typographic and graphic principles thatgovern that design and layout of a book.

6 Here, the word structure has been used to refer to a group of elements governing the design ofa book.


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provide several theories specific to the design of instructional text. These are

important considerations while analysing textbooks. Some of such studies

are summarised in the next section and shall add to the development of the

required framework.

2.2 INSTRUCTIONAL TEXT

Textbooks beong to the genre of instructional text which is usually more

complex7in its structure and appearance than continuous prose (Hartley,

1994). A textbook is used by students for the purpose of studying. Students

tend to use it in various different ways and therefore the layout needs to

be clear and consistent. In addition to the various models discussed in the

previous section, this section brings together theories and facts that cover

three major properties of instructional text the process of strategic reading,typography and layout and the use of diagrams and illustrations.

2.2.1 Strategic reading

Studying is an example of what is called a selective or strategic reading

process (Paris & Myers, 1981; Pugh 1 975). Strategic readers use a document

to achieve a certain goal. Strategic reading is enabled by what Warde (1974)

called the three great privileges of printing to turn back, to look forward

and to stop and think. The confidence with which authors can make predic-

tions about their readers differs from text to text. Perhaps the only thing that

they can predict in the case of textbooks is that most of the students must

read selectively. There are several theories to support this. Observation of

reading styles and strategies by Pugh (1975) and Thomas (1976) shows that

a straight-through linear strategy is not typical of efficient readers. Pugh

(1975) identified five strategies of reading: Receptive Reading, Responsive

Reading, Skimming, Searching and Scanning. These theories emphasise

that students read in a selective fashion, scan the text and then select areas

for special attention. Strategic reading is at the heart of document literacy,

which is a key aspect of a wider term, functional literacy (OECD, 1997). It

refers to the ability of using documents to achieve purposes and solve prob-

lems (Waller, 2012).

7 Gillieson (2008) refers to the term complex layout as one that has a wide variety of approachesto design, a range of illustrative and diagrammatic forms. An alternative term, integrated text orintegrated book has been used to describe layout in which typographic and pictorial elementsare intertwined, as for instance by Germano Facetti in his 1964 Penrose article The integratedbook.


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According to Waller (1979), conventional textbooks are open to anyone and

authors know comparatively little about the abilities, purposes, opinions,

prior knowledge and circumstances of their readers. Most textbooks are used

by students belonging to different cultural and educational backgrounds.

Hence, rather than locking the readers to a single linear sequence, it is

important to make these texts accessible for a range of different purposes.

Waller (2012) talks about the linearity of language at the most basic level.

In most languages, the order of wording within a sentence is critical. The

history of paper documents show the development of various methods that

have been used to overcome this linearity of language word spacing, punc-

tuation, the codex, headings, page numbers, indexes, typographic structures

and multimodal layouts evolved over centuries. These make the act of read-

ing a slow and strategic process in which readers deploy a range of strate-

gies like searching, skimming, note-taking and so on to achieve their goals.

Thus, accessibility of text liberates the reader from the linearity of language.Newspapers, textbooks, user guides, magazines, all of these constitute what

is called local genres. Layout is the most signifying feature of each of these.

Readers recognise them from their layouts. The graphic layout of such

genres contains rules or affordances for their use.

Waller (1979: 175) explains the term access structure as the co-ordinated

use of typographically signalled structural cues that help students to read

texts using selective sampling strategies. The usage of these typographi-

cally signalled devices leads to better organisation of text, and hence helps

the reader gain an overview of the text and locate relevant parts efficiently.

Waller (1982) divides these structures on the basis of their roles into ones

that have a global role and assist the overview of a subject area. These

include contents lists, concept diagrams, glossaries, objectives, summaries

and index. And the second kind are the ones that work at a local level and

help in actually engaging the authors argument. Headings and layout are

the two main local access structures.

2.2.2 Layout and typography

There are two main elements of layout and typography that shall be an inte-

gral part of analysing childrens science textbooks in this dissertation. The

first deals with the spatial arrangement of text and the effect of typographic

cues in instructional text while the other is the role of headings in textbooks.


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2.2.2 (A) Organisation of text

According to Waller (2012), students need information to be broken down

into chunk and structures by using headings, illustrations, notes and other

study aids. This is what Anderson and Armbruster (1985) call considerate

text. This term could be applied to any text that fulfils the needs of the read-

ers, rather than just presenting the arguments and thoughts of the writer.

Waller (2012) states that there are two factors that determine a readers

response to a text: the readers attained knowledge and the readers relation-

ship to the text itself.

Garofalo (1988) emphasises that the organisation of text is an important

factor relating to reader comprehension. She quotes Gage and Berliner:

The use of structure is something that when pointed out to students,

makes their learning more efficient, better remembered and moreuseful. It is important for students to see a framework of facts,

concepts and rules that they are being asked to learn. (1984: 274)

Hartley (1994) emphasises that space plays an important role in clarifying

text. It is space that separates letters from each other, it is space that sepa-

rates words and lines from each other, it is punctuation marks that separates

phrases, clauses and paragraphs and it is headings that separates sections

from one another. Both, Burnhill and Hartley (1982) maintain that, given

a particular text and page size, one can manipulate the spatial arrangement

of the text so as to enhance clarity, retrieval and comprehension. Hartley

(1994) discusses how both horizontal and vertical spacing can be used to

separate and to group components of text. According to Hartley (1994),

instructional text is more complex than prose. The argument here is that the

underlying structure of complex text can be demonstrated more clearly to

readers by consistent and planned use of vertical and horizontal spacing.

Other than spacing, Hartley (1994) and Garofalo (1988) provide research

and experiments that demonstrate that typographic and spatial cues also act

as important aids in understanding text by highlighting information and

differentiating between the important and less important parts which in

turn enhances the learning process. Garofalo (1988) describes a typographic

cue as a proposed vehicle by which the reader is made aware of the struc-

ture. Hershberger and Terry (1965) also support this study and state that

distinguishing between various categories of information allows a student to

adjust his style of reading to levels of importance.

2.2.2 (B) Role of headings

One of the ways of organising text such that students comprehend most

from it, is by the use of headings and sub-headings. Waller (1982) lists


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headings as one of the major devices to assist in local accessibility of text.

Although headings have an organising function at the global level, their

primary function is said to be an orienting one. There are certain questions

that arise regarding the use of headings What should they say? Where

to put them? Waller (1982) further defines three basic kinds of headings

Cross-headings are the one that interrupt the text and denote a change of

subject, side-headings, on the other hand, allow the flow of text to continue

and can aid in summarising a topic and running headings are used to

summarise the contents on a page and inform the reader about the specific

information on a page.

According to Hartley and Jonassen (1983), there are two broad ways in which

headings help the reader to acquire knowledge from a piece of text. Firstly,

during an initial reading, headings help in the organisation of the incom-

ing information and hence help recall. Secondly, while revisiting a piece ofinformation, headings help in locating the desired information. The specific

role to be played by headings depends upon the nature of the document and

the readers degree of familiarity with it (Swarts et al., 1980). A good head-

ing needs to be written keeping in mind the readers prior knowledge and

the readers needs in mind. The access function of headings depends upon a

meaningful and user-oriented construction of headings (Hartley and Jonas-

sen, 1983).

2.2.2 (C) Illustrations and diagrams

Science textbooks are documents where illustrations and diagrams are

integral parts of the content. While analysing these books it is important

to understand the role of pictures8in instructional text and how they affect

the layout. Gilliesons framework (2008) includes some important and

descriptive models on pictorial representations within its micro and macro

levels Bertins study of features of diagrams (1967), Ashwins variables for

describing illustration (1979), Twymans variables for describing pictorial

illustration (1985), Richards taxonomy for analysing diagrams (1984) and

Goldsmiths model for analysing illustrations (1980). All these togetherprovide a strong foundation for analysing pictures present in childrens

science textbooks. When it comes to instructional texts, the relation of the

picture with the audience plays a vital role and there are several additional

properties of diagrams and pictures that need to be considered.

8 Twyman (1985) uses the word picture to mean some hand-made or machine made image thatrelates, however, distinctly, to the appearance or structure of real or imagined things. Herethe word picture refers to visual forms used in a textbooks, like illustrations, diagrams andphotographs.


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a) Picture and the audience

According to Hartley (1994), what may be obvious for the person creat-

ing an illustration or a diagram might not be known at all to the reader. It

is important for the designer to assess the value and effectiveness of the

diagrams used. Does the reader consider the diagram to be helpful? Does

the reader remember the content presented? Does that reader understand

and comprehend the diagram? These are some questions that need to be

asked while working on diagrams within text.

Brody (1982) states that pictorial interpretation is closely related to the

individual backgrounds and experiences of the reader. Even students from

the same background often comprehend a picture in different manners.

One possible explanation for this would be that while looking at a picture

each student might focus at a different aspect of the picture. The problem is

worst when the picture presented to the students is relatively unfamiliar. Inthat case the ambiguity and the number or interpretations increases. Thus it

becomes essential to provide more precise and detailed information to

the students.

b) Role of pictures in instructional text

It is important to know the role of a picture in a layout, in order to project

it to the reader in an effective way. Twyman (1985) describes several uses of

pictures. These roles play some part in effective communication. According

to Twyman (1985), while some pictures are designed to persuade or exhort,

others have instruction or provision of information as their major purpose.

He also agrees that several pictures are developed and used primarily to

give pleasure to the spectator and for aesthetic and decorative purposes.

Another form of picture discussed by him includes using pictorial language

as a means to problem solving. Brody (1982) discusses the role of pictures

specifically in instructional text. He emphasises that pictures should be

included in textbooks on the basis of their instructional quality rather than

their decorative ones. However, pictures are probably most often chosen on

basis of cost, attractiveness and availability. He lists down five main roles ofpictures in instructional text (Brody, 1982: 302):

1. Repeat information present in the text

2. Provide additional information

3. Help in retention of information

4. Stimulate recall of previous information

5. Provide either introduction of new material or review of material after

it is read


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Hartley (1994: 80) also discusses five well-defined roles of illustrations and

diagrams in instructional text

1. An affective role: enhancing interest and motivation

2. An attentional role: attracting and directing attention

3. A didactic role: facilitating learning by explaining or showing some

thing that is difficult to convey solely in words

4. A supportive role: enhancing the learning of less-able readers

5. A retentional role: facilitating long-term recall.

Hence, there are several roles that a picture plays in instructional text other

than just adding to the aesthetics of the book. One of the major roles of

pictures is that they aid the recall of the textual material in instructional text.

This has been tested by Levie and Lentz (1982) who found that the recall of

illustrated text is better than the use of only words.

c) Positioning and labelling diagrams

The placement of pictures within instructional text plays a crucial role in

their effectiveness. When placed before, they can give an overview of the

text that follows; when placed after, they can help the reader to review what

has already been read, often resulting in better retention when compared to

pictures placed before (Brody, 1982). Therefore the placement of pictures

should be based on the function that they need to serve.

If pictures are divorced from the text, the readers are less likely to look at

them. The positioning of illustrations and diagrams is important because of

their didactic and attentional roles, as listed by Hartley (1994). He provides

three ways of drawing the readers attention towards pictures. Firstly, by

referring to them within the text; secondly, to label parts of the illustration;

and thirdly; by using captions. Brody (1982) also emphasises on referring

to pictures within text as a way to direct student attention to the picture at

the time most appropriate for learning. For a picture to be most effective,

it is important to control both what the learner is looking at and when it

is to be examined (Brody, 1982: 303). The placement of the picture on thepage can help eliminate some of the difficulties that are to do with direct-

ing the students attention to the picture at the required moment. One of

the primary reasons for doing this is to place the picture in the appropriate

context, hence reducing the number of possible interpretations.

The use of captions can help reduce student ambiguity. One of the most

efficient ways of answering many of the questions raised upon viewing an

illustration is by informing the student about the content and purpose of

the illustration (Brody, 1982). Gomrich (1972) emphasises on captions to be

one of the most critical variables in the proper understanding of pictures.


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He suggests that they can often compensate for the lack of context. Addition-

ally, Jones et al. (1984) provide an argument that it is easier to understand

diagrams when there is an organisation in their labels. The chunking of

labels under appropriate heading has a marked effect on comprehension

and recall. Consistency is important in the placement of labels and captions

throughout the text; hence their positioning becomes important as well.

Labels and captions should be placed in a way that all of them are clearly

visible and dont get lost amongst one other (Hartley, 2004).

d) Pictorial format, complexity and size

There are several pictorial formats used in textbooks. Some of these include

colour, black and white, realistic, photographs, cartoons and simple line

drawings. There have been several studies to research the effectiveness

of these pictorial formats. These have been quite contradictory and the

most that can be said is that no single format is the best for all occasions.It depends on the context, the learners, and the content (Brody, 1982).

However the picture preference pattern is stable for students of all ages.

Myatt and Carter (1979) performed a comprehensive study through which

they concluded that both children and young adults firstly prefer photo-

graphs and give second preference to realistic drawings. Dwyer (1972) also

reported that college students have a preference for more realistic formats.

Brody (1982) advises the use of different kinds of formats within the same

book, as the students tend to lose interest if one pictorial mode dominates.

Complexity of pictures also plays a role in holding students attention. More

the number of pictorial elements in a picture; the more complex it is said to

be. A research suggests that children find complex pictures more interesting

and spend more time comprehending them as compared to less complex

ones (Brody, 1982). However according to Wohlwill (1975), too much

complexity can lead to decreased interest and an increase in the compre-

hension time. Hence, it is important to manage the level of complexity. The

appropriate level of complexity would depend upon the developmental stage

of the learners as well as their past experiences (Brody, 1982).

Apart from picture complexity, another factor that affects the effectiveness of

a picture is its dynamic quality. According to Travers & Alvarado (1970), the

importance of using pictures of a dynamic nature is understood by apparent

tendency of students to look longer and respond more readily to pictures

that are dynamic. Hence according to this theory, dynamic images are more

interesting to students than static images.

Picture size is closely related to the publication costs, as the picture size

increases so does the cost. However while reducing the size of a picture care


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must be taken that its important features can still be recognised and it does

not affect the attractiveness of the picture. Kosslyn (1975) reported that more

details of a mental image of an object are remembered when the object is

imagined next to a small object.

2.2.2(D) Use of colour

In textbooks today, the use of colour cannot be ignored. It plays several roles

other than just adding aesthetic value and making the books more attractive.

With the advent of print technology, colour dominates the effect of textbooks

on children today. Colour contributes to information design as well as navi-

gation in textbooks. Tying colour to information is as elementary as colour

technique in art, To paint well is simply this: to put the right colour in the

right place, in Klees ironic prescription. Tufte (1990) lists some fundamen-

tal uses of colour in information design: to label, to measure, to represent or

imitate reality and to decorate or enliven. In the case of textbooks colour is

also used to aid learning. Gattegno (1962) and Jones (1968) have developed

separate methods of teaching young children to read by using colour combi-

nations to give additional phonetic information.

Colour combinations also have a great influence on the legibility of print.

Tinker (1965) states that brightness contrast between print and paper is

perhaps the most important factor in the hygiene of vision. Child et al.

(1962) performed a study comparing effects of colour between the two sexes

of children of different ages. One of the interesting conclusions was that

children at all ages prefer cooler colours. Skoff and Pollack (1969) tested the

visual acuity of children (age 7 to 1 4 years) as related to changes in hue. The

colours tested were red, blue, yellow and black. The lowest visibility thresh-

olds were obtained with black, followed by red with blue the highest. Byrnes

colour theories (1847) suggest that the use of primary colours and black is

said to provide maximum differentiation. In diagrams, the least used colour

is black and it is carefully avoided for large solid elements.

Apart from the use of colours in diagrams and illustrations, a trend observedis the use of colour for navigation and coding of chapters in textbooks for

children. Another familiar use is to illuminate and highlight information.

Tufte (1990) provides a strategy to use colours found in nature, especially

the lighter ones, as these colours are familiar and coherent and possess a

widely accepted harmony to the human eye.

The theories disccussed in this section are important considerat ions for

the design of textbooks and are incorporated into the models discussed in

section 2.1, leading to a framework for the analysis of childrens science text-

books, described in the next section.


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2.3 AFRAMEWORKFOR ANALYSINGTHE DESIGNOF CHILDREN SSCIENCETEXTBOOKS

In order to compare the design of science textbooks for children, several

layers of information including physical features, modes of production,

diagrams, layout and design features and other qualitative and quantitative

characteristics need to be observed and analysed. A framework9is required

that can lead to usable answers concerning the form and functions of a

textbook.

The main organising principle of this framework is based on Gilliesons

(2008) micro, macro and meta-level features of books. Each of these levels

has been defined in the following sections depending on their function in

this framework. The design features within each of these levels are in turn

analysed within the three modes of textual, graphic and spatial [Table 6],

adapted from Kostelnick and Roberts matrix. (1998).

For childrens science textbooks, while the textual mode is active at the

micro level, the macro level looks more into the spatial and graphic modes

of the textbook. Hence, the various cells of the framework may or may not

be active depending upon the aim of the analysis and the complexity of the

textbook being analysed.

Textual Graphic Spatial

Micro

Macro

Meta

Table 6.Framework for analysing childrens science textbooks

2.3.1 Micro-level features

This level includes features that are the building blocks of the page layout.

It mostly concentrates on details within typography. The use of graphic

elements such as rules, bullets, borders and boxes is also analysed at the

micro-level. [Table 7]10

9 Framework refers to Gilliesons description as explained in section 2.1.310 In table 7, Object attributes has been borrowed from Moys (2012: 30). It is defined as the

presentation of graphic elements.


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Hierarchy and headings

Described in section 2.2.2 (B).Considers the various levels of headingsand the use of numbers or letters toprovide order of information.

Emphasis and highlightingIdentifies typographic cues used tohighlight information.

Alignment and treatmentof text

Considers justification, indentation,paragraphs, and the use of treatmentslike drop caps.

Object attributesIdentifies graphic elements like bullets,listing devices, borders, rules and linework used in the layout.

Table 7.Micro-level features explained

2.3.2 Macro-level features

Macro-level features are analysed in the graphic and the spatial modes.

While the graphic mode deals with illustrations, diagrams and data displays,

the spatial mode identifies and analyses the spatial organisation of various

elements of the layout. [Table8]

Rhetorical clusters andlayout elements

Similar to Gilliesons macro-level feature (2008:185). Identifies the various semantic groups ina page layout.

Pictorial formatDescribed in section 2.2.2 (C). Considers thekind of pictures used in a textbook photographs, line drawings, illustrations .

Placement of picturesDescribed in section 2.2.2 (C). Refers to theplacement of pictures with relation to the textin a page layout.

Labelling and captionsDescribed in section 2.2.2 (C). Refers to thedesign and placement of labels and captions ina picture.

Pull-outs and tablesDescribed in section 2.2.2 (C). Identifies textpulled out from the main text into boxes. Alsoconsiders text organised into tables.

Gestalt forms and unitySimilar to Gilliesons macro-level feature(2008: 170). Studies the unity of the spread asdescribed in 2.1.1 (C).


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Layout and spatialorganisation

Described in section 2.2.2 (C). Considers thespacing and the placement of elements in thepage layout and the margins.

Table 8.Macro-level features explained

2.3.3 Meta-level features

This level is concerned with analysing features that contribute to the look of

the overall textbook. It considers the textbook as a whole. The meta-level is

most active in the spatial mode of the framework. Features like the physical

properties of the book, the underlying grid, the system of contents in a chap-

ter, the navigation through the various chapters and the overall use of colour

for the book are studied at the meta-level. [Table 9]11

Physicalityattributes

Similar to Gilliesons meta-level feature calledArtefact structure (2008: 195). Includes size of book,binding, paper stock, cover and number of pages.

GridsSimilar to Gilliesons meta-level feature (2008: 213).Identifies the underlying grids and template forthe book.

NavigationConsiders the navigation through the various chap-ters of the book. This includes analysing folios,running headers, contents list and chapter o peners.

Chapter overview Describes the extent of the chapter.

ColourDescribes the system behind the use of colour inthe book.

Table 9. Meta-level features explained

The framework explained in this section is adapted from models and theo-

ries discussed in sections 2.1 and 2.2. The various features described in this

framework are analysed and documented in chapter 4.

11 In Table 9, Physicality attributes has been borrowed from Moys (2012: 30). It is defined as themateriality of the medium.


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3. METHODOLOGY

To compare the design features of science textbooks for children in India

and the UK, it was important to choose samples of textbooks to analyse. This

involved studying the education system and curriculum in both the coun-

tries and choosing specimens that represent the kind of textbooks currently

being used in the schools of these countries. Three factors were considered

while choosing these samples Subject, Age group and Publisher.

3.1 EDUCATIONSYSTEMIN THE UK AND INDIA

The national curriculum in the UK contains programmes of study and

attainment targets for subjects and is followed by all state schools in the UK.

This curriculum is organised into blocks of years called key stages that chil-

dren are taken through in their school life [Table 10]. At the end of every key

stage, the teacher formally assesses each childs performance to measure the

progress. Primary education starts in year 1 at age 4 and most pupils begin

their secondary education at the age of 2 in the 7 thyear.

Key Stage 1 Ages 57 Years 1 and 2

Key Stage 2 Ages 711 Years 3, 4, 5 and 6

Key Stage 3 Ages 1114 Years 7, 8 and 9

Key Stage 4 Ages 1416 Years 10 and 11

Table 10.Key stages in the UK curriculum

In India there are several boards of education. The two main boards

include the central board, which is controlled by the central government,

and the state boards that are under the governments of each state. Every

school follows a particular curriculum based on either of the boards. Thelevels of education include pre-school, primary, secondary, higher secondary.

The first 10 years of schooling is divided into 5 years of primary education, 3

years of secondary, followed by 2 years of high school.

The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) is the

apex body for curriculum related matters for school education in India. This

constitutes what is commonly known as the central board in the country.

Similarly, every state has its own board of education as well. There is a range

of textbooks published by Indian publishers. However, the textbooks used by

the central board schools all across the country are uniform and same is the

case with state board textbooks within every state.


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Schools in UK use a number of different textbooks and workbooks published

by independent publishers such as Letts, CGP, Macmillan, Collins,

Cambridge and Oxford University Press. Though the list of topics covered (as

per the contents page) remains similar across these books, it is interesting to

note that every school makes its own choice and students use books from a

range of different publishers.

3.2 SAMPLESOF TEXTBOOKS FOR ANALYSIS

From the various textbooks published in both countries, two have been

chosen from each as samples for this study. The choice of the subject, age

group and the publishers was made after taking the following points into

consideration.

On analysing a range of textbooks across various subjects for children, it

was noted how prominently a science textbook differs from a mathematics

and an English language one. The degree of picture-text complexity, use of

numerals, equations, continuous text, diagrams, illustrations, are some of

the features that tend to differ with the subject. Childrens science textbooks

possess a considerable amount of picture-text integration and make use of it

to explain several complex relationships. Hochuli discusses scientific books

in terms of how they challenge the designer:

They demand that the designer use all his or her powers if all the

material is to be brought together under one roof: the main text

(with tables and formulae), organised by a complicated hierarchy of

headings, together with different kinds of material as illustrations -

drawings, photographs (black-and white and colour), maps, diagrams

- and related captions If one also has foot- or side-notes, appendixes

(perhaps illustrated as well), and finally a commentary section and

one or more indexes, then the planning cannot be careful enough.

(1996: 70)

In addition to the subject, it was also important to consider the age groups.

Legibility, readability and understanding of the visual form largely differ

with age. Tinker (1965: 150) who has performed several studies on percep-

tion of reading and legibility amongst adults and children states that

mechanics of reading, which includes word recognition techniques, percep-

tual skill, use of context, becomes well established, or like that of adults,

somewhere between the fourth and eighth grades. Children in the primary

years only begin to recognise letters, words and read. The design features

of textbooks for younger children are different from the kind of design

decisions that are taken while designing for older children. Key stage 3that


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includes the age group of 1114 years has been chosen for this study. These

are developmental years where children have developed their skills of read-

ing and writing and are moving towards developing a perception like adults.

Science textbooks from both the countries for this age group possess the

required amount of picture-text integration for study and analysis.

Two publishers of science textbooks for this age group have been chosen

from each country. For Indian textbooks, one publisher has been chosen

from the central board syllabus while the other is from the state board.

Content of both the books were then matched with the list of contents of the

various textbooks available for key stage 3 in the UK. Additionally, parents

and teachers were informally questioned to identify the textbooks that are

most commonly used in schools in the UK. Based on this, science study

guides from CGP and Letts were chosen. While Key stage 3 is included in

a single book in the UK, every grade in India has a new textbook, which

results in three seperate books for the grades 6-8. Thus, following four titles

have been analysed:

1. Letts Science complete coursebook, KS3(UK)

2. CGP Science complete study and practice, KS3(UK)

3. NCERT Science 6,7 & 8 (India)

4. Ratna Sagars Living Science, 6, 7 & 8 (India)

3.3 METHOD OF ANALYSIS

The final framework that has been used for analysing these chosen samples

has been described in section 2.3 and is a compilation of relevant models

required to analyse childrens science textbooks. This framework has been

used to perform analysis under the three levels micro, macro and meta

(Gillieson, 2008). The analysis is presented in chapter 4. A description of

the various features of each of the four samples of textbooks is documented

in tables presented in the appendices 5, 6 and 7.


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4. ANALYSIS

This chapter documents the analysis of the chosen samples of childrens

science textbooks using the framework described in section 2.3. The books

are analysed by studying the features under the three levels of the frame-

work (Adapted from Gillieson, 2008) micro, macro and meta. Each of

these books is referred to by their names, Living Science, NCERT, Lettsand

CGP.[Figure 3]

The analysis begins at the meta-level with a description of the textbooks

describing design features like grids, navigation, physicality attributes a nd

the use of colour. The macro-level analyses the spatial arrangement of vari-

ous elements in a page layout including pictures and pull-out boxes. Details

within text and typographic differentiation are analysed at the micro-level. At

each level observations and conclusions are discussed and the descriptions

of the various features are documented in the form of tables presented in

the appendix.

4.1 META-LEVEL

A study of the physicality attributes12[Appendix 5] of these textbooks shows

that they are quite similar as far as the format and the number of pages

is considered. All four have soft-back covers and are perfect bound. The

features that differ are the paper stock and the quality of printing. The two

books from the UK, Lettsand CGPuse thicker stock of paper with a better

quality of printing as compared to the samples of textbooks from India.

There are several factors that lead to the choice of paper for a textbook. Avail-

ability, cost, thickness, opacity, surface finish and its compatibility with the

kind of printing are some of these factors. Out of the three, NCERTuses a

thin (80gsm) paper stock with a poor quality of print. The various elementslike colour, boxes, and rules are not well aligned in print. In addition to this,

the paper stock used for the cover of NCERTis not strong enough to hold

the book together.

The next feature observed at this level is the underlying grids for these

textbooks. Each of these samples follows a simple grid system. NCERTand

Living Science[Figures 5 & 4 respectively]both use a two-column grid for

the layout of elements. In Letts [Figure 6], text and images are arranged in

12 As explained in section 2.3, this term has been adapted from Moys (2012)

Figure 3Scale 35%The four textbooks analysed in this dissertation.Details and 90% scale spreads to be found in the appendix.

Living Science (India)

Letts (India) CGP (India)

NCERT (India)


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Figure 4: Living Science35 % scale

Figure 6: Letts35 % scale

Figure 7: CGP35 % scale

Figure 5: NCERT35 % scale

CHAPTEROPENINGSPREADSFOR META-LEVELANALYSISAnalysing the grid, navigation system and use of colour

(Spreads at 90% scale in appendices)


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a single column placed closer to the inner margins. Text pulled out into

boxes is placed on the outer margins. In CGP [ Figure 7],text and images are

framed with a keyline on every page. It is this frame along with a header that

are constant on every page. Within this frame a column grid does not seem

to be used. Text is placed within the frame with images inserted into it. This

study of the underlying grids helps in analysing the spatial arrangement of

various elements within the layout at the macro-level.

To study the extent of a chapter within each book, the chapter on human

systems including the digestive system has been chosen across all four

books. In the two textbooks from India, Living Science [ Figure 20]and

NCERT [ Figure 21], the various human systems are handled as separate

chapters. The chapter considered here is the one on Nutrition in animals.

In Letts [ Figure 22]and CGP [ Figure 23], The chapter is called Human

systems and includes several other systems apart from digestion. Further

analysis at the macro and micro levels is carried out taking spreads from

these chapters as examples.

Hartley (1994) emphasises that the overall layout of instructional text should

be such that the reader can easily locate information. Chapter openers,

running headers and folios all contribute to the navigation between chapters

in a textbook. At the meta-level a comparison between the chapter openers

of these four textbooks provides an example of the kind of elements used

to develop the navigation within each of these books. Out of the four chap-

ter opening spreads [Figures 4, 5, 6, 7], the effect of the spread is most in

Letts [Figure 6]and is least prominent in CGP [Figure 7]. There are several

elements that contribute to a prominent chapter opener in Letts. The pres-

ence of the strong colour band on the top of the page that matches the

colour used for the rest of the chapter captures the students attention while

looking for a particular chapter. In addition to this, it can be observed that

Lettshas a follows a system of use of colour in which every chapter uses a

different colour. Thus the beginning of a new chapter becomes more evident

[Figure 8].Whereas the other three textbooks use a set of colours through-out the book, not highlighting the beginning of a new chapter. Letts, Living

Scienceand NCERT[Figues 8, 9 & 10 respectively], all three make use of a

large numeral to depict the chapter number. In CGP, due to the small size

of type and its placement, the name and number of the chapter tends to get

lost in the layout[Figure 11].

Figure 8: Letts50 % scaleElements that contribute to aprominent chapter opener.

The other two colours used forchapter openers. Highlightsthe beginning of a new chapter

more prominently.

A strong head band for thechapter name and number

Large numeral forchapter number

Prominent folios


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Figure 12: Living ScienceChapter summary, 80% scalePlaced at the beginning of the chapter

Figure 13: NCERTChapter summary, 80% scalePlaced at the end of the chapter

Figure 14: LettsChapter summary, 80% scalePlaced at the beginning of the chapter

Figure 15: CGPChapter summary, 80% scalePlaced at the end of the chapter

Figure 9: Living Science

Figure 10: NCERT

Figure 11: CGP

Figures 9, 10, 11Scale 80%Treatment of the chapter numberand name in the openieng spread


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Figure 16: Living Science

Figure 17: NCERT

Figure: 18. Letts

Figure: 19. CGP

According to Waller (1982), running headings can be used to summarise the

contents on a page and remind the reader about the information present on

that particular page. The centred placement of the running header and the

folios at the bottom of the page in Living Science [Figure 16]is not very effec-

tive in the navigation of the textbook as they dont stand out prominently. In

NCERT [Figure 17], the running headers are present at the bottom towards

the inner margin and tend to get lost. In contrast, in Letts [Figure 18], the use

of colour and a graphic element, along with being placed at the bottom in

the outer margin, makes the folios very prominent and in turn help to locate

the required page more easily.

Waller (1982) describes contents list as a typographically structured device

that helps in making the content of a book more accessible. Some obser-

vations are made on comparing the contents pages of the four textbooks

[Figures 20, 21, 22, 23]. In Letts [Figure 22], the chapter numbers and namesuse the same system of colour as used in the chapters itself. This helps

in looking for a particular chapter in the list. In Living Science [Figure 20]

each chapter within the contents list also lists the various topics covered

within the chapter. This increases the amount of text and thus demands for

better hierarchy amongst the list. Hochuli (1989) emphasis on a motto for

the design of contents pages: as clear as needed, as restful as possible. The

contents pages of CGP [Figure 23]and NCERT [Figure 21]are examples of

lack of emphasis and hierarchy. These lack the effective use of typographic

differentiation. Also the visual connect between the designs of the contents

page to the rest of the books is not well developed.

Another similarity that can be observed across the four samples of textbooks

is the presence of initial overviews and the end of chapter summaries, along

with some important keywords and practice questions which are placed at

the end of a chapter [Figures 12, 13, 14, 15]. These are common methods of

highlighting important information in textbooks. Pull-out boxes also fall

under this category and are discussed in section 4.2. Reder and Ander-

son (1980) have demonstrated that a text stripped out of the main text is

better remembered than a continuous, detailed text. Thus, this observation

supports the likelihood that the main points of a text are better remembered

when learnt from a summary than from the main text.

LeftFigures 16, 17, 18, 19The treatment of running headers andfolios across all four textbooks.


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DETAILSFROMTHE CONTENTS PAGES(AT80% SCALE)Points to the chapter chosen for this analysis.

(Complete contents pages in appendices)

Figure 20: Living ScienceSub-topics described within each chapter.

Figure 21: NCERTLack of hierarchy and differentiation.

Figure 22: LettsEffective hierarchy and functional use of colour.

Figure 23: CGPInadequate hierarchy amongst topics


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SELECTED SPREADSFOR MACRO-LEVELANALYSISAnalysing arrangement of elements in layout

(Spreads at 90% scale in appendices)

Figure 24: Living Science35 % scale

Figure 25: NCERT35 % scale

Figure 26: Letts35 % scale

Figure 27: CGP35 % scale


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4.2 MACRO-LEVEL

Macro-level features together provide a description of the overall layout of

the four textbooks and the relationship between the elements in each of

them. The first observation at this level is to identify the rhetorical clusters

in the selected spread from each textbook. [Figures 24, 25, 26, 27]. The find-

ings are documented in Table 11.

Living Science

2 levels of headings1 body text4 illustrations with captions1 pull-out box with text

NCERT

2 levels of headings1 body text

2 illustrations with captions1 table with text2 pull-out boxes with text1 speech bubble with text

Letts

2 levels of headings1 body text2 illustrations with captions1 photograph with caption1 table with text5 pull-out boxes with text

CGP

2 levels of headingsBody text in points2 illustrations with descriptive labels2 pull-out boxes with text

Table 11.Rhetorical clusters identofied within the four spreads [Figure].

These rhetorical clusters highlight the ratio of text to image used by each of

these books to explain the same topic. Each of the spreads includes main

text, pictures and secondary text in different proportions. Living Science

[Figure 24]and NCERT [Figure 25]have text heavy layouts as comparedto the other two. CGP [Figure 27]has the least amount of text and the text

is presented as points rather than continuous prose. Letts [Figure 26]has

a considerable amount of text that is balanced by the number and size of

images. Thus each of these textbooks make use of different ratio of text and

image to explain similar topics.

As discussed in 2.2.1, studying is a selective reading process. A range of

reading styles and strategies as listed by Pugh (1975) and Thomas (1975) are

used for the purpose of studying. Thus instructional texts such as textbooks


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Figure 28: Living Science35 % scaleExample of ineffective size of picture Figure 29: CGP

35 % scaleExample of picture getting lost in the layoutdue to the reduced size

Figure 30: NCERT100% scaleExample of inappropriate labelling as the labelsare getting lost in the diagram.

need to be made more accessible for a range of different purposes and a

wider category of audience (Waller, 1987). Peterson (2014) emphasises that

the experience of layout is that of an interconnected system where each part

exists in relation to the whole. Thus it becomes essential to study the various

parts of the layout in the spreads from these textbooks. Pictures, pull-out

boxes and tables are analysed at this stage while the details within text are

analysed at the micro-level.

According to Brody (1982) the selection of an appropriate pictorial format is

an important consideration while inserting pictures into instructional text.

He elaborates that no single pictorial format is suitable for all purposes. The

use of a mixture of pictorial formats also offers a variety to the student and

breaks the monotony of the textbook. This can be observed in the efficient

use of illustrations and photographs in Letts. In this particular spread [Figure

26], while the various organs of the digestive system are explained using a

labelled illustration, a photograph is used to show the many villi present in

the small intestine and a 3D illustration clearly explains the pushing of food

down the oesophagus.

In addition to the choice of pictorial format, the size of the picture also

affects its impact. Brody (1982) states that the size of a picture shall be

chosen in a way that it can be discriminated and identified by the audience

and at the same time contributes to the attractiveness of the layout. Some-

times pictures are reduced in size in order to fit into the grid. For example

in Figure 28from Living Scienceand Figure 29from CGP. However, at such

sizes these pictures are not successful in serving their purpose and dont

communicate the information effectively.

As discussed in section 2.2.2 (C), The effectiveness of a picture in instruc-

tional text lies in the ability to direct student attention to it at the most

appropriate moment for learning. According to Brody (1982), the relevant

placement of pictures within the narrative can help in directing attention.

In Living Science [Figure 24]and NCERT [Figure 25], the pictures are placedwithin a two-column grid into their corresponding topics. However, while

in Living Sciencethe pictures are placed neatly into the two-column grid and

care is taken not to disturb the flow of the narrative, in NCERT [Figure 25]

pictures are often placed in a way that it leads to odd breakage in sentences

and paragraphs. This affects the continuity in the text. Continuity is one

of the five principles of visual perception by Gestalt. It emphasises how

smoother transitions, such that the eye is compelled to move from one

object to another, are preferred over disrupted ones.


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Figure 31: Letts100% scaleExample of the treatmentof captions. The caption isdescriptive, placed abovethe picture and centred. Useof bold leads to the captionappearing like a heading in thelayout.

Figure 32: NCERTHuman digestive system illustration80% scale

Figures 32 & 33Design of labels and captionsCaption consists of the figure number along with the name

Figure 33: Living ScienceHuman digestive system illustration80% scale

Both Hartley (1994) and Brody (1982) emphasise on referring to pictures

within text as a good way of directing attention. This feature is observed in

NCERT [Figure 25]and Living Science [Figure 24], making pictures promi-

nent at the right moment in the narrative. In Letts [Figure 26], the pictures

are placed into the text after they have already been introduced and talked

about. But these are not referred to within the text. In such a case the place-

ment of these pictures exactly where they need to be seen becomes very

crucial. In CGP [Figure 27], neither does the student find a reference to the

picture in the text nor are the pictures placed in a way to support the narra-

tive. Thus

MA Book Design dissertation

Documents

design of textbooks

design of sciencetextbooks

theappropriate design

samples of science textbooks

production of school

clear layout

science textbooks3

gilliesons framework