1 | P a g e Lokyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy
http://lokayatajournal.webs.com ISSN: 2249-8389 Journal of Positive
Philosophy Centre for Positive Philosophy and Interdisciplinary
Studies (CPPIS) Milestone Education Society (Regd.), Ward No.06,
Pehowa (Kurukshetra)-136128 Volume III, No. 01 (March, 2013)
Chief-Editor: Desh Raj Sirswal 2 | P a g e Lokyata: Journal of
Positive Philosophy http://lokayatajournal.webs.com Lokyata:
Journal of Positive Philosophy (ISSN 2249-8389) Lokyata: Journal of
Positive Philosophy is an online bi-annual interdisciplinary
journal of the Center for Positive Philosophy and Interdisciplinary
Studies (CPPIS). The name Lokyata can be traced to Kautilya's
Arthashastra, which refers to three nvkiks (logical philosophies),
Yoga, Samkhya and Lokyata. Lokyata here still refers to logical
debate (disputatio, "criticism") in general and not to a
materialist doctrine in particular. The objectives of the journal
are to encourage new thinking on concepts and theoretical
frameworks in the disciplines of humanities and social sciences to
disseminate such new ideas and research papers (with strong
emphasis on modern implications of philosophy) which have broad
relevance in society in general and mans life in particular. The
Centre publishes two issues of the journal every year. Each regular
issue of the journal contains full-length papers, discussions and
comments, book reviews, information on new books and other relevant
academic information. Each issue contains about 100 Pages. Centre
for Positive Philosophy and Interdisciplinary Studies, Pehowa
(Kurukshetra) Chief-Editor: Dr. Desh Raj Sirswal (P.G. Govt.
College for Girls, Sector-11, Chandigarh) Associate Editors: Dr.
Merina Islam, Dr. Sandhya Gupta Editorial Advisory Board Prof. K.K.
Sharma (Former-Pro-Vice-Chancellor, NEHU, Shillong) Prof.Sohan Raj
Tater (Former Vice-Chancellor, Singhania University, Rajasthan) Dr.
Anamika Girdhar (Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra) Dr.Ranjan
Kumar Behera (Patkai Christian College (Autonomous), Nagaland) Fr.
V. John Peter (St. Josephs Philosophical College, Nilgiris, T.N.)
Dr. Aayam Gupta (Kurukshetra, Haryana) Dr. Geetesh Nirban (Kamala
Nehru College, University of Delhi) Dr. Vaishali Dev (Mahamakut
Buddhist University, Thailand) Dr. Narinder Singh (GHSC-10,
Chandigarh) Dr. Vijay Pal Bhatnagar (Kurukshetra University,
Kurukshetra) Mr. Praveen Kumar Anshuman ( Kirori Mal College,
University of Delhi, Delhi) Declaration: The opinions expressed in
the articles of this journal are those of the individual authors,
and not necessary of those of CPPIS or the Chief-Editor. 3 | P a g
e Lokyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy
http://lokayatajournal.webs.com In this issue.. P.Kesava Kumar:
Against Brahminical Tradition: A Dalit Critique of Indian Modernity
(4-17) Nirmala V.: Influence of Spandasastra on Abhinavaguptas
Philosophy (18-20) Shruti Rai : Philosophy of Language in Siddhanta
Saiva Philosophy (21-28) Bhumika Sharma : Relationship Between
Dharma and Justice: An Indian Perspective (29-41) Reni Pal: Ahimsa
and Satyagraha: Gandhi and the XIV Dalai Lama (42-48) Bhddhiswar
Haldar: The Necessity of Gandhian Ethics for Better Future(49-52)
Sima Baruah: What Makes Gandhi a Mahatma? (53-59) Jatinder Kumar
Jain: Jainism in a Globalised World (60-66) Rinky Chowdhury:
Evolution of Varna-srama System into Caste-System (67-69)
K.J.Sandhu & Khusboo: Conceptual Framework of Acculturative
Stress in relation to Organizational Integration of Employees
(70-80) Dinesh Chahal & Nidhi Mehta: Motivation: An Easy Way to
Learn (81-86) EMPIRICAL PAPERS Shalini Sisodia & Ira Das:
Construction of a Scale for Measuring Egotism (Ahamkaar) (87-95)
P.K.Mona & Prachi Sharma: Psychological Determinants of
Hypothyroidism(96-103) Surila Agrawala & Nidhi Gurbaxani:
Quality of Life of Employed and Unemployed Married Women (104-109)
NEW PUBLICATIONS (110-111) PHILOSOPHY NEWS IN INDIA (112-114)
CONTRIBUTORS OF THIS ISSUE (115-116) 4 | P a g e Lokyata: Journal
of Positive Philosophy http://lokayatajournal.webs.com AGAINST
BRAHMINICAL TRADITION: A DALIT CRITIQUE OF INDIAN MODERNITY P.
Kesava Kumar I dont know when I was born/but I was killed on this
very soil thousand years ago/ dying again and again to be born
again/ I dont know the karma theory/I am being born again and again
where I was dead. 1(Kalekuri Prasasd) History!/ all these years how
could you hide/ the fire in our mouth./how could you
tolerate/inequality and inhumanity.2 (Juluri Gowrishankar) With a
smile on his face/Shambhuka is slaying Rama/ with his axe/Ekalavya
is cutting Dronas thumb away/with his small feet/ Bali is sending
Vamana down to pathala/ With needles in his eyes/ and lead in is
ears/Manu, having cut his tongue is seen rolling on the
graveyard/standing on the merciless sword of time/and roaring with
rage/The Chandala is seen hissing four houndson Sankaracharya/
Oh..!/ The History that is occurring today/Is the most Chandala
history3 (Siva Sagar) The burden of reason, dreams of freedom, the
desire for power, resistance to power: all of these are elements of
modernity. There is no promised land of modernity outside the net
work of power. Hence one can not be for or against modernity; one
can devise strategies for coping with it. These strategies are
sometimes beneficial, often destructive; sometimes they are
tolerant, perhaps all too often they are fierce and violent.4
Introduction Dalits are oppressed people for many generations due
to the caste system of India. Dalits are the worst victims of the
caste system. In the name of caste, they are often degraded,
discriminated, humiliated, insulted and exploited. Caste is an
elaborated social system that influences all other institutions of
the society. Caste is an important marker of traditional Indian
society. Caste is carried through the religion. In India, the caste
system and the hindu religion, is interlinked and inseparable.
There are various attempts to reform or transform the Indian
society to make humane, democratic and modern. The intellectuals of
social reform and Indian nationalist movement forced to negotiate
with colonial modernity on many accounts. The nationalist social
aspirations are articulated by the elite and liberal intellectuals
on behalf of the nation, happened to be the people of brahminical
class. They seem to be modern in their appeal and traditional in
practice. Through their literary, cultural and philosophical
discourses shaped the Indian modernity. This modernity definitely
differs with the Lokyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy (ISSN:
2249-8389) Volume III, No. 01 (March, 2013), pp.4-17 5 | P a g e
Lokyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy
http://lokayatajournal.webs.com western modernity. To certain
extent, they overcome the western imposed tradition-modern
dichotomy. The Indian thinkers like Gandhi and Ambedkar, offers new
way to look at Indian self and essentially differ from western
modernity. The contemporary Dalit movement, which is inspired with
the philosophy of Ambedkar is not only critical about the hindu
brahminical tradition and also exposes the Indian modernity for its
brahminical bias. The very notion of modernity keeps on changing
with the articulation of the respective social agency. The meaning
of modernity undergoes a significant change with the assertion of
dalits in public space, in which the access to these has been
denied for centuries. In this paper I would like to illustrate the
complexity and ambiguity of modernity in relation to dalits through
the writings of telugu Dalit literature. In other words, the paper
highlights the distinctive modernity of dalits in contrast with
western liberal, colonial and brahmical modernity. Dalit modernity
too attacks the liberal modernity which is based on mere
individualism of western liberalism. Dalit modernity is located in
embedded self. In other words, it argues for reflexive
individualism. The source for this kind of individualism is the
moral community based on equality, liberty and fraternity. Dalit
modernity even projects different kind of communitarianism based on
the principle of social justice. The communitarian Dalit modernity
attacks the conservative communitarianism of brahminism. However,
Dalit modernity mediates both liberal and communitarian
philosophies by showing its limitations and also appraising their
strength in a novel way. Dalits Entry into Public Sphere The decade
of eighties in Andhra Pradesh is known for a radical assertion of
Dalits, women, adivasis and the Telangana people. These struggles
are not only critical about dominant philosophical thinking, but
also put a responsibility to record the past based on these
foundations. They made a conscious attempt to interrogate the
dominant traditions in order to liberate them. They have raised
several questions relating to the nature of State and developmental
strategy pursued by it. They created a new universe with
alternative value system. Mostly, the knowledge about them could be
in their literary and cultural articulation. Their literature is
overshadowed by the philosophical inquiry into the conditions of
the good society, the good person and, the good life. Literature is
a primary means by which a community situates itself in place. The
literature in the written form as established the literature with
the advent of print technology. The print culture not only
succeeded in marginalizing the oral forms of larger social groups
and also facilitated modern public sphere. For a long time this
sphere is mostly dominated by educated brahminical class, though
theoretically this space is available to everybody. The recent
entry of dalits in to this modern space not only created tension,
but also provides alternative philosophical insights through
literary and cultural works. This gives the opportunity to read the
politics of modernity in Telugu literature. On one hand, Dalit
literature blatantly opposed the brahminical tradition, and other
hand further radicalized the politics of alternative struggles. The
Karamchedu massacre of 1985 and the Pro-Mandal agitations in 1991
shattered the modern secular pretensions of various social and
political institutions. One of the features of contemporary Dalit
movement is that engaged with the politics of modern public sphere,
which is seen as secular space (in the spheres of literature,
cinema, university and political party etc.). It is the Dalit
struggles 6 | P a g e Lokyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy
http://lokayatajournal.webs.com and their assertion that showed the
casteist brahminical character of these spheres. From the decade of
eighties onwards, a considerable number of Dalit middle class is
visible in Indian society. Their presence was felt in the public
sphere for the first time. They are resisting the hegemony of the
upper castes in these spaces by asserting themselves in all
possible ways. For the upper caste people, it was as if the space
which was so far reserved for them exclusively, suddenly became
uncomfortable and they are becoming irritated with the entry of
Dalits into their spaces. One can see the antagonism between these
two in Universities, literary and cultural fields. The University,
the city, cinema and literature are predominantly urban spaces
where the above said encounters are very often witnessed. The upper
castes have suddenly picked up a liberal language to corner the
Dalits. With the entry of Dalits into the various public
institutions, one common response is that the objectives of these
public institutions have been subverted. To put it in other words,
the universe of values constituting these public institutions has
been thwarted. To make sense of this, one has to find a relevant
conceptual framework. Partha Chatterjee offers one. According to
him, there are two worlds: a world of middle class constituted by
modern norms of freedom of speech, voluntary associations and
individual capable of choice; another is a world of subalterns
constituted by other concepts which does not come under this modern
bourgeoisie rubric. There is a relationship of pedagogy between the
former and the latter. The entry of Dalits into modern public
institutions, cause a rupture between two universes. The universe
of public institutions is underpinned by modern rationality and
concomitant values as created by modern-nation-State. The
introduction of the universe of Dalits into public institutions
results in, broadly, two consequences. It questions the nature of
translation and application of modern values of liberty and
equality in modern public institutions. Secondly, the visions of
public institutions enter into a phase of crises of understanding
and coherence. This interpretation helps us to understand the
nature of hatred and conflict in public institutions. But, it also
sets in other agendas of shedding the potential of modernity to
liberate Dalits from the shackles of tradition. Dalits share an
ambiguous relationship with modernity. When modernity entered
India, the Indian traditional intellectual community had seen it as
a threat to the Indian social structure. To protect the age old
brahamnical societal structure, the upholders of the tradition
moved to keep the tradition intact. They started the process of
monopolization of modernity by embracing the epistemologies of
modernity - such as the basic sciences and technical education.
Initially, when modernity opened up new opportunities, with its
inherent economic viability, the Brahmin intellectuals given up
traditional epistemologies and embraced modern epistemology purely
for the material prosperity. The writings reveal that Dalit
relation to modernity is complex. It is also, in some sense
critical about the general understanding of modernity, i.e., modern
development, science and reason. Dalit politics refuses to get
incorporated into the binaries of nationalism/colonialism and
secularism/communalism. It also resists Universalism, the unmarked
and abstract citizen as a centre of the emancipatory discourse of
modernity. It is equally critical about the abstract 'working
class'. In other words, it constantly speaks with and against both
the liberal and the radical conception of man and society. 7 | P a
g e Lokyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy
http://lokayatajournal.webs.com Ambedkars conception of Modernity
Ambedkar is a culmination of all alternative movements of his time.
He is the source and inspiration of contemporary Dalit movement.
Like the elites of his time, Ambedkar, too, tried to overcome the
tradition-modernity dichotomy. His critique of tradition is
accompanied by his refusal to accept ready-made alternatives
manufactured in the West. He is critical of both modernity and
tradition. He attacked Hinduism and its claims as religion, but at
the same time, he keeps away from the western thought. He believes
that legal and political institutions do not have the capacity to
reconstruct social solidarity, and therefore tries to provide a
social basis for a liberal and political ethos. In this sense, he
is critical of modernity. But, at the same time, he highlighted
that a social reconstruction cannot be achieved without taking into
account the legacy of tradition. He further considers that legal
and political institutions do not have a capacity to reconstruct
social solidarity, and therefore tries to provide a social basis
for the liberal and political ethos which does not mean an
uncritical acceptance of western modernity or indigenous
traditionalism.5 Ambedkar does not believe in mere individualism,
whereas the individual is the center for liberal and modern life.
He emphasizes community life but disagrees with other
communitarians like the conservative Hindutva forces and Marxists.
His philosophy is essentially ethical and religious. He upholds the
moral basis of life while allowing critical reason to operate.
Therefore he visualizes a moral society that is based on the ideals
of modernity. He considers Buddhism as the only religion which can
respond to the demands of modernity and culture. Buddhist
teachings, he believes, appeal to reason and experience. Dalit
Critique of Modernity When modernity entered India, the Indian
traditional intellectual community had seen it as a threat to the
Indian social structure. To protect the age old brahamnical
societal structure, the upholders of the tradition moved to keep
the tradition intact. They started the process of monopolization of
modernity by embracing the epistemologies of modernity - such as
the basic sciences and technical education. Initially, when
modernity opened up new opportunities, with its inherent economic
viability, the Brahmin intellectuals given up traditional
epistemologies and embraced modern epistemology purely for the
material prosperity. At this juncture, the whole process of
embracing modernity by the intellectual community of the times,
raises very interesting questions. For instance, it asks why
Brahman community embraced modernity? What were the reasons for the
monopolization of modernity? Did they allow modernity to go into
corners to transform the basic structure of the society? If it was
not the case, was it the fault of others, who were not able to
absorb modernity? If we asses the impact of modernity on Indian
society, the under-privileged sections of the society hardly
benefited from it. If one thinks of possible reasons for this, one
can easily come to the conclusion that the modernity project, in
the nineteenth century, was monitored by the social elites of the
times, and came from the Brahmin community. Apart from monitoring
and controlling the whole process of modernization, there were
constant conscious interventions by this community to ensure their
interests are secure by not allowing the fruits of modernity into
other sections of the Indian society. This resulted in the halting
or postponing of societal transformations. To reserve the fruits of
8 | P a g e Lokyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy
http://lokayatajournal.webs.com modernity for them, they constantly
realized the price of modernity. Apart from providing new avenues,
modernity has implications for social transformation. The elites
have to overcome their own traditions and cultural beliefs. To
resolve this kind of a situation they had started defending their
cultural traditions and simultaneously enjoying the material
benefits of the modernity at colonial times. The relationship of
the Dalits to the modern State, both colonial and post colonial, is
ambiguous. It is important to re-look at political /cultural
practices of Dalits to understand the Dalit response to State and
modernity. If one emphasises the discursive aspects of modernity,
it offers enormous possibilities to talk about Dalit suffering/
humiliation and oppression. It can also be said that Ambedkars
argument for creating a moral community is possible only if one
emphasizes the discursive aspects of modern experience. Further,
modernity, as imposed on the third world countries has been
attacked from many fronts. Modernity is considered as a necessary
extension of colonialism. Modernity in India came as a package with
colonialism. There is an attack on the general philosophical
beliefs of modernity such as notions of Universalism and its truth
claims. There is an attack on the very values of post-Enlightenment
thought, on its conception of secularism and rights etc. As
observed by Javeed Alam, people readily reject terms like
secularism on the grounds that they are alien to and lack any
affinity with Indian culture or traditions. However, other terms
such as democracy or equality are readily acceptable.6 This may
give a clue to understand modernity which has taken roots in the
Indian context and its complexity. Modern is historically embodied
form of enlightenment. Whatever is entailed under enlightenment as
values, beliefs, principles, ethics, morality and so on, has been
thought of as universal not just in an abstract sense but as
something universalizable in the thinking and practices of all
human beings. Colonialism has a historical connection with
capitalism and therefore also what we have referred to as
entrenched modernity. The capitalism in the colonies have
demonstrative with all the features of distorted consciousness,
racial superiority, arrogant cultural exclusiveness, and
intellectual condescension over and above political control of
those inferiors whom it has subjugated. The writings reveal that
Dalit relation to modernity is complex. It is also, in some sense
critical about the general understanding of modernity, that is
modern development, science and reason. Dalit politics refuses to
get incorporated into the binaries of nationalism/colonialism and
secularism/communalism. It also resists Universalism, the unmarked
and abstract citizen as a centre of the emancipatory discourse of
modernity. It is equally critical about the abstract 'working
class'. In other words, it constantly speaks with and against both
the liberal and the radical conception of man and society. Ambedkar
doesn't believe in mere individualism, whereas the individual is
the centre for liberal and modern life. He believes in community
life that is rooted in a moral society and is based on the ideals
of modernity. He makes differences with other communitarians like
conservatives (Hindutva forces) and Marxists. 9 | P a g e Lokyata:
Journal of Positive Philosophy http://lokayatajournal.webs.com The
trajectory of modernity in post-colonial India is a very
complicated one. The Brahminical Hindu elite's engagement with the
modernist project is quite interesting. The liberation of the
self/nation is imagined in the spiritual and cultural domains. In
its initial phase, Hindu nationalism started internal social
reforms. The project of modernity pursued by these social elites of
post-colonial India has ended up as anti-modern . As Partha
Chatterjee notes: the search for the post colonial has been tied,
from its very birth, with its struggle against modernity'. The
modernization process carried the tag of the tradition. This
ultimately led to the confrontation of secular state and the
Nehruvian ideal of modernity by the Hindutva forces in contemporary
times. In Post-independent India, the Nehruvian project of
'modernity', 'development', and ' progress through big dams, heavy
industries and scientific institutions benefited the upper caste
groups more than anybody else. This lead to the generation of
capital in India but it did not develop a capitalist culture and
its values. The upper caste groups didn't come out of their feudal
mindset. On the other hand, Dalits are marginalized and dislocated.
This situation often meets with conflicts and tensions in the
nation. Any radical assertion of Dalits is suppressed by the State.
The political institutions become oppressive. Secular democracy may
become a farce. Further, the governability for ruling class becomes
a serious problem until and unless it attends the situation in a
real democratic spirit. On the other hand, the Dalits involvement
with the colonial-mediated modernity project was too complex. In a
feudal set up, where Dalits are degraded and humiliated in the name
of caste and social norms, colonial modernity, to a certain extent,
facilitated to become conscious of their objective condition. The
institutions set by the colonialsts promised political, legal and
social equality at least theoretically, if not practically. In this
respect, Ambedkar is in favour of the active intervention of the
State to bring Dalits into the modern sphere. In early days,
Brahminical social elite too felt the need for modernizing Dalits.
For this, they prescribed habits of 'purity' and the need for
'education' for Dalits. When more Dalits are entering the public
space so far reserved for upper castes, through State-sponsored
developmental programmes, it creates antagonism and conflict. With
an increased assertion of Dalits and their struggles, and the
marked visibility of Dalits in post-independent India has
frustrated the upper castes. They pick up a new liberal language to
counter the Dalits against the spirit of liberalism. For instance,
when Dalits are fighting against the hegemony of caste, the upper
castes dismiss this struggle as casteist. Dalits talking about
caste is considered as parochial and anti-modern by them. Further,
they argue for an economic basis for any emancipatory project of
the State. In the anti- Mandal agitation this attitude can be
witnessed. Upper castes find various strategies like this to
maintain the status quo in society. Casteism of the upper castes
took modern incarnation in the public sphere, and started
articulating their interests in modernist discourse like, purity
and pollution, 'hygiene', 'efficiency' and 'merit'. One more
interesting point is that, the upper castes started discrediting
the modern political institutions in the context of the entry of
Dalits into it. They go on propagating that these institutions got
'corrupted' by blaming the lower caste people. They even go on
opposing the very foundations of the secular democratic State of
the nation. They argue that this secular democracy based on the
'rationality' of western colonial model, is not based on indigenous
cultural and philosophical traditions. At this point, Dalits came
to the rescue of secular democracy. The Upper caste 10 | P a g e
Lokyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy
http://lokayatajournal.webs.com intellectuals, by taking the post-
modernist position, that 'science is a social construct', started
justifying the philosophies of irrationality and dogmatism as
science. It had a negative implication for Dalits. In this context,
Ambedkar and Dalits of post-colonial India, are arguing in favour
of the 'scientific reason' of modernity that is rooted in
indigenous traditions. This could be seen in the literary and
cultural narratives of dalits of contemporary writings. The
modernity manifested in Dalit literary narratives is different from
the reform oriented (brahminical) modern telugu literature. Telugu
Modernity: A Brahminical Intervention Historically, the social
groups, which had acquired political and economic dominance,
enjoyed the privilege over cultural production and others got
silenced. Western influenced middle class, those who later played a
major role in molding the nationalist struggles, involved in the
production of literary writings. It is obviously, the upper caste
groups ideals and aspirations and their worldview reflected in
literature too. In the post independent India, modern State was
unable to uphold the promised ideals of good life and better
society to the vast number of the oppressed of this country. In the
political writings of literature of this time, there emerged an
upper caste middle-class man as a protagonist. He is sympathetic to
the lower classes and he articulates their needs and is seen to be
mobilizing the oppressed masses. There are very few writings which
talk about dalits and their life. Those that exist come out as the
sympathy of the upper caste writers towards labourers as a part of
the class struggles. The protagonists in the literary writing are
always from the upper caste groups. They are portrayed as
shouldering the responsibility to reform/educate dalits. This
completely lacks knowledge about the authentic dalit life and their
experiences. These upper caste writers have constrains to perceive
the lives of other communities. These socially sensitive upper
caste writers could not mobilize the support of their communities
to their imagined ideals and many of them moved towards
spiritualism. Most of the writers came from Brahmin middle class
families. In latter days, the intensified struggles aspiring the
communist ideals too failed to capture the dalit imagination and
the question of caste remained immune to their discourses. Till the
1980s, the entire literary discourse centered on the concept of the
abstract human being, erosive of all cultural markers like caste,
color, religion, region and gender. However, the modernity in
Telugu literature reflected through the reformist agenda of
intellectuals of Telugu society. Modernity is identified with the
spoken language than textual language. The modernity articulated
through the genres like drama, novel, short story and free verse
than classical poetry. The issues identified are practice of
untouchability, problems of women, importance of education. For
this, either they negotiated within tradition or to reform the
tradition in the backdrop of colonial education. In later days, the
progressive agenda of the communist movements are taken up the
project of the modernity in the name of class struggle. They are
not explicit in their articulation about caste or patriarchy.
Special reference to this considered as pre modern and celebrated
an identity of the class. The idea of class not only conceals these
realistic social identities but also indirectly helps in
maintaining the hegemony of caste and patriarchy. The social agency
mediated the modernity through their writings is mostly brahminical
class or broadly upper caste men. With the emergence of conscious
intellectuals from the lower castes and women exposed the 11 | P a
g e Lokyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy
http://lokayatajournal.webs.com shallowness of the above said
modernity. They problematized the writings of their predecessors on
the issues of authenticity and representation. They evaluated them
from the unchanged social life of contemporary times. In other
words, the new intellectuals are assessing the literary modernity
through its social functioning. In this process, not only
questioned the canons of literature but also dismissed the
celebrated telugu modernists like Gurujada and Sree Sree.
Celebration of Jashua, the dalit writer could be seen as a Mahakavi
as against the progressive writer Sree Sree. Normatively the
modernity manifested through the dalit literature is different from
the earlier Telugu literary writings. In telugu society, in the
medieval time witnessed the emergence of non Brahmin
intelligentsia, like Vemana, Potuluri Veerabrahmam and argues in
favour of denouncement of caste system, social inequality and
oppression.7 Both the nationalists and liberals of later times,
fail to understand the caste system, since most of them are drawn
from upper caste. The social reformers such as Veerasalingam and
Gurajada Apparao are considered as the founders of new epoch in
modern telugu literature are confined to the problems of the
Brahmins only. While they sought to reform certain evils of the
hindu social system, they failed to grapple with the ideological
and institutional framework of brahminical Hinduism. And these
social reformers did not inherit and continue the medieval bakti
tradition, it was discontinued. Given their social background and
intellectual and cultural tradition, they could not profess
anti-feudal and anti colonial/caste ideology and consciousness.
Unlike the saint poets they did not revolt against all kinds of
social evils. They were selective in philosophical and ideological
standpoint. In that sense they failed to generate and build a
popular cultural and ideological movement against caste system.8 In
the nationalist and post-independent times, Dalit scholars took
inspiration from this medieval bakthi tradition. Manifested
modernity in Dalit Literature Dalit intellectuals negotiated their
philosophical views to the larger society through the medium of
literature than any other form. They are organic intellectuals in
strict sense of Gramsci, having the elements of thinking and
organizing the community as against the traditional brahminical
intellectuals. In this sense Dalit literature has to be seen as the
process in creation of counter hegemony against brahminical
hegemony. Dalit literature has significant in many ways-culturally,
historically and ideologically. Dalit literature enriched with
content and description of dalit struggles for human dignity. There
has been constant effort from dalit writers in translating the
condemned life styles and practices of marginalised people into
symbols of protest and pride. Dalit writers gave rich meaning to
dalit life that brought respect for them. In the process of writing
their own history, they thoroughly interrogated the existing
histories of dominant caste/class groups in their literary
writings.9 An ideal society should be mobile and it should be full
of channels for conveying a change taking place in one part to
other parts. In an ideal society there should be many interests
consciously communicated and shared. There should be varied and fee
points of contact with other modes of association. In simple terms,
Ambedkar viewed that an ideal society would be based on liberty,
equality and fraternity.10 Ambedkar favors for a democratic
tradition that stand for reason rather negating it. He felt for
hindu religious tradition need to undergo a radical reform. Caste
is a natural outcome of certain religious beliefs which have the
sanction of shastras. To abolish the sanctity and 12 | P a g e
Lokyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy
http://lokayatajournal.webs.com sacredness of caste, one has to
destroy the authority of the shastras and Vedas. For this, one has
to destroy the religion of both sruti and smriti. Ambedkar not only
proposing the indigenous tradition that stand for reason, but also
tries to link up that tradition with the governing principle of
politics. As Ambedkar is the source of inspiration for Dalit
movement and so reflected his thought in dalit literature. In the
process of writing their history, are collecting the memoirs of the
collective suffering. Dalit writer through his writings
interrogates the brahminical past, which has the character of
humiliation, atrocious for dalits.11 The suffering of the dalits
for generations is identified with the very nature of brahminical
society. The struggle for the human dignity and self respect could
be seen as in all the writings of dalit literature. Human dignity
and self respect are the primary source of modernity. The Human
dignity could be attained only through fulfilment of social and
economic equality. In democracy, citizenship is prerequisite for
its functioning. In case of dalits, it is negated due to its
casteist nature. The craving for the citizenship could be seen in
the writings of dalit literature.12 Against the monopoly of
knowledge by the brahminical class, dalits argues that Knowledge is
nobodys property; It is the wealth of all jatis. In fact, Dalits
are productive class. The real knowledge produced out of their
collective labour.13 Dalit Novel and Modernity Chilukuri Devaputras
Panchamam, Vemula Yellaiahs Kakka and G. Kalyana Raos Antarani
Vasantham are historic dalit novels of contemporary times, written
by the dalits in late nineties. The commonality of these novels is
depiction of dalit life, and argues for the liberation of dalit
community. But these novels are not only located in three different
regions ( Rayalaseema, Telangana and Coastal Andhra respectively),
and represents three different political positions. The imagination
of community and the construction of the dalit self too varies.
However, struggle against caste hegemony and assertion of dalits of
post colonial India is the common theme of these novels. These
novels inform dalit discourse of modernity. The novel Panchamam is
the story of a dalit becoming a Revenue Divisional officer (RDO)
and a victim of hegemonic social system of upper castes. The hero
of the novel Sivayya belongs to a Madiga community of a village in
the Rayalaseema, and his father is an illiterate cobbler. He is a
staunch Gandhian and later attracted towards communism, under the
influence of Suresh. Suresh, dalit youth came to the village of
Sivayya as a teacher in a school exclusively run by an NGO for
dalit children. He rebelled against the caste system by organizing
dalits against the everyday insults and humiliations by the upper
castes in public space. He quit the job in NGO, and decided to lead
the underground life by joining the Naxalite party for the cause of
dalits. At one particular moment, Sivayya too decided to go in the
line of Suresh, but dropped that idea on the advice of his well
wisher and civil rights activist Purushottam. He becomes a Deputy
Collector and posted as RDO in his own region. His sincerity
towards his duty and commitment to his community often puts him
into trouble. On one hand, the upper caste landlords are intolerant
to this dalit bureaucrat and on the other make all attempts to
bring him under their control. But he stands independent,
assertive, truthful and 13 | P a g e Lokyata: Journal of Positive
Philosophy http://lokayatajournal.webs.com always committed to
justice. He becomes a checkpoint to unlawful exercise of the power
of the upper caste, since he is not obeying for the re- convey of
ceiling land in favour of upper caste surpanch, Seetharamappa. By
using his political nexus to his upper caste community in the
government, implicate him in a corruption case. The author argues
for the real political power for the emancipation of the exploited
lives of the dalits as in the line of Ambedkar. The novel came to
the conclusion that in a system, dalit even become a big officer
like Sivayya or a deputy chief minister like Krupakararao could not
do anything, in a system which favors the upper class. This
inability is effectively used by the upper caste in their favor.14
Further, the novel conveys that there is no other world (maro
prapancham, maro prastanam, these phrases are popular with the
progressive writer, Sree Sree) or Ramarajyam (dream of Gandhi).
Dalit people has to struggle by standing the edges of the
untouchability, have to think on standing on the edges of the
exploitation, the treatment of inferiority, get the fistful of self
respect from poverty ridden life, and has to learn revolt from the
untouched helplessness.15 The upper caste writers, reformers,
nationalists or progressive, often felt the need of the education
as an ideal to resolve all the problems of the dalits. This novel
too carries with this ideal, a dalit boy believes that he can
emancipate his community through education and by reaching the
highest job. Soon he realized that it difficult to do stand with
his community even constitutionally, unless until caste and class
ridden system collapses. Dalits have to be conscious of the caste
exploitation and has to assert for the rights. In other words, the
novel reflects on the shallowness of the promised modernity in its
practice as in the case of dalits. Caste has constrained the
freedom of the dalits. So Dalits anticipating political power based
on the total freedom and liberty. Dalit modernity internalizes the
equality and so the rights through struggle. The central character
Sivayya symbolizes the dalit self, as educated, conscious,
commited, quest for the justice and even looks coward and inferior
in particular situation due to the caste system. The dalit self
travels from the Gandhian to communist, but not committed to both.
In practical life, feel suffocated, isolated, and helpless, though
successfully reached the highest position from an ordinary poor
rural dalit life. The modern secular democracy becomes farce in a
caste ridden society. It is believed that whole social system has
to be changed for real democracy. In case of dalits, it is possible
only through the collective struggle against the dominance and
exploitation of the upper caste. The author indicates indirectly
that Sivayya and Suresh are complementary to each other in marking
the dalit idenity. Kalyana Raos novel Antarani Vasantham(2000)16 is
a landmark in Dalit literary and cultural history from the Dalit
point of view. The novel recorded the collective social experiences
and struggles of Dalit community. The social memory of a community,
transmitted over generations, has been put in a written form. The
novel is a written social document of Dalit culture, which is
predominantly in oral tradition. This novel is an attempt to search
a collective identity of the Dalit community. It is the chronicle
of life of six generations of Dalits. This records a hundred years
struggle of the Dalit communities. In the context where the elite
scholars do not consider lower caste peoples struggles, culture,
philosophy, life styles and history, this novel becomes the source
book for culture, history, politics and philosophy of Dalits.
Kalyana Rao explained how the Dalit culture is born from the lower
caste peoples involvement in labor. They spontaneously and
naturally composed the songs 14 | P a g e Lokyata: Journal of
Positive Philosophy http://lokayatajournal.webs.com from their
life. Apart from the value of entertainment, the Dalits used
cultural performance symbolically as a social protest against the
dominance of hegemony of upper caste social groups. It explains
Dalit struggles in various forms in a given social conditions. The
novel depicts not only the sufferings of Dalits but also joyful
moments in their life. This novel is an attempt towards writing
history, philosophy, politics and culture of Dalits in a
comprehensive form. In Antarani Vasantham, constraints to freedom
of Dalits, comes from an enemy who is an upper caste. The idea of
freedom itself indicates for Kalyana Rao, a perpetual flow of
resistance by Dalit community to an upper caste community. Dalit
community has been described as a focal point of creativity,
resistance to oppression and a character of purity. This is
effectively indicated through central character Yellanna who
eloquently represents a creative, upright and assertive individual.
This is one way of expressing dalit freedom or a mode of being
dalit. One of the characters, in difficult times of community life
says, we have born just not to be killed but to live too.17
Antaraani Vasantam is a story of seven generations of dalits. More
than that, it is a struggle of dalits at different points of time.
In this novel the lead character named Ruthu is a writer. The novel
runs with the recollection of her memories. The story of dalits
narrated for the period of more than hundred years in the form of
women's memories. Her memories go back to four generations before
and two generations after her. The memories are loaded with
suffering, pain, agony, anguish and struggle. This is the case with
every dalit life. Precisely because of this, author hints that
memories are of not the past but they have their continuity in
present and also projected into future. This novel is a significant
piece of dalit literature to trace back the dalit struggles to
generations. The novel focused on a point that dalits have no
freedom without struggle. History reveals for dalits, struggle is
not an idea, but a necessity for the survival of dalits. This has
been illustrated by considering different historical contexts, with
different strategies employed by the dalit. The constraint to
freedom of the dalits comes from an enemy who is an upper caste.
The novel projects the dalit universe that is filled with both
pleasure and pain. Generally, in the upper caste writings, dalit is
a subject of misery and suffering. The writers strategy is to
generate sympathy towards dalit condition. On contrary to this,
Kalyana rao depicts the dalit self as assertive and resists any
kind of dominance and exploitation. This Dalit self directly set
against the caste hegemony. The author tried to show that dalit
subjectivity is authenticated and had a moral worth since their
involvement in a labour and production process. The dalit culture
has lived through the collective social experiences and continued
to the present through oral form. This has been performed through
social memory.18 The novel proves that life, struggle, culture,
literature, philosophy and politics are not different for dalits.
Moreover, this novel constructs the history of dalits, which is not
available either in official history or in achieves. Kakka is the
novel about the Madiga community of Telangana region. In the
history of Telugu literature this novel has multifold significance.
This is the first novel on Madiga community as such by a Madiga
writer Vemula Yellaiah. At his 40s Yellaiah started writing dalit
poetry in late the 1990s. The author's quest to capture dalit life
as a whole he opted the form of novel as a medium of expression.
This piece has been written in the backdrop of Madiga Dandora
movement. This novel projects madigaisation (dalitisation) as an
alternative to the predominant upper-caste ideology. It also opens
up the internal contradictions and violence within the community.
The other striking feature is that the whole story runs 15 | P a g
e Lokyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy
http://lokayatajournal.webs.com in Telangana dalit dialect. So far
the dominant dialect of costal Andhra has been used in writing of
novels. This novel came from the place where revolutionary
struggles are prominently took place. The writer seems to be
uncompromising with radical dalit identity and indirectly
criticizes the prevailing left culture and tries to critically read
the left tradition. This novel ends up with conscious educated
dalits along with civil-rights groups together fighting for the
cause of dalit struggles of village. On the other hand the idea of
being dalit in Kakka is different. It identifies that constraint to
freedom to dalits is not just from an outsider but also from the
very community. The central character kakka faces too many
hardships from within community as well as outsiders. For instance,
the mother of kakka was accused of an illicit relation and was
subjected to social boycott by the community. Kakka was denied an
opportunity to take up the duty to perform madigarikam (caste
profession) that is considered a honour in the community. Thus the
constraint within the community has projects a different community
and a different kind of self- awareness. And of course, he has to
fight a valiant battle against the other communities, which has
traditionally been dominant in the village. It is also shown that
in times of struggle against upper castes, dalits came together and
fought valiantly. These three novels are significant because they
involve a deep exploration into dalit culture. They tried to bring
out various positive aspects of dalit culture to the fore.
Antaraani Vasantam has celebrated rich and vibrant cultural
traditions of dalit community by going to origins. The novel Kakka
could effectively brought out some of the inhuman social practices
of dalit communities, which may be helpful in reforming of them.
Thus a deep exploration of dalit life through novel may result in
strengthening of dalit cultural identity. There is a scope to come
up with much more serious dalit novel in future by touching all
aspects of dalit life. The novel Panchamam shows the limitation of
liberal modernity adopted by the constitution of the nation, and
felt that it failed to protect the aspirations of educated dalits
in practice. The novel goes back to the Dalit tradition of
madigarikam. It is another kind of protest to assert the Dalit
identity against the dominance of the upper caste. The novel
Antarani Vasantham constructs the Dalit identity only through
rebellion against the caste and class dominance. The above
mentioned writings reveals that the dalit writers have definite
image of moral order through which they understand dalit life and
history. The dalit modernity proposed by the dalit writers is based
on a social imaginary, which is obviously different from the both
colonial and dominant modernity of the Indian nation. The
understanding of a person, dalit selfhood and morality are shaping
the modern identity of dalits through their narratives. Morality
has to be articulated through the respect for others, dignity,
integrity, well being and common good. The moral world of dalit
writer has not just emerged out of the ideas of sense of respect
for human agency but also from the fuller understanding of life.
Dalit self can be described or evaluated only with reference to the
upper caste people who are surrounded him. In assessing dalit
identity, one has to look into from where he is speaking and to
whom. In defining identity, ones moral concern of a subject is not
enough, and also demands a reference to the community. Our being
selves are essentially linked to our sense of the good, and that we
achieve selfhood among other selves. We understand ourselves
inescapably in narrative. There is a close connection between the
different conditions of identity, or 16 | P a g e Lokyata: Journal
of Positive Philosophy http://lokayatajournal.webs.com of ones life
making sense. The qualitative distinctions play a crucial role in
defining our identity and making sense of our lives in narrative.
The qualitative distinctions give the reasons for our moral and
ethical beliefs. The modern sense of the Dalit self not only linked
to and made possible by new understandings of good but also are
accompanied by new forms of narrativity and new understandings of
social bonds and relations. Conclusion Modernity has connoted with
many meanings such as value, rationality, western, colonialism,
development, capitalism, secularism humanism and so on. Dalit
relation to modernity is complex and even ambiguous. Dalit
modernity has to be understood in the context of Dalit liberation
from humiliating, exploitative, oppressive brahminical tradition.
Dalit modernity centred on the value of human dignity and self
respect. In persuasion of this, it interrogates the irrational,
unjust and dogmatic practices of hindu social order on the basis of
scientific reason. And at the same time tried to assert its own
self, upholds its indigenous tradition by claiming the elements of
humane democratic practices. Dalit modernity overcomes the
tradition modernity dichotomy that has been set in the interests of
the Western. In India, the fruits of modernity is enjoyed and
monopolized by the brahminical class in the material level, and at
the same time maintained intact with their traditions in spiritual
/ religious level. This has been continued from colonial to post
colonial times. Dalits are systematically excluded in this project.
Dalits as the victims of the project of development/ progress, of
post independent India, are negotiating with larger nation from its
fringes. The modernity appropriated by dalits is rights centred and
argued in favor of democratization of indigenous tradition. They
are negotiating with the ideals of modernity to overcome the social
exclusion, exploitation, suffering and humiliation imposed by hindu
tradition. The Dalit modernity has very much mediates the liberal,
radical and communitarian philosophies in its own way, both by
associating and differentiating from these political traditions on
different points. It is a critique of Indian modernity essentially
carried by liberal Brahmin elite. The dalit modernity proposed by
the dalit writers is based on a social imaginary, which is
obviously different from the both colonial and dominant modernity
of the Indian nation. The social imaginary in Dalit intellectuals
ignites the sense of identity to recapture their own history, which
is marginalized so far. Notes & References: 1. Prasad,
Kalekuri. (1995). Pidekedu Atmagouravam Kosam Talettinavadni Am
Raised for a Fistful of Self-respect) (Translation Lakshminarasiah)
In Kesava Kumar and K. Satyanarayana (Eds.), Dalit Manifesto.
Hyderabad: Vishphotana, 20 2. Gowrisankar, Juluri.(1994).
Padamudralu. Tenali: Poetry circle. 3. Sivasagar, a dalit writer
marking the assertion of dalits in writing their own history
against the brahminical history centred around advaita of Sankara.
See Sivasagar. Nadustunna Charitra (Tr. Laxminasaiah)
G.Laxminarasaiah, The Essence of Dalit poetry; A socio- philosophic
study of telugu Dalit poetry, Hyderabad: Dalit Sana publications,
34. And also see Sivasagar (2004).Sivasgar Kavitvam, Hyderabad:
Bahujana Book syndicate, 263. 4. Chatterjee, Partha.(1999).Talking
about our modernity in two languages, A Possible India, The Partha
Chatterjee Omnibus, Delhi: Oxford University Press, 280. 5. Kesava
Kumar .P., Jiddu Krishna Murtis Conception of Tradition and
Revolution : A Critical Study. (Doctoral dissertation , University
of Hyderabad, 1997), 232. 17 | P a g e Lokyata: Journal of Positive
Philosophy http://lokayatajournal.webs.com 6. Alam, Javeed. (1999).
India: Living with Modernity, New Delhi: Oxford University Press,
4. 7. Vemana and Veerabrahmam are non Brahmin philosopher saints
and yogis of pre modern times and confronted the brahminical
Hinduism. 8. Satyanarayana. A.(2005). Dalit Protest literature in
Telugu : A historical Perspective, Dalits and upper Caste, Esays in
Social History , New Delhi: Kanishka Publishers, 81-82. 9. See
Sivasagar. (2004).Sivasgar Kavitvam, Hyderabad: Bahujana Book
syndicate, 263. 10. Ambedkar, B.R. (1989).(Moon, Vasant.
(Comp.)).Dr. Baba Saheb Ambedkar Writings and Speeches, Vol.1, 57.
11. Yendluri Sudhakar in his poem : I am still a prohibited human
being/Mine is an expelled breath/ Trying a barb tree leaf to my
aist/And a tiny spittoon to my mouth/Manu made me a wretched human
animal among others/The moment he left a mark of prohibition on my
face/My race/Was gradually murdered history pinched my
thumb/Present history is asking all the fingers/Now we want a voice
of our own/We want a voice that can choose what can do good to
ourselves. 12. In this Country we want a piece of land/These clouds
has to be vanished/These walls must be collapsed/This silence/ must
be bursted / this gum/ must be dried up/ O man/ I want real
citizenship /Could you give me! ..what do I want/I want you/ I want
a place/ In your heart/ I must wash my hands/ at your home/you must
come to my hut/ and ask our girl for marriage/we must become
/relatives/friend! This country/must become ours/as we walk hand in
hand/this uneven earth/must become smooth/will you come? What we
want now is not bloody cash/ A fearless voice that discerns what we
want/ A new constitution, a new state/A new earth and a new sky.
See Nagesh Babu, Madduri.(1998). Yem kavali, Meerevultu
(tr.Laxminarasaiah), Narasaraopet: Sreeja Publications, 74. 13.
When hands/ From over the Mala hamlets/ and Madiga huts / Throw
themselves on the fields/Banks of the fields blossomed/Trees
flowered/And fields fragrant with crops. See Gowri Shankar, Juluri.
Padamudralu. (Tr. Laxminarasaiah) In Kesava Kumar and
K.Satyanarayana (Eds.) (1995).Dalit Manifesto, Hyderabad:
Vishphotana, 35-36. 14. Devaputra, Chilukuri.( 2000).Panchamam,
Hyderabad: Lifeline Communication, 262. 15. Ibid., 272. 16. Kalyana
Rao, G.( 2000).Antarani Vasantham(Untouchable Spring), Hyderabad:
Virasam. 17. Kesava Kumar, P. (2005). Emergence of Dalit Novel : An
overview, In I.Thirumali (Ed.) South India Culture, Sagas, New
Delhi:Biblimatrix. 18. Kesava Kumar, P. (2005).Performance of
Social Memory, In Contextualization of Vikalp, Alternatives August.
http://www.vakindia.org/archives/Vikalp-Aug2005.pdf 18 | P a g e
Lokyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy
http://lokayatajournal.webs.com INFLUENCE OF SPANDASASTRA ON
ABHINAVAGUPTAS PHILOSOPHY Nirmala.V. Kashmir Saivism in its most
recognized sense denotes the monistic philosophy originated and
developed in Kashmir-the northern part of India. The system itself
is a later development of the Siva-centered religious cult which
comes under the realm of enormous Tantric tradition. Many branches
and sub- systems were commenced within the wide area of Tantric
Saiva Philosophy. Among the streams of Kashmir Saivism, Spanda- the
doctrine which expounds the dynamic nature of reality- has a
significant role. Since it trails an independent nature, most of
the scholars considered Spandasastra as a separate branch1 of Saiva
philosophy. Spandakarika is the fundamental treatise of this
particular school and is generally attributed to Vasugupta. The
four commentaries viz., vrtti by Kallata; vivrti by Ramakantha;
spandapradipika by Bhttotpala; spandasandoha and spandanirnaya by
Ksemaraja made the theory of spanda more popular and established.
In the workshop on Trika Philosophy, 2011, Dr Navjivan Rastogis
comment on spanda could be viewed as an extended version of his
anxiety expressed in his Introduction to Tantraloka in 1987.2This
depiction indicates that the very topic is discussed hardly yet.
Though the mutual relationship between different streams of the
same area is uncommon, the influence of Spandasastra in the later
developments of Kashmir Saivism should be treated seriously and
this paper focuses especially in its influences on Abhinavagupta,
the eleventh century synthesizer of the monistic Saiva philosophy.
Abhinavaguptas inevitable contributions were the milestones in the
history of Kashmir Saiva philosophy. His foremost uniqueness is the
thorough and deep knowledge in different streams simultaneously
with which he produced such an irreplaceable work- Tantraloka,
which actually is a source book of the new insights in Indian
philosophy and the history of Kashmir. Apart from this magnum opus
Abhinavagupta propounded his novel ideas through the commentaries
of post- scriptural saivite sources as well as various independent
works. Like other thought systems3, spanda theory also contributed
much to the development of his new amalgamated philosophy. Although
Abhinava never wrote a commentary on spanda and he nevertheless
used to develop this concept. In particular situations, Abhinava
used to define the term Spanda based upon its technical nature. For
eg, in Tantraloka the term is defined as: This is a slight
movement, sphurana, scintillating, not dependent on any other. It
is a wave in the ocean of consciousness and consciousness cannot be
without waves.4 While in Paratrisikavivarana, he frequently uses
the notion as well as the idea of spanda. According to the monistic
saivism, whole universe is the manifestation of the supreme realty
and habitually this is used to define as the creative power which
situates in the same, omnipotent reality, Siva. So the universal
nature of everything is clear from this. To establish the same,
Abhinavagupta seeks the help of spanda theory: All this universe
consisting of 36 categories, though created by Siva who being of
supreme Sakti, is of the nature of universal creative pulsation (
Lokyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy (ISSN: 2249-8389) Volume
III, No. 01(March, 2013), pp.18-20 19 | P a g e Lokyata: Journal of
Positive Philosophy http://lokayatajournal.webs.com samanya spanda)
rests in that consciousness itself in its own form which is
predominantly sakti, ie., characterized by particular creative
pulsation (visesa spanda).5 The same thing is discussed in the
interpretation of Isvarapratyabhijnakarika 1-14 where spanda is
identified with the imperceptible eternal stir- sphuratta, being
the essence of all beyond the limitations of time and space.6
Cognition has an important role in the philosophy of saivite
monism. In the system the cogniser, the cognized and the cognition
are same as well as supreme reality ie. Siva. As the process of
creation, realization also related with the dynamic force which
known through various terms and basically with the nature of
spanda. Abhinava technically call this as Vimarsa and find
similarities with spanda. Bettina Baumer says that: If we deny
self-shining nature to subject, there remains no room for question
and answer. In the cognitive experience such as I Know there is
consciousness (not only of self-luminous self but) of association
with a stir (spanda) also. It is self because of this stir that
self is admitted to be of sentient nature7 The creativity and
cognition in case of poetry is also considered as spanda .
Discussing the crux of a text in its very opening part is the
uniqueness of Abhinavaguptas style of interpretation. Almost such
discussions also reflect the essence of his philosophical outlook.
In Vimarsini, the commentary of Isvarapratyabhijnakarika, Siva (who
is omnipotent as well as omniscient) is prayed who in the form of I
consciousness, changes himself to the consciousness of this with
the help of an external pulsation connoted as spandana:
anantabhavasambhavabhasane spandanam param/ upodghatayate yasya tam
stumah sarvada sivam//8 The notion of Svasvabhava is another term
which is very common in spanda texts and to be connected with
Abhinavas principle of Ahambhava. Apart from the usage of technical
terms, sometimes he compares the idea of Visarga of kula tradition
with spanda and makes his Agamic exegesis easier9. In sum,
Abhinavaagupta manipulate the theory of Spanda in different manners
though he admirably avoided the question about the independent
nature of Spandasastra. Conversely he tries to incorporate this
concept within his highly philosophical school of Kashmir Saivim-
Trika. The causes of this predilection may be viewed as: The lack
of establishment of spandasastra, as a cult like krama or kula.
Abhinavagupta was not ready to consider spanda doctrine- explicated
very recently- as a well-organized philosophy, and since the
concept basically encompasses some openings, it couldnt be denied
completely. NOTES: 1. Spanda is considered as an individual system
by some scholars while others make an utterly distinct opinion
about its separate existence. 2..There was an acute controversy
with regard to the exact status of spanda system i.e., whether it
was a separate system or a part of Trika system. 20 | P a g e
Lokyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy
http://lokayatajournal.webs.com 3. Rastogi says, His references to
some Naiyayikas (Kesamcana Naiyayikanam T.A. 2.12-44), Vairinca
Brahmavadins (T.A.V., III, p. 25), Nastika philosophers subscribing
to the negation of soul and not to the denial of the authority of
the Veda (T.A. 6.19-20) invite us to explore this unexplored area.
Similarly his presentation of the Kaumarila view on Vedyata and its
lengthy masterly refutation (T.A. 10.21-57) adds new dimensions to
our understanding of Kumarila. Abhinava's presentation of Siddhanta
Saivism in the 4th Ahnika in contrast to the sister systemsopens a
new vista of information throwing new light on the evolution of the
dualistic Saivism in Kashmir. He is an invaluable source of
information on Buddhism. He practically refers to all sects of
Buddhism so much so that he remains the only source of many
exclusive theories of Buddhists. 4. Tantraloka 4.184-186. See
Samanya and Visesa spandas in Mark Dyckscowski, The Doctrine of
Vibration, p.107-109. 5. Isvarapratyabhijnakarika, 1-2. 6. Bettina
Baumer, Abhinavaguptas hermeneutics of the Absolute, p. 87. 7.
ibid, p. 17. 8. Bhaskari vol.1, p.47 9. See Jaideva Singh,
Abhinavagupta- The trident of wisdom, p.37. REFERENCES: Dyczkowski,
Mark S.G.(1989). The Doctrine of Vibration: An Analysis of the
Doctrines and Practices of Kashmir Saivism. Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidass. Baumer, Bettina. (2011). Abhinavagupta's Hermeneutics
of the Absolute Anuttaraprakriya. New Delhi: D K Print world.
Dyczkowski, Mark S.G. (1994). The Stanzas on Vibration. Varanasi:
Dilip Kumar Publishers. Padoux, Andre. (1992). Vac: The Concept of
Word in Selected Hindu Tantras. Delhi: Sri Sadguru publications.
Pandey, K.C. (2006). Abhinavagupta: An Historical and Philosophical
Study. Varanasi: Chowkhamba Amarabharati. Raffaele, Torella. (Ed.)
(2002). Isvarapratyabhijnakarika. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
Rastogi, Navjivan.(1987). Introduction to The Tantraloka. Delhi:
Motilal Banarsidass. Singh, Jaideva (Ed.) (1988).
Paratrisikavivarana of Abhinavagupta. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
Spandakarika of Vasugupta with Nirnaya by Ksemaraja. KSTS XLIX .
Srinagar. 1925. Tantraloka of Abhinavagupta with the commentary
Viveka of Rajanaka Jayaratha. KSTS
23,28,30,35,29,41,47,59,52,57,58, Bombay and Srinagar, 1918-1938.
21 | P a g e Lokyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy
http://lokayatajournal.webs.com Philosophy of Language in Siddhnta
aiva Philosophy Shruti Rai ABSTRACT Philosophy of language is the
centripetal in the schools of Tantra. In the realm of tantric
schools, the non-dualistic philosophy- Kashmir aiva and kta
philosophical branches examine the concept of vk and establishes
the identical relation between language, thought and reality. At
the same time, Dualistic philosophy of Siddhanta aiva explains the
doctrine of language with dualistic approach. In this context,
bindu is one of the key concepts of this school in the context of
philosophy of language also. The ontological aspect of bindu is the
main problem of the thesis. This research article is an attempt to
examine the philosophy of language from the Siddhnta aiva
philosophy, the dualistic branch of Tantra tradition. Key words-
Bindu, pati, pau, nda, my and pa. Philosophy of language is the
centripetal in the schools of Tantra, either non-dualistic or
dualistic. In the realm of non-dualistic philosophy of Tantra,
Kashmir aiva and kta philosophical branches examine the concept of
vk and establishes the identical relation between language, thought
and reality. Dualistic philosophy explains the doctrine of language
in a quite different way. Bindu is one of the key concepts of this
school in general and in the context of philosophy of language
also. It is the source for the descending levels of sound, which
are related to the nda, tattvas, padrtha and so on. Francesco
Sferra throws light into some important observations about the
development of principle of language- The differences we find in
gamas and in early aivasiddhnta literature regarding the status of
words/sound and its differentiation in levels, undoubtedly reflect
those extant in other Indian traditions and, to some extent, reveal
a desire and an effort to test and develop the aivasiddhnta in the
arena of the dialectical debate with other traditions. With regard
to speculation on vc, rikaha addresses his critique implicitly to
Bharthari (c.450-510) and/or his followers and explicitly to
advaita thinkers, while Rmakaha and Aghoraiva, especially in the
Ndakrik and its commentary, also confront their ideas with those of
the mmmsakas and the naiyyikas.1 The literature of Siddhanta Saiva
provides the rich material for the philosophy of language. In the
continuation, the article provides translation of unpublished
commentary Ullekhini of Ratnatrayapark. There are argumentative
concepts which are parallel to the philosophy of language of
Bhartrhari. Lokyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy (ISSN:
2249-8389) Volume III, No. 01 (March, 2013), pp.21-28 22 | P a g e
Lokyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy
http://lokayatajournal.webs.com The concept of bindu is crucial in
the context of the most of the theories in this school. Different
connotations of bindu are the attestation of its variation for
different conceptions in this philosophy. It is called 1. sabda
tattva, 2. amogha vk, 3. brahma, 4. kundalini, 5. vidy, 6. sakti,
7. para nda, 8. mahmy, 9. anhatavyoma. In the context of creation,
it is the material cause of the world as well as it is the cause of
the impurity. The school stands for three primary categories, pati,
pau and pa, where language is presented in the form of bindu and
becomes the chain or thread between the pati and pau to connect
them. Whereas bindu as concept is used under the realm of par vk in
the Kashmir aiva and kta philosophy, contrarily, bindu is an
independent category in Siddhnta aiva. The first primary category
iva (Paramasiva)2 is addressed as para bindu. The third category pa
binds the soul and is responsible for the distinction of pau from
pati. Its fifth and the last category is bindu. Francesco Sferra
indicates towards the references and sources, related to bindu and
levels of sounds in aiva-Siddhnta in this way: References to
different levels of sound (nda) or of word (vc) appear in several
early aivasiddhnta scriptures, commentaries and independent works.
The argument is usually treated when dealing with principles
(tattva) or categories (padrtha) in particular bindu, or mahmy, and
while explaining the nature and formation of mantras. Scriptural
sources differ to various degrees in their accounts. Apart from the
context and from the coverage that each work devotes to this topic,
the main difference between texts lies in the name and the numbers
of the levels of sound and, in general, the way in which the sonic
emanation is described.3 The tattvas are significant to the
philosophy of language. Numbers of tattvas are thirty-six4, which
emerges at two levels of uddha and auddha adhv. It is the level of
indeterminate and determinate. These are the stages of creation,
not forms of language. Bindu is the material cause of the uddha
adhv i.e. pure world. It is also cause of the nda. In relation to
nda, bindu is called para nda5. The theory of nda, as elaborated by
Rmakaha, can be seen as the result of an attempt to assimilate the
sphoa theory according to aivasiddhntin tenets. Anyway, suddhdhv6
is the direct creation of iva. The material cause is bindu. Bindu
is the source wherefrom tattvas are emerging. Here, vidy evolves
out of bindu, through the successive stages of modification such as
nda etc. Language stays here but not in emerged form, this is the
reason that it is called indeterminate. Indeterminate word shows
the existence of language in essence, not as developed form. The
pure creation is characterized by indeterminacy, because it belongs
to a higher level than that at which language evolves. And because
determinacy consists in the affection of citi by the words i.e. so
long as the affection of consciousness is not associated with the
words, there is no determinacy. Therefore, the pure creation
belongs to the level of indeterminacy. Here, the affection of
consciousness by language is not possible. Bindu as the first
dependent category is called iva. The word iva, however, is very
often used for the first primary category, pati, also. Bindu or
iva, the first dependent category, is the material cause of the
pure creation and as such it is also called mahmy. It is eternal
like my. The four categories (tattva) akti, sadiva, vara and vidy7
are the effects or evolutes of it. It pervades the entire creation,
it is one. It reveals the powers of knowledge and action to those
who enter into the pure world by subjecting themselves to spiritual
discipline. The sphere of uddha adhv is unlimited. Indeterminacy
shows again pati as limitless, extremely subtle as determinate
language always indicates limitedness. Impure world is the realm of
material world. Its 23 | P a g e Lokyata: Journal of Positive
Philosophy http://lokayatajournal.webs.com material cause is my and
also herein the bound live. It is characterized by determinacy,
because it evolves after the evolution of language Pa is defined by
its fivefold categories and bindu is the fifth of the categories of
in this way- 1. mala, 2. rodhaakti, 3. karma, 4. my, 5. bindu. But
a dispute arises regarding the categorization of pa, ordinarily, it
is said fivefold and at times it is said fourfold8 by excluding
bindu. There is a lack of definiteness, precision and uniformity in
all the statements about pa. But at some places bindu is not
included and the number is stated to be four. And the reason for
its non-inclusion is of the two types of liberation, which is said
mukti (liberation), which is para and apara.- 1. Para, higher 2.
apara, lower. The latter is attended, even when there is the
bondage of bindu. And the liberated souls with this bondage are
called mantra and the mantrea etc., who belong to the pure
creation. Even after a soul has got freedom from the bondages of
karma and my, it is not perfectly free. It has freedom of the lower
type only. The impurity of mala, which is also called pautvamala,
is still here. The souls, who get freedom from the bondages of my
and karma, are called vijnkevalas, live in them. Such souls are of
three types9, according to the higher stages of maturity of their
pautvamala. They are called, Mantramahea, Mantrea, Mantra. Ndakrik
throws questions and possible solutions for arising of meaning in
the words and sentences. K.C. Pandey elaborates three possible
solutions- 1. The letters of a word, which are the objects of sense
of hearing, come in succession one after another, are lost no
sooner than they are uttered and do not affect one another. They
therefore cannot be spoken of as the cause of the rise of the
consciousness of meaning. 2. Nor can word or sentence be said to be
the cause. For the words and sentences have no being apart from the
letters, such as may be the object of perception. 3. For a word is
said to be a collection of letters. But the letters being
successive and momentary, there can never be a collection of them.
And because word and sentence are never perceived, they cannot,
therefore be known through inference either10. Nor can the rise of
the consciousness of meaning be said to be due to the last letter
of a word11. aiva Siddhnta philosophy accepts nda as basic element
for the theory of meaning. An external object, which is grasped by
the determinative judgment, is related to the buddhi, but, is not
the product of the buddhi itself. On the contrary it has external
existence and as such is perceived through one of the senses. The
internal object, which is the reflection of an external object on
buddhi, is determinately judged by the buddhi. Therefore, it must
be something that has already been indeterminately grasped. The
object has two aspects- 1. External 24 | P a g e Lokyata: Journal
of Positive Philosophy http://lokayatajournal.webs.com 2. Internal
Word has direct relationship with the internal meaning, which is
also determinative. Here, object or meaning has two aspects- 1.
Indeterminate 2. determinate But word has capacity to grasp only
determinative aspect of object. The process of getting meaning
passes from the indeterminate to determinate. Nda12 gives the
subtle inner word to buddhi, by means of which it determinately
grasps the object, reflected it in. The nda is the cause of inner
speech, which is nothing more than akara bindu. Nda really arouses
the consciousness of meaning because it is the cause of inner
speech, in terms of which the determinative judgment is formed. The
external articulated sounds are only external forms of it.
Therefore they are not real causes of rising of the consciousness
of meaning in the hearer. Thus, nda is an undifferentiated cause of
the subtle inner speech. It is nothing but an embodiment of all the
words and their meanings. All of which exists in the state of
undifferentiated unity, exactly as the different colors exists in
the yolk of peacocks egg. After the affection of a sense by an
external object, nda that is in the speaker and objects that is
undifferentiated unity of the word and its meaning, presents for
the determinative judgment of the buddhi in the form of inner
speech. The buddhi judges. The judgment is expressed in articulated
audible sounds. They manifest the nda in the hearer. It presents an
object which is undifferentiated unity of subtle word and the
indeterminate object to buddhi. Buddhi judges in as far as, it
differentiates between the two, and relates them as signifier and
signified. This arouses the consciousness of meaning. This judgment
is expressed in articulated sounds. Similarly at the stimulation of
the sense of hearing by an uttered word, the corresponding word and
its meaning as an undifferentiated unity is given rise by the nda.
This forms the object of judgment by buddhi and the consciousness
of definite meaning as distinct from the word arises. Speaker
determinately apprehends objects by means of buddhi13, recollects
the word that stands for it and then utters the gross word. Thus, a
form of buddhi which is due to its affection by an object is
associated with the remembered word that stands for it. It is the
cause of the utterance of the gross word. It is arouser of the
meaning in the consciousness of that hearer, in whose mind the
heard word is associated with the particular meaning. The dualistic
aiva holds the soul to be different from the nda. It is because of
this nda, that is the cause of aksara bindu, that there is no
confusion in the meaning. It is separate in the case of each
individual. It is not identical with the self or its powers,
because they are unchanging, but the nda changes. It is a distinct
associate of each limited self. Dualistic aiva asserts that the one
who grasps the statement of the gama thoroughly, realizes
abdabrahman. abdabrahman is nothing more than nda, an embodiment of
all words and their meanings in an undifferentiated unity. There
are innumerable ndas, as innumerable are the souls. Nda is the
necessary condition of each soul. Theory of nda-brahmanvda develops
the philosophy of music. Siddhntin holds nda to be reality, which
is to be grasped through the medium of music. It is the original
motion. It is the unity of all thoughts and expressions. It is the
root or the seed, from which all words and meanings spring or to
put it in terms of music, it is the original vibration from 25 | P
a g e Lokyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy
http://lokayatajournal.webs.com which all musical vibrations and
their meanings arise from. Nda is the original vibration that the
art of music represents and suggests. Dualistic Siddhnta-aiva
philosophy keeps some different notion in the context of the
relation between the individual-self and the empirical knowledge.
K.C Pandey explains epistemology of the same school through the
comparing with dualistic Nyya-Vaiesika14. Accordingly, the relation
cannot be admitted to be that of inherence, since knowledge of the
same individual grows and decays. The admission of the relation of
inherence between knowledge and soul, as admitted by the Vaiesika,
therefore, would mean that soul changes and therefore is transient.
This is against the fundamental assumption of the eternality of the
soul. Siddhnta aiva dualism therefore maintains that the growing
and decaying empirical knowledge of the individual subject belong
to him, not directly or inherently, but to a condition of his and
that this condition is constituted by nda15. Nda, as a condition of
the individual, is an evolution of bindu. It is as innumerable as
are the souls, a limiting condition of each of which it forms
separately. It is like a seed of knowledge which is signified by
words at the empirical level. The power of knowledge of each
individual self is related to the nda and as it grasps the objects
determinately at the level of my. The determinate knowledge cannot
be explained in terms of buddhi, because determinacy is found in
those levels, which are beyond to my also. Ananta for instance,
belongs to the level of ivara, but he also has a kind of
determinate knowledge, otherwise the creation of the empirical
world would not be possible. Further, buddhi employs words and
presupposes their existence. Bindu, as the cause of the words,
through nda and lower bindu is necessary. Siddhnta aiva accepts the
same hierarchical four levels which are accepted in the Kashmir
aiva philosophy also. rikantha deals with the different stages of
separation of meaning and expression from the stage of their
undifferentiated unity in nda, under the nda, aksara-bindu and
vara. Similarly, he deals with the problem of the rise of gross
audible word from the most subtle, through different stages of
grossification, under suksm, payant, madhyam and vaikhar. Francesco
comments on the theoretical development of these levels-
Commentarial tradition from rikantha (9th -10th cent.?) to
Nryaakaha (first half of the 10th cent.), his son Rmakantha (c.
950-1000) and later, Aghoraiva (12th cent.), attempts to
systematize the doctrine on the emanation of sound in accordance
with the aivasiddhnta explanation of principles, and by fixing four
levels of it. The standard series is bindu/kundalini=>
nda=>bindu=>abdari/ara, however, as far as we can say at that
moment, this does not correspond perfectly to any of the lists
given in the scriptures.16 The levels are significant in the
context of manifestation of language. Bindu, nda, bindu, sabdars
are showing the systematic order of the appearance of language. In
the terminology of rikantha, sksm is the highest. He identifies par
as suksm, with nda17. Sksm stands for highest aspect of speech that
is distinct from the higher than payant. Francesco notices this
theoretical development, in his words- Especially rikantha and
later masters of the 14th century-adopt another series, the one
starting with 26 | P a g e Lokyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy
http://lokayatajournal.webs.com suksm and ending with vaikhar,
referred to above. This series was probably already widespread in
advaita circles of time. Since all the aivasiddhnta authors that
make use of it, whether they adopt it or simply mention it, refers
to its wrong interpretation in an advaita perspective, equating the
higher level with Consciousness. In point of fact this series is
the most frequently used in Pratyabhijkrik (1.5.13) by Utpaladeva
(c.925-975), where we usually find par instead of sksm.18 As it has
been already said that the schools of Tantra use same nomenclatures
in general, the term sksam is one of them. The term sksam is used
in both the schools of Kashmir aiva and Siddhanta-Saiva, which
comes at the level of par in Kashmir aiva philosophy. Bhartrhari
identifies suksm with payant, holding that the word suksm does not
stand for an aspect of speech, higher than payant, but it is simply
an adjunct, qualifying payant. Payant is identified with
aksara-bindu19. It is exactly what nda is according to the
Srikanha. According to Bhartrhari, it is sentiency itself
(samvidrupa) while rikantha says it as insentient, because it is an
evolution of mahmy. Further, rikantha identifies payant with
aksara-bindu. His conception of payant is fundamentally different.
It is unity not of all words and meaning but of a particular word
and its meaning. And the word also at this stage is not split up
into letters. It is therefore marked by the absence of all duality
and succession. It is what is manifested by nda, in consequence of
affection of a sense by an object. It is responsible for the sound
picture of a particular word, detailed into distinct letters, which
controls the movement of vital air to definite places of
articulation, the speech-organs. It is the cause of madhyam.
Payant, that is identical with nda, is the first evolution of bindu
or mahmy. It is insentient because the principle of sentiency, pau,
is a distinct and separate entity from it. Bhartrhari holds that
the realization of payant is the realization of the ultimate,
because payant is the Brahman. But rikantha holds that the
realization of distinction of suksm from purusa frees a man from
subjection to limited experiences. Madhyam is nothing but a clear
mental picture of the successive letters, which constitute the
word. It is prior to the activity of the vital air, which is the
cause of the gross audible word. Similarly vaikhar, the gross
audible word, is due to vital air, which being checked at different
places of articulation and then let off, produces the word, which
is audible. Siddhnta aiva philosophy presents the concept of
language with dual approach. Here, Language is structured in the
form of bindu. It is the cause of the bondage and of the freedom
from pa. Thus, at the one side, it is the central part of the
ontology, cosmology and liberation, at the other side it becomes
cause to represent the world and bind with the language and
thought. References: 1. Sferra, Francesco, Material for the study
of the levels of sounds in the Sanskrit sources of the aivasiddhnta
in Tantric Studies in Memory of Helene Brunner, p. 447. 2. Tattva
Praksik, 26: Evambhtamupdnrpam mahmykhyam ivatat