Log book final submission

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By Dillon Grech 699089

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Con

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sTheory and its Applications

Tension Forces and Compression ForcesLoad Paths and Basic JointsStructual ElementsDetail Columns/beams and CantileversFootings and WallsRoofing and DetailingLateral Supports

Knowledge MapsSystemsConstruction system and Roofing

Weekly TasksWeek oneWeek twoWeek threeConstruction workshopWeek fiveWeek eightWeek nineWeek ten

GlossaryReferencing

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Compression ForcesThis occurs when an external load pushes the partials of the structure together. This courses the structure to shorten in height, with its struc-ture parralal to the force, bends away from the applied force. This commonly occurs due to gravity when a member is circum to loads above, transmitting loads below it. There is an equal force pushing up on the member due to equal and opposite reaction forces.

Tension ForcesThis occurs when an external load pulls the partials of the structure. This courses the structure to stretch and elongate. Depending on the stiffness, cross-sectional area and magnitude of the load, will de-termine how much the structure stretches.

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Load PathsOnce a load is placed on a structure, the load path is the direction in which the mass will pass through the con-necting members of the structural sys-tem to the ground. It does so from the highest point, working down the sys-tem to the footing system in the short-est distance possible. The total load is transferred of this load is transferred to the foundation of the system. Also, the footing provides and equal and op-posite force to the system (newtons 3rd law), making the structure stable.

Roller JointThis joint allows for 0 force to be transmitted along one horizontal di-rection.

Pin JointThis joint allows rotation, where forc-es are transmitted but no torque.

Fix JointThis joint allows no flexibility within the joint. This allows the transmission of both forces and torques, and no movement.

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StrutThis is a vertical column that is sacrum to compressive forces. This can be rotated at any angle, but fixed, however not completely hori-zontal.

TieThis is a vertical line that is under tensile forces.

BeamThis is a horizontal column, where a load is placed on top, going down, and equal and opposite forces are transmitted below the beam, going up. The top of the beam is under compression, and the bottom tension.

Shear diaphragm This prevents the structure over-turning. This is constructe in a vertical manner through walls or a series of struts, taking loads mainly in a horizontal direction.

Pannels/WallsThis takes loads in a vertical plane. This structural component is under com-pression, where a load force from above pushes the system, with equal and oppo-site reactions from below the system pushing up.

Slab/PlateThis is where load is transferred down to a concrete bed, which then transfers the load to a footing sys-tem via foundation walls or columns in the ground.

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Beams in detailA beam is a horizontal structural element. Its function is to carry loads along, and transfer them to vertical supporting mem-bers below. Beams can be supported in numerous points along the member, only 2 points, or just one end of the member (can-tilever).

CantileverA cantilever is a structural element that is only supported at one end of the member. The function of the cantilever is to carry loads and transfer them to supporting mem-bers below. Cantilevers can be both horizon-tal or vertical, as well as angled.

Columns in detailA column is a vertical structural member that is designed to transfer compressive loads. All columns are considered slender members and are either short or long in classification.

Short ColumnsShort in length, thicker cross-section.Columns are considered short if their length to cross-sectional area less than 12:1.

Long ColumnsTaller in length, slimmer cross-section.Columns are considered long if their length to cross-sectional area is greater than 12:1.

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Shallow footingsShallow foundations are those that are constructed to transfer loads to near-sur-face soils. This type of footing is most commonly done by an arrangement of columns (spread footing foundations) or a whole concrete sheet (mat foundations), both with various design aspects depend-ing on its purpose.

Deep footingsDeep foundations are those that are con-structed to transfer loads to earth that is much further away from the structure. Various reasons for this footing may be because of large loads or poor soil.

Arches/ WallsBond – Pattern or arrangement of the unitsCourse – A horizontal row of ma-sonry unitsJoint – The way units are connect-ed togetherMortar - Mixture of cement or lime, sand and waterVaults – Enclosure of 2 Dimen-sions Dome – Enclosure of 3 Dimen-sions

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RoofingCan be classified into flat (1-3 degrees) or pitched/sloping (greater than 3 degrees) roofs. Ponding and leakage will occur if a roof is flat. Can be constructed through concrete roofs, steel framed roofs both flat and sloping, as well as portal frames. Trussed roofs are commonly used through their efficient use of material. Space frames can be seen as a 3 dimensional arrangement of trusses. Gable roof consists of rafters spanning from the ridge beam to the wall plate and are birds mouthed over the wall plate. Hip roof folds around corners, con-sists of valley, jack rafters, ridge beams and ceiling joists.

DetailingThis is a common strategy of keeping water away from the openings. This means that water has a direct path away from any potential openings. This is achieved by grading (slopping) roofs so water is collected into gutters, overlap-ping cladding and roofing elements, slop-ing windows and doorsills, roof and wall flashing, sloping the ground surface away from buildings. All these aid to remove the possibility of water ponding.

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Neutralizing forcesForces that have to be considered are gravity, surface tension and capillary action, momentum and air pressure difference. A common strategy is flashing with a double cavity wall. Water goes through the first layer, and out through an open perpend. Drips and capping are also used to get water away from the construction. Gaps in materials are used to stop capillary action, as well as folding similar to drips.

PressureIf outside air pressure is higher than inside, then there will be a tendency for water to be pumped inside, as pressure wants to be equalized. To stop this, a block can be placed on the internal side of, becoming a pressure equalizing cham-ber (PEC), as pressure is now balanced.

Lateral SupportsWind and earthquake forces have dif-ferent effects on structures. Wind forces and there intensity upon a structure is determined by a function of exposed surface of the structure, where as earth-quake forces and there intensity upon a structure is determined by the amount of mass above the surface. Strategies to re-duce these forces are the same; bracing, diaphragms/sheer walls and moment joints.

Collapse and FailureThe reason a building has faults is due to poor architectural decision making; overseeing par-ticular issues with location and climate, choos-ing problematic designs, and the cheapest yet hazarders materials and design. When design-ing and constructing a building, orientation of the building is key to the sustainability of a building, the amount of sun that is focused on a particular point. As well as these, workmanship and even the possibility of constructing such a building is key to construction and any future maintenance. A building must last a lifetime of at least 25 years. Frequent maintenance and change of design early in its life is a clear indi-cation of poor architecture.

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Block towerThe task for week one was to create a tall tower that was ridged and structurally se-cure, constructed out of small wooden blocks. This structure must contain an entrance, which would easily accompa-ny an object. This structure would have to be stable in or-der to support the load of the blocks above, so a solid base would be appropriate in order to overcome failure.

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TowerThey way these blocks were arranged layer by layer was the typical technique used in brickwork,with rows of cours-es and a patterns refured to as bonds was constructed. This allows one block to evenly distribute its load and others above itto 2 blocks below it, joining not only vertical but horizontal blocks together, allowing for a stable structure in both plans.

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Once the tower was a certain height, the walls had to connect each other, forming an encloses system. This was don’t by moving the layers closer towards the cen-ter every second layer. This was decided for stability and height purposes. These layers only protruded out no more than 10% of the block with, so most of the load above can be transferred through the remaining 90% into the layers be-low. If any more of the block was moved towards the center in a layer, it would be more prone to failure, as the load will pass the half of the block closes to the interior, where there is no structure un-derneath to support the load.

The top of the entrance of the building was constructed in a similar manner as the one used in creating the roof system, where blocks were arranged in a man-ner that would form an arc. This allows load to be transferred along the edge of the arc then to the base. These arcs were held up by compressive forces above, by using the courses structural technique. This part of the structure demonstrates all types of techniques used throughout the build to create a stable and reliable segment of the structure.

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Frame towerThe task for week two was to construct a tall tower that was stabile enough to hold its own weight, being as high as pos-sible, using only the material provided, and some others to connect the joints. This type of structure was best con-structed using trusses, where small amounts of material can be used, while keeping the rigidity it requires, putting as much load possible through a

Base

Layerssingle member. The base of the structure was constructed first, using larger cut beams to be able to withstand the above loads. It was designed so a triangle segment laid hori-zontally would evenly disperse the load of the structure along the ground, instead of a more concentrated 3 points. This al-lowed for both greater stability, and aid in holding the structur-al components together.

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The arrangement of trusses is a pattern of compression and tension forces that is exerted upon the structure, where some members take the structures load, through compression components, while others help keep the structure stable, through tension components. This ten-sion and compression pattern allows for a stable structure along all 3 axis’, using a minimal amount of material.

Trusses

The structure was designed so the 3 out-er beams concaved in, eventually meet-ing each other at the top of the tower. This type of design offered several bene-fits; through stability and economy.

-The ability of having a large base to disperse load appropriately-As the angle was increased between levels, the structure would get taller in-between levels-The lengths of horizontal trusses shortened between layers-The force on vertical beams would always move towards the center of the structure, and not out or a mixture.

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Looking at the façade of lot 6, there is an arrangement of in-situ concrete columns and beams that serve as apart of the structural system of the building. These structural components remain exposed for architectural purposes. This system would have been placed after the foot-ing system has been laid, one level of columns being laid out first, then beams following. This arrangement of columns and beams will continue throughout greater levels of the building when being constructed, after previous levels have been set.

This is an example of an expansion joint that is used in junction to the brickwork, to brake up the structure so the façade can move with the ground. This is used so the brick wall does not fail due to do much force applied. Ex-pansion joints for brickwork are commonly laid out at a maximum distance of 6 metre intervals.

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Under the south lawn, particular ar-rangements of in-situ concrete columns are positioned to support the ground above. A vast amount of these columns, with a lot of reinforcement has been used when designing these. This is due to being a car park, vehicles may hit these structures and effectively weaken the sys-tem. As seen thin the diagram, a vehicle may have hit this column, causing rein-forcement steel to be exposed and rust. As there are a lot of columns, and a fair amount of reinforcement steel, the struc-tural system still has it sustainability.

In this system, these ties are under a ten-sile force. It is wind pressure that pushes upward on the system from underneath the material exert this force. The outer columns on the system are in compres-sion, as the force is directed towards the outer perimeter of the system.

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During construction workshop, our task was to construct a system out of minimal materi-als that would be able to with-stand a vast amount of force, before failure. Our design was constructed with 2 horizontal beams parallel with each other, with numerous columns in be-tween them for added strength and rigidity. Then with ply-wood on both sides was used to add even more structural support. Under compression, plywood can withstand a lot of force if the force was applied

parallel to the height of the material (like a structural wall), rather than through the width of the material, or flat. This is due to the flexibility of the ma-terial, as its much easier to flex along the greater lengthen side. All these components were nailed forming all fixed joints, making a ridged structure. It was also planned so that the system will have a 1:3 ratio of length to height. This is rough-ly an ideal ratio for a structural beam, as it is ridged enough to bending in all axis.

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Ways to prevent failure at this force is to increase the thickness of columns in-side, try to implement fewer joints, and keeping an even distance in between nail holes. Other possibilities to improve the structural system is to have a better selec-tion of materials, such as hard wood or metals, implement more materials, and stronger, more ridged and efficient joints in the system .

After applying the load, our system achieved a load force of just over 400 kg. The point of failure was noticeably at one of the joints inside the beam, second from the load source. This fractured the wooden beam at the joint, as well as the plywood at the same location. With both materials fracturing at the same position at the same time shows that the system as a whole was effective, and was able to work at its maximum capacity. Failure at the joint was not a surprise, as often failure occurs commonly at joints, as this is where the structure is weakest. The fracture lines occurred in between any nail holes in the material.

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For week five, our group task was to research and construct the structural system of a section of the new redevelopment of the oval pavilion. This replica must be to a specific scale, using mainly measurements that were found and already stated in both structural and architectural drawings. If measurements could not be found, an estimate measure-ment using a scaled ruler was necessary. This structure contained footing systems that consist of flat, concrete slabs, to concrete masonry as a struc-tural wall. As well as this, stemming from these were steel columns and beams, which formed the skeleton for the canopy.

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Footing systems consists of an arrangement of in-situ concrete slabs are reinforced with steel. Some of this reinforced steel may also be left exposed, so concrete masonry can be placed and reinforced if necessary. Other areas of the footing system are connected to large steal columns, which in various places, are then connected to a wooden stud, going to the canopy, still being structural, solely for esthetic purposes. Other columns that have been covered by various materials are steel universal beams, and are the primary structural component of the canopy. Vari-ous secondary structural systems such as the wooden studs only hold lighter materials, and don’t take any load from the roof.

As the canopy is designed in such a way they it is extremely cantilevered, strong quality girders where chosen for the structural application of the system. Some components of the structural sys-tem of the canopy extend further than the canopy itself, in towards the building itself. These areas of structural compo-nent will contain materials that are in tension. Other components of the system will typically be in compression.

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When looking at plans for a construction, a lot of time, effort and decision-making go into the sustainability of the building. From footings to car-pet, choosing materials is vital to the buildings construct. Architectural and structural plans are the main compo-nents in a building’s structural drawings, and are often done by two different companies that specialize in their specific area. However, good com-munication and attention to detail is required, as mistakes

are often found, and certain drawings may not be plausible for construction. Alterations to these drawings often oc-cur, as builders decide upon a different design of a specific element to the building for various reasons.

When planning, safety is the most important aspect to a building, and it is up to both the structural designer and architect to design a safe envi-ronment, whilst maintaining a good, practical design. For

structural engineers, the struc-tural system of the building must be allegeable to carry loads of the building to the foundations, with ease. Move-ment of the building through forces such as moving loads, as well as wind forces have to be considers. An architectur-al designer often looks at fire safety when choosing mate-rials for building. This could be in structural elements and non-structural elements, and depending on where these materials need to be placed.

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In this construct in port Mel-bourne, The basement con-tains a large open area, for mobility in the car park. For this reason, the structural sys-tem of the building needs to be well planned. All structural components on site are in-situ concrete, as well as many con-crete materials being in-situ. A vast amount of reinforcement is needed through out the building, partially in the floor-ing system, and lower level struts.

Inside the basement, a 3 level rotating car park is used in the structure. Around this area, a vast amount of structural de-sign has been considered for the application, to withstand the weight of the cars, as well as the movement of the heavy load. All structural footing components and concrete areas around the mechanism have been heavily braced and reinforced.

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Unlike traditional timber framed studs, a more modernistic however expensive steel framing system has been used for the construction. Steel framing is bene-ficial as it takes far less time to assemble. It is easily put onto site in individual sections, and is riveted in. The need of a carpenter for this is not required, as well as holes for service systems are already pre cut. However, it is far more expensive then a timber frame system, and looking into a buildings budget must be consid-ered.

The service system in a structure this big must be well planned and neatly laid out. All these materials get placed after all wall framing is complete, and run down to footings or other appropriate areas. Some buildings require a vast amount of planning to compensate the different systems and various sources for these systems as well, such as outside electrical power, as well as solar power. Gas system is colour coded as yellow, hot water as red, cold as black. All other water sys-tems are generally pvc piped, other air systems such as air cooling and heating are transported through ducting.

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This is a combination of 2 or more metals.

BucklingThis is the failure of a column under compressive loads, causing the member to deform, twist and bend until failure.

Column WallThis type of wall sets up contrast, whether it be:-Public to privet, -Light to dark,-Light to heavy-Individual to institution.By using this, “a sequence if different walls is a se-quence of transformation in logical steps.”

Composite materialsComposite materials are two or more materials that are combined in such a way that individual materials are easily distinguishable. These materials remain bonded together, retain their identities and prop-erties, and however act together to provide import-ant specific or synergistic characteristics.

Constructability Detail should be easy to assemble, as well as flexible. It should have an efficient use of materials.

EaveThis is the bottom edge of a roof that is overhung from a wall, so water can flow away from the wall to eliminate any water corro-sion.

Ferrous MetalsContains iron. Ferrous Met-als have high compressive strength, however chemi-cally venerable. Steel is an alloy of Iron with Carbon. Can be formed to many shapes, long lasting. Struc-tural steal is used in fram-ing, hot-rolled, cold-formed steel and reinforcing bars. Also can be used in steel sheeting in roofing.

Factors For Facility Construction

This is the reason, and obstacles that are put into consideration when con-structing a facility. These consist of:-Site conditions-The need of the facility

-Budget and economy-The material available

ForcesA force is an external influence that is applied to a body, which produces a change in direction or movement. All forces are considered vector quanti-ties, containing both mag-nitude and direction.

GirderThis is a support beam that is the main horizontal support of a structure then stems other smaller beams. Can have a cross section of various shapes, commonly the I-beam.

HeatingHeat is conducted through the building envelope, which are subjected to radi-ant heat sources. Thermal mass is used to regulate the temperature through-out a building. Controlling heat gain and loss saves energy. Thermal insulation reduces heat conduction. Thermal Breaks reduce the amount of conduction. Double-glazing creates an air space between glass to

reduce flow of heat. Con-trolling heat through radi-ation is also used through reflective and shading systems. Thermal mass captures heat during the day, and releases heat when temperatures are cooler. Air leakage can be prevented through barriers as well as water strippings.

JoistThis is the parallel element of a wall that supports a floor or ceiling.

LintelThis can be load bearing or an ornamental architectural element or a combination. This is a singular block beam that is supported by 2 or more columns, forming a passageway.

Material Properties This is what the materi-al physically consists of. This allows the engineer to determine what is the best, most efficient, and cheapest way to construct a structure. Many materials consist of different proper-ties, meaning some will be good under tension, but not

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sidered are gravity, surface tension, momentum and air pressure. Drips or a break between surface prevents water clinging.

Monolithic material Monolithic are a single ma-terials, as well as materials combined so that compo-nents are indistinguishable such as metal alloys.

Movement joints Materials and soils that are contracting and expanding will course stress on a build-ing. Expansion and con-traction joints comprised with various materials will prevent failure.

NoggingThis refers to a small tim-ber nog used for structural support in-between wall framing to stop column bending, forming a ridged structure.

Non-Ferrous MetalsDoes not contain iron. An example is aluminum, light and durable, used com-monly in window sections. Copper is used commonly in electrical systems, as it

ParapetThis is the extension of a walls edge through the roof, which is commonly used to prevent the spread of fires as guard rails.

Point and PlainThis is considered to be a technical sequence of lines in logical steps, mainly con-sisting of lines and plains, all at 90-degree angles. Point to line to plain to volume.By using this, one may not know what is structure, or what is division. This is commonly seen in modern buildings and is a young form of architecture.

Portal FrameThis is the structural system allowing for a large en-closure, consisting of very reinforced joints that would be prone to bending.

PurlinThis is typically associated with the horizontal struc-tural members of a roofing system.

RafterThis is one member out of

a series of sloped beams that extend from the ridge plate to wall plate, designed to support the roofing system.

Retaining WallThis is a structure that holds back earth or water.

SoffitThis describes the un-derside of a construction element.

SpanSpan is the difference be-tween two structual sup-ports.

SpacingSpacing the repeated dif-ference between a series of like members.This is mea-sured through centre lines.

Structural principlesThese are the materials that a chosen. This could be because of the:-Expense of the material-Trades and labour used-Availability of the material

is a great conductor. Zinc is used for galvanizing and protects iron from corro-sion. Lead is not commonly used, due to lead poisoning. Tin and titanium can be used in cladding, however titanium is very expensive. Bronze is corrosive resis-tance, however is much harder than other alloys and can be used in engi-neering and marine appli-cations. Brass is a combina-tion of copper and zinc. It has a low melting point and can be casted easily.

OpeningsPlanned openings can be windows, doors ect, how-ever , openings can occur as unplanned, such as poor construction workmanship, deterioration of materials. Strategies to remove open-ings are silicone sealants, and gaskets. These need to be regally maintained.

Pad FootingThis is a simple and cost effective footing that is used for vertical support. These footings are generally isolated meaning there is no connection between them, as well as reinforced.

compression, compression not tension.

MetalsImpermeable to light and water and can be used in a variety of applications (eg. guttering, flashing). Den-sity and conductivity have advantages and disadvan-tages. Embodied energy is high, however recyclability can be accountable. Prone to oxidation and corrosion though water.

MoistureBasements in wet areas need tanking, made out of artificial rubber around the structure. When tanking is not used, loose aggregates is used from the ground to footing, so water can be drained to various storm water pipes. Eaves on roofs help protect a building through overhang. For water to penetrate into a building, an opening, water present and a force to move water through must occur. Sealants and gaskets can be used to stop water seeping however they do need to be replaced and maintained. Forces that have to be con-

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Strip FootingThis is a small strip of con-crete that supports the load of exterior walls and also interior walls that are load bearing.

SubstructureThis is a structure that forms the foundation of a building.

Tectonic StrategiesThis deals with formal issues of the facility, and consists of all facility con-struction strategies.

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Basic Joints-Bramble (2011). What are pin joints, roller joints, and ridged joints? What types of movements do each of them provide? Answer.yahoo.com-Mark Sarkisian (2011). Pin Fuse Joint(US Patent No.6,681,538B1). Spark Design Awards

Beams-Wheeler building & remodeling (2009-2014). Post & Beam construction

Bracing-http://blog.buildllc.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/10/John-Hancock-01.jpg-http://inspectapedia.com/exterior/PaintPeel1.jpg

Cantilever- Justin. A.(2012). Architecture Terms Used Within the Site. Urbansplatter.

Columns-http://fm.palmbeach.k12.fl.us/mpr/photos/projects_images/1861-8374/F_November%202005/IPES%2005%2011%2008%20S%20Covered%20play%20structur-al%20columns.jpg-http://fm.palmbeach.k12.fl.us/mpr/photos/projects_images/1861-8374/F_November%202005/IPES%2005%2011%2008%20S%20Covered%20play%20structur-al%20columns.jpg

Detailing-Detail of roofline at Kresge Auditorium, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, in the U.S.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kresge_Auditorium,_MIT_(roof_detail).JPG-Voitek Klimczyk. Do-it-yourself Roofing Tips.http://www.simplyadditions.com/Article/Do-it-yourself-Roofing-Tips.html

-Profilink. http://www.profilink.bg/en/products/216-ul-tra

Footings and Foundations-Dr. Mehrdad Razavi : http://infohost.nmt.edu/~Mehr-dad/foundation/hdout/ShallowFoundations.pdf-Alex Mead. ‘Shallow Foundation’ Tag : http://ceephotos.karcor.com/tag/shallow-foundation/-Mark S. Haughwout(2012). Custom Redwood and Com-posite Decks and Patios.

Framing-Pryda (2014). Wall framing.

Load Paths-Build Right. : http://toolboxes.flexiblelearning.net.au/demosites/series10/10_01/content/bcgbc4010a/01_loads_loading/01_primary_loads/page_008.htm-Samvaltenbergs (2008). Lunch On The Skyscrapers. Valtenbergs.com/archives (528)

Moisture-Wykamol Group Limited (2011). http://www.wykamol.com/news/2011/july/basement-tanking-of-a-cellar.html

Roofing-James matthew roofing. http://flatroofingbirmingham.co.uk

Walls and Plates-Concrete house slab step down entrance : http://bris-baneconcreteservice.com/house-and-building-slabs/how-a-concrete-house-slab-is-made/olympus-digital-cam-era-66/-http://www.abag.ca.gov/bayarea/eqmaps/fixit/ch3/sld010.htm

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Universal References-Francis Ching (1943). Building constructuin illustrated – 4th ed. John Wiley & Sons, Inc (2008)-Clare Newton (2014). ENVS10003 Youtube Channel.