CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 GENERAL Property according to traditional classification may be either movable or immovable. Both movable and immovable properties fall under the category of corporeal property which is capable of being physically touched, sensed and perceived, it is also called tangible property. Another property is intangible property which cannot be seen. It relates to intellectual property, securities and individual reputation etc. Intellectual property is that property which is created by human intelligence i.e. mental labour, and it includes property and literary property. The category of industrial property includes patents, trademarks, industrial designs and layout designs. Literary property includes copyright and neighboring rights including the performer's rights. In recent times many new forms of intellectual property have come into existence. They include plant varieties, plant breeders’ rights, digital copyright and domain names etc. Many new forms are related to Information Technology (IT), Chemical Technology (CT) and Bio-technology (BT). However these parts are attracting the attention of the commercial world. Because of phenomenal advancement of science and technology new 1
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CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL
Property according to traditional classification may be either movable or
immovable. Both movable and immovable properties fall under the category of
corporeal property which is capable of being physically touched, sensed and
perceived, it is also called tangible property.
Another property is intangible property which cannot be seen. It relates to
intellectual property, securities and individual reputation etc. Intellectual property is
that property which is created by human intelligence i.e. mental labour, and it
includes property and literary property. The category of industrial property includes
patents, trademarks, industrial designs and layout designs. Literary property includes
copyright and neighboring rights including the performer's rights.
In recent times many new forms of intellectual property have come into
existence. They include plant varieties, plant breeders’ rights, digital copyright and
domain names etc. Many new forms are related to Information Technology (IT),
Chemical Technology (CT) and Bio-technology (BT). However these parts are
attracting the attention of the commercial world. Because of phenomenal
advancement of science and technology new forms of intellectual property also came
into existence, they include business methods, computer programs etc. Mere ideas
cannot be protected under intellectual property. They can be protected only when
they are put in materialistic form (which is tangible).
The answer to the question, "What constitutes the most precious thing in the
world?" Is undoubtedly 'the human mind'. This is because the mind has conceived
innovative ideas and created the mechanisms to apply them. Many things around us
which have occurred merely due to innovation and creativity. If individuals who
conceive the innovative ideas are not rewarded, it would lead to the curtailment of
their creativity. This is where the concept of intellectual property steps in the main
reason having intellectual property right is to reward the persons who put in efforts
into intellectual creations. Another reason is by giving protection to intellectual
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property many such endeavors are encouraged and industries based on such work can
thrive. Further, it also leads to financial returns and prosperity.
This form of intellectual property has got greater recognition only in the 18 th
century. In fact intellectual property acquired greater recognition in international law,
when compared to the municipal laws. In today’s world the international dimension
of intellectual property is of ever increasing importance for three compelling reasons
1) The composition of world trade is changing; currently commerce in
intellectual property has become an even greater component of trade between
the nations. The value of information products has been enhanced greatly by
the new technologies like semi-conductor chip, computer software and
biotechnology.
2) The world commerce has become even more interdependent, establishing a
need for international co-operation. No longer can a simple country impose
its economic will on the rest of the world. Accordingly countries have
recognized this interdependence and have called for a broadening of
international agreements, arrangements involving intellectual property.
3) New reprographic and information storage technologies permit unauthorized
copying if take place faster and more efficiently than ever undermining the
creator's work.
Intellectual property is predominantly recognized in the commercial world to
protect the interest of mercantile community. It is specially created and recognized in
law in spite of its monopolistic nature for a definite period or for an unlimited period
based upon the nature of creation. The flow of knowledge based information can be
constrained by space and national borders. The need for comprehensive international
agreements governing intellectual property could be seen even in the 19th century,
which came into fruitarian with the union of Paris for the Protection of Industrial
Property (1883) and the Berne Convention for the protection of Literary and Artistic
works (1886).
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World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) which governs the
intellectual property rights of member states. There are many international
instruments and international institutions help in understanding of the international
regime of intellectual property rights, through trips, GATT; patent co-operation
Treaty, Budapest Treaty, Madrid Agreement, Lisbon Agreement, Trademark Treaty
and regulation and Universal Copyright Conventions etc., WIPO Copyright Treaty.
An invention can be patented and no other person can use that invention for
his own without paying fees to the owner. It is same with authorship in various
forms. The notion that an author should have an exclusive 'copyright' in his creation,
it took a firm shape at the beginning of the eighteenth century.
Copyright is considered as a kind of property, but its precise nature differs
substantially from other forms of property with which more people are familiar.
Indian Copyright Act of 1957 provides copyright protection of original
literary, dramatic, musical and artistic works, cinematograph films and records
during the authors’ life and for 50 years. Subsequent to the authors’ death also.
Briefly, copyright means the right to copy or the right to restrict or control
copying. Starting with books copyright protection has gradually expanded to cover
other domains of intellectual creations like art, sculpture, architecture, choreography,
films, records and broadcasting. Accordingly legislative actions against infringement
and video piracy had come into force to protect the copyright.
A brief historical view will help in understanding why copyright protection
has started, with the invention of printing which made it possible.
Copyright is an exclusive right granted to the author to make copies or
reproduction of his work for a certain period. Law confers monopoly right on the
author for the intellectual effort. Copyright restricts any person except author, to use
the works without the authors will. Copyright restricts the reproduction of the work
in any material form, publication performance in public, broadcasting, transmission
over a diffusion service and the making of an adaptation. Adaptation includes the
conversion of a non-dramatic work into a dramatic work and vice-versa, a translation
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or a version for publication in which the story or action is conveyed wholly or
mainly by pictures.
Copyright is a unique kind of intellectual property the importance of which is
increasing day by day. It does not fall in the category of intellectual property. The
basic areas that are covered under the copyright protection are in the field of printing,
music, communication, entertainment and computer industries. In fact 'copyright'
was the first intellectual property which received legal recognition in the world.
The right which a person acquires in a work which is the result of his
intellectual labour is called his copyright. The primary function of a Copyright law is
to protect the fruits of a man's work, labour, skill or test from annexation by other
people. The law of copyright has to protect a man's copyright irrespective of his
status as a family man or saint.1
Copyright is a unique kind of intellectual property. The right which a person
acquires in a work, which is the result of the intellectual labour, is called his
copyright. The primary function of a copyright law is to protect the fruits of mans
work, labour, skill or test from being taken away by other people.2
However, the copyright protection extends to the original works of the
authors; authors were given copyright to use his work in any manner as he likes to
reproduce, sell or make copies or distribute the copies of the work.
Copyright law can be divided into
i) Copyright law in the strict sense of the work; i.e. the protection of
intellectual creativity; and
ii) The law on neighboring rights.
Section 14 of Indian Copyright Act defines copyright as an "exclusive right
by virtue of and subject to, the provision of this Act" to do and authorize doing of
any number of prescribed acts in relation to literary, artistic and dramatic works and
1 Sulamangalam R. Jayalakshmi Vs. Meta Musicals, 2001 (1) Raj 150.2 Holy Faith International Pvt. Ltd., Vs. Shiv K. Kumar, 2006(3) Raj, 64(A.P)-2006(33) PTC 456.
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to cinematograph films and records. Copyright constitutes property rights in
personam and in rem, violation of which can be redressed under the protection of the
Act. It is also important to stress at the outset that copyright is defined as a statutory
right, owing its existence and stature within the four corners of the Act. Section 16 of
the Act makes it clear that no person is entitled to copyright "or any similar right in
any work otherwise than under in accordance with the provisions of this Act or of
any other law for the time being in force". No customary law is to be pleaded.
The meaning of copyright for each category of work is quite extensive and
that copyright protection extends to all binds of work including those which
represent "originality" at vanishing point. The requirement of 'originality' in Indian
law, as elsewhere, does not refer to ideas but rather to the manner and material forms
of their expression. The objective of copyright, it has been stressed in India, is not to
"create monopoly in ideas"; rather the protection aims of T.R.S. Iyenger, the
Copyright Act 1957 (101 3rd ed.1977) prevention of unlawful reproduction of dealing
with the manner and material form in which ideas are expressed. Consequently,
originality also refers not to novelty or creativity in ideas but only to the manner and
material form of their presentation. The expression of thought, the form, formulation,
order, plan or arrangement of presentation as testifying to the investment by the
author of mental faculties, skills, competence, craftsmanship, knowledge, labour and
capital in the production of any work. In other words the requirement of originality is
an elliptical way of expressing the idea that the work should not be a substantial copy
of another work; or more colorfully it should not amount to piracy of another's skills,
competence, craftsmanship, labour and capital. In a sense, copyright law protects the
author against dishonest and willful misappropriation or theft of the author's efforts.
Obviously, the notion of originality does not even entail a modicum of
novelty or creativity. The extent or amount of originality in expression or material
form may be very small but that small amount is protected by law.3
3 Govindan Vs. Gopalakrishnan, AIR 1955, Mad 391 at 393.
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Copyright is defined in the concise oxford dictionary as "the exclusive right
given by law, for a certain term of years, to an author, composer, etc (or his
assignee) to print, publish and sell copies of his original work". The moral
justification for providing legal protection is based on the principle that a man is
entitled to the fruits of his brain as much as he is entitled to the fruits of his
mechanical labour.
"The congress shall have power....to promote the progress of science and
useful arts, by securing for limited time to authors and inventors the exclusive right
to their respective writings and discoveries". 4
All original literary works are eligible for protection what is protected
however is not the idea but the literary form, whether it is of merit or not. It is
generally held that titles of books, which are mere words, do not have copyright.
Adaptations, condensations or rearrangements of literary works, whose protection
has ceased, are eligible for protection. Dictionaries, gazetteers, directories and such
other compilations of public domain materials are also protected, provided they be
original and not merely copied from an earlier work. In an encyclopedia, in addition
to the copyright held by the contributor of an article, there may be a separate
copyright vesting in the editor in regard to arrangement.
Illustration in books may have a separate copyright, as artistic works. These
may not necessarily be held by the author of the literary work. Publishers of maps
might like to know that it is an offence to show wrong international boundaries and
these are to be verified in advance with the survey of India. In regard to
topographical details, the survey of India would ask for copyright fees in all those
cases where their topographical details are used. Publishers of law books may note
that though any one may reproduce under Sec.52 (l)(g) of the 1957 Act yet head
notes may have copyright and these may not be lifted from other law reports.
In case of joint works where the individual contributions of the participating
authors are not distinguishable, the rights are held jointly.
4 U.S. Constitution Art 1, Sec.8.
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Almost invariably, the back of the title page of any book will contain a
copyright notice. Under the Berne Convention, such a notice is not necessary, unless
the state where the work is first published stipulates such a condition in its domestic
law. Under the universal copyright convention, however a copyright notice has to be
included in a prominent place. The notice is to consist of three parts namely, (1) the
accompanied by the copyright proprietor's name and the year of first publication
placed in such conspicuous manner so as to be noticed easily. The member countries
must grant a minimum copyright term of 25 years from publication, or life of the
author plus 25 years. The foreign authors of other member countries must be granted
exclusive rights for at least seven years.
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One notable feature of the UCC is that it contains a Berne safeguard clause
which prohibits a Berne Convention Country from denouncing Berne Convention
and relying on the UCC in its copyright relations with members of the Berne
Convention. 5The UCC was revised in Paris in 1971, in response to demands made
by the developing countries. Special provisions allow the developing countries to
obtain compulsory licenses under certain conditions to translate copyrighted works
for teaching, scholarship and research purposes. It also allows reproduction of
copyrighted works for use in systematic instructional activities. The UCC protects
the economic rights of the authors effectively. As January 1, 1996; 95 states where
members of UCC. India is a member of the UCC. The provisions of the UCC were
strengthened by the convention and protocols, of Geneva, 1952 and at Paris in 1971.
c) International Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of
Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations
Phonogram means a sound recording. The rights in respect of phonograms and
performances and broadcasting are called neighboring rights. The Rome Convention
which was completed on October 26, 1961 and entered into force on May 18, 1964
basically intends to protect the neighboring rights. The beneficiaries of the convention
are performers, producers of phonograms, and broadcasters. The convention grants
protection to performers if their performance takes place in another contracting state,
if incorporated in a phonogram that is protected by the Convention. If not fixed on a
phonogram, and is carried by a broadcast, the Convention protects such broad-cast
also.
Under the Convention, performers are protected against the unauthorized
broadcast of their public performances and enjoy the rights to a first fixation of their
performance. Similarly, producers of phonograms enjoy the right to authorize or
prohibit the direct or indirect reproduction of their programs in the form of
phonograms. Any user of such phonograms has a duty to pay a single remuneration
equitable in nature to artists or producers for a public performance of a phonogram.
In so far as the broadcasting rights are concerned, broadcasting organizations
shall enjoy the right to the fixation, reproduction and rebroadcast of their broadcasts,
5 See Article XVII and Appendix declaration relating to article XVII of the Convention.
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subject to any limitations imposed under the domestic law. Generally the protection
is granted for a 20 year term, computed from the end of the year when the fixation
was made for phonogram and performances incorporated therein. If the performance
is not incorporated in a phonogram, the term will be calculated from the end of the
year when the performance took place. For broadcasts, the year when the broadcast
took place will determine the duration of protection.
The eligibility to participate in the Rome Convention is that a state must have
become a member of either the Berne Convention or the Universal Copyright
Convention. As of January 1, 1996, there were 50 states which became members of
the Rome Convention. India was not a member on that date.
2.3 COPYRIGHT RIGHT LAW IN UNITED STATES
The copyright law of the United States governs the legally enforceable rights
of creative and artistic works.
The purpose of copyright law is to promote the progress of science and useful
arts, by securing for limited time to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their
respective writings and discoveries. Copyright law has expanded coverage to include
the idea of stimulating the creation of as many works of art, literature, music and
other works of authorship in order to benefit the public.
The United States recognizes no absolute, natural right in an author to prevent
others from copying or otherwise exploiting his work. The copyright law gives
authors limited property rights in their works, but for the ultimate purpose of
benefiting the public by encouraging the creation and dissemination of more works.
The authors’ interest is secondary to that of the public. Copyright never gives rights
in the idea being expressed or in facts or other elements of the public domain which
an author may incorporate into his work.
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The United States copyright law protects "original works of authorship"
including literary, dramatic, musical, artistic and certain other intellectual works.
This protection is available to both published and unpublished works. Other works
include audiovisual works, derivative works, sound recordings, compilations,
pantomimes and choreographic works, pictorial, graphic and sculptural works,
architectural works etc.
An important limitation on the scope of copyright protection is the idea/
expression, while the copyright law protects the expression of an idea, it does not
protect the idea itself. The distinction between "idea" and "expression" is a
fundamental part of U.S. law.
Exclusive Rights of Owner of Copyright
The owner of copyright has exclusive right to do and to authorize others to do
a. To reproduce the work in copies or phone records.
b. To prepare derivative works based upon the work.
c. To publicly perform the works in the case of literary, musical, dramatic
and choreographic works, pantomimes and motion pictures and other
audiovisual works, and sound recordings by means of digital audio
transmission.
d. To distribute copies or phone records of the work to the public by sale or
other transfer of ownership or by rental, lease or lending.
e. To publicly displays the work in the case of literary, musical, dramatic
and choreographic works, pantomimes and pictorial, graphic or
f. First Owner of Copyright
The author of a work is the initial owner of the copyright. In case of joint
work, the authors of a joint work are co-owners of a single copyright in
the work. Ownership of copyright in a collective work; A collective work
is a collection of independent, or separate copyright works then, the
author is the owner in the absence of any agreement.
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Registration of Copyright
Copyright in United States automatically attaches upon the creation of an
original work of authorship. Registration with the copyright puts the copyright
holder in a better position if litigation arises over the copyright registration is
necessary to obtain statutory damages in case of infringement. To register, the
registrant must complete an application form and send it, along with the filing fee
and copies or phone records of the work to the copyright office.
Duration of Copyright
Works created in or after 1978 are extended copyright protection for a term
defined as 70 years after the death of the author. If the work is for hire then
copyright persists for 120 years after creation or 95 years whichever is shorter after
publication.
Rights of the Owner
The owner can assign the work to any person for further work, it is an
exclusive right and exclusive license require the transfer to be in writing.
Infringement
It requires a protected work, that the dependent copied the protected work,
that the dependants copying of the protected. Only protected works that the infringed
can be claimed remedy for infringement.
Remedies
Civil remedies include injunctions and damages. Injunction may be both
preliminary and permanent. Damages give choice of recovering i) their actual
damages and any additional profits of the defendant; ii) statutory damages equitable
relief can be claimed and both temporary and permanent injunctions are available to
prevent or restrain infringement of a copyright. Where the infringer is government
then injunctions are not available and only monetary damages can be seeked.
Criminal Penalties
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In addition to civil remedies the copyright act provides criminal sanctions for
willful infringement a) a fine of not more than $500,000 or imprisonment for not
more than five years or both for first offense; b) a fine of not more than Si million
and imprisonment for not more than 10 years; or both for repeated offences.
2.4 COPYRIGHT LAW IN U.K
The origins of Copyright Law in most European Countries like in efforts by
government to regulate and control the output of printers. In England the printers
known as stationers formed a collective organization, the stationers company. In the
16th century the stationers company was given the power to require all lawfully
printed books to be entered into its register. Only members of the stationers could
enter books into the register. This meant that the stationer's company achieved a
dominant position over publishing in 17th century England. But the monopoly
granted to the stationers company through the licensing Act 1662, came to an end
when parliament decided to not renew the act after it lapsed.
The long title of the statute as the world's first copyright statute if granted
publishers of a book legal protection of 14 years with the commencement of the
statute. It also granted 21 years of protection for any book already in print. The 14
year copyright term could be renewed for another 14 if the author was still alive after
the first term expired.
Authors Rights
The statute was the first to recognize the legal right of authorship, but it did
not provide a coherent understanding of authorship or author's rights. While the
statute established the author as legal owner, and so providing the basis for the
development of authors copyright. It also provided a 21 year copyright term to books
already in print. At the end of the 21 years granted by the statute the concept of
literary property was still a booksellers rather than author, an understanding emerged
that copyright originated in author's rights to the product of his labour. In the 200
years following the statute of Anne UK copyright law was developed through
legislations.
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Berne convention for the protection of literary and artistic works. UK signed
Berne Convention and passed the international copyright act 1886 for Great Britain
in order to fulfill the obligations to foreign authors that arose upon the UK ratifying
the Berne Convention on September 1887.
An orphan work is a work which is under copyright protection, but it is
difficult or impossible to contact the copyright owner. The original creator may be
unknown, or where the creator is known it is unknown who represented them. In
2008 the libraries and archives copyright alliance stated that it believes that the
majority of copyright works have little commercial value after a few years from
publication because the material was out of print, or sales were negligible or not
significant. It describe the orphan works problem as "unsurprising" since if a
copyright remains valuable the holder has a strong incentive to make him or herself
known, while if the copyright has little value the holder has no real incentive even to
respond to enquires.
In U.K. copyright tribunal should be responsible for granting licenses for the
use of orphan works.
2.5 COPYRIGHT LAW IN INDIA
As the law is not static it has to be changed, according to the changes in the
society. So also copyright law also changed in order to suit the changing needs of the
society. Hence many amendments have been made the copyright act till now from
the date of enactment. Now amendment of copyright bill 2010 is pending. The
amendments made to copyright act in India are discussed below.
The 1914 Act
The 1914 Act was a short statute of fifteen sections which annexed virtually
the whole of the U.K. copyright 1911 as its first schedule. It made a few minor
omissions. The major changes made by the 1914 Act were, in this writer's opinion,
first, it introduced criminal sanctions for copyright infringement (Sections 7 to 12).
Second, it modified the scope of the term of copyright; under section 4 the "sole
right" of the author to "produce, reproduce, perform or publish a translation of the
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work shall subsist only for a period of ten years from the date of the first publication
of the work.”The author, however, retained her "sole rights" if within the period of
ten years she published or authorized publication of her work a translation in any
language in respect of that language. Vesting violations or property rights with
criminal sanctions can probably be understood as a part of general colonial legal and
political policies which sought to protect, generally, right to property over rights to
personal freedom.6
The modification of term of copyright for translation rights cannot be
explained by any reference to dominant characteristic of colonial policy. The
language of the Act might suggest a laudable policy of promoting wider diffusion of
Indian works in one language into other Indian languages, a consideration which
might have appeared distinctive to India as compared with U.K. There might also
have been the desire to promote the growth of publication industry in numerous
Indian languages. But whatever the intention, the impact was disadvantageous to the
authors and a boon to publishers. This can be seen from the following observations
in a hot of dissent when the continuation of the same provision was urged by the
joint select committee of the Indian parliament in 1956. R.D. Sinha "Dinker" argued
that this provision has "worked to the utter detriment of the authors". Referring to the
two distinguished Bengali authors he observed
Most of the novels by Sarat Chandra Chatterjee were translated in Hindi,
while the author was yet alive. The author's novels, in translation sold thousands of
copies, but the author did not get a pie out of the sake- proceeds... Something like
this happened in the case of Gurudeva (Tagore). Publishers in Hindi and other
languages were making good money out of the translations of his works, but the
poet, revered by the nation, was in his extremely old age touring the country for
money to support the Shanti- Niketan.7
It appears that mostly the Hindi language publishers benefited a great deal
from the modification of the term of copyright regarding the translations. This is not
entirely devoid of political significance as Hindi was emerging as a dominant
6 This observation is borne out also by the general approach to protection of property rights in the great Indian codes in the late nineteenth century.7 The report of the joint select committee, “The Gazette of India Extraordinary, Pt.2, 3.2, P.907 (1956).
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language in Northern India. But it is idle to conjecture. A sociopolitical history of
colonial copyright law must probe this aspect further.
The early phases of the transplanted copyright law generated decisions like
Macmillan V. Suresh Chander Deb8 and Macmillan V.R.C. Cooper9 which have
become locus classicus of the law of copyright. At the same time it also generated a
ouris dependencia Indian judicial decisions as well as forensic styles have had
perforce to rely on UK recedents. The heavy hand of UK law still lies on Indian
creative works despite the reformulation of the law in 1957. Judicial interpretation is
perhaps most heavily influenced by U.K. precedents in the area of copyright law
than in any other. The slavish imitation of foreign precedents has occasionally led
intrepid Indian justices to remind the bar and the bench that the 1957 act is made by
"a sovereign legislature of this land" and the its interpretation "must be based upon
the object of the legislation and the language used" and that the "historical roots" of
the Indian law in UK law of copyright should have no higher function than that of
providing an "aid to thinking". It is hoped that his approach will prevail in course of
time; and that the umbilical cord with the British judicial law would be served.
The 1957 Act
The 1914 act was continued with minor adaptations and modifications till the
1957 act was brought into force on 2 January 1958. The bill seeking to revise the
entire law was introduced in the Rajya Sabha on 1st October 1955; the bill was
enacted in about eighteen months time on 4 June 1957. The expedition and priority
with which the law revision was accomplished is indeed remarkable, especially when
we recall that the bill was introduced within a few years of attainment of
independence and passed in the seventh year of the republic. Equal priority was
attached to other domains of the intellectual property law; but their reformulation
proved difficult and time consuming. 10
A number of factors impelled this early revision. First it was clear that
continued existence of the 1911 act through the 1914 act was unbecoming to "the 8 I.L.R., 1890, 17 Cal.1951.9 AIR 1924 P.C.75.10 Equally high priority was attached to revision of the patent Act 191; the law was revised only in 1970. Upendra Baxi, “Role of industrial property law in promoting indigenous inventive and creative activity” (WIPO, 1980).
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changed constitutional status of India". Second, the 1914 act did not accord with the
1948 Brussels Act of the Berne Convention and the 1952 Universal Copyright
Convention. Third, new and advanced method of communications rendered
modernization of the law necessary. Fourth, the need for an "independent self-
contained law" was also felt in the light of the experience of the "working" of the
1911 Act, and more important, of "the growing public consciousness of the rights
and obligations of the authors..."11
The Indian legislators had before them the report of the English Copyright
Committee and legislative proposals based thereon; they had also before them the
models provided, in their optional and obligatory features, by the relevant
International Conventions, the select committee had evidence of twelve
organizations, including the international confederation of societies of authors and
composers (Paris), the performing right society (London), British Copyright Council
and the Columbia Gramophone Company Ltd. The report of the select committee
appears to be among the briefest in the annals of Indian parliament; 12but, in many
senses, it made major innovations which were ultimately enacted. Perhaps the only
significant matter, on which its proposals were not accepted, in view of powerful
dissents referred to earlier, pertained to a ten year term of copyright for translations;
the original proposal in the bill prevailed here over the committee's formulations.
But the committee's views prevailed on other vital matters. For example, the original
proposal of the bill to reduce the term of copyright for life of the author and twenty
five years post-mortem was voted by the committee (despite a note of dissent) on the
ground that India must fall in line with international conventions. The committee
also negatives the bills proposal, on similar grounds, making registration of
copyright a precondition for infringement proceedings.13
The Act, as it emerged, was not in any sense a replication of the English
legislative proposals. In this sense, the 1957 Act was the first truly Indian legislation
'imperial' law. The Act was not sufficiently far-sighted; it, for example, does not
protect the right of the performers adequately. In many respects it is drafted in ways
11 See the statements of objects and reasons to the bill, Supra note (34 A).12 It comprises ten pages of majority report, and six notes of dissent totaling seven pages. 13 Misra Bandhu Karyalaya Vs. Koshal, AIR 1970 M.P. 261 to 267.
22
which make it meaningful only to judges and lawyers and sometimes after well over
two centuries of the subjection to the not even to them. But the fact remains that the
country had its own law of copyright for the first time in contemporary history.
The general scheme and the principal features of the 1957 Act are as follows
Chapter I, III, IV, V deal with copyright and its ownership; Chapter XI with
infringement; Chapter IX with international copyright; Chapter X with registration
of copyright; Chapter XI1-XIV with civil and criminal remedies and Chapter II, VI,
VII and X with powers and functions of the registrar of copyrights and the copyright
board. A short special Chapter VIII deals with the rights of broadcasting authorities.
The Act is divided into fifteen chapters and contains seventy nine sections. In
addition, the government has enacted copyright rules under section 78 of the Act.
The rules deals with matters of procedure primarily in matters like applications of
licenses for translations, performing rights societies’ relinquishment and registration
of copyright and related matters. In addition to the act and the rules, we must note
that the government is empowered to make an order directing that any or all the
provisions of 1957 act may apply to copyright in foreign works and in works of
certain international organization. The orders are to be laid before parliament and
subject to modification by it. The orders have to be published in the government
gazette.
The 1957 act makes certain administrative arrangements for implementation.
It creates, for the first time, two distinct institutions; the copyright office and the
copyright board. The ministry of education and social welfare is the administrative
ministry overseeing the copyright office. A principal function of the office is to
maintain, in all relevant particulars, a register of copyright; to entertain and deal with
applications for compulsory licenses and to inquire into complaints of importation of
infringing copies. The registrar performs judicial functions in relation to these tasks;
and an appeal is provided from his decision to the copyright board.
The Board has a number of essential functions under the Act. All of them
involve determination of claims of reveal rights and liabilities; the joint select
committee on the bill was right to insist that the board should be headed by a
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chairman who is a "judge of Supreme Court or a high court" or is so qualified to be a
high court judge. The principal functions of the board are to consider and determine.
1. Whether any literary, dramatic, musical or artistic work, or records, are
issued in "sufficient quantities" with in the meaning of section 3[section
6(a)];
2. Whether the term of copyright is shorter in any other country as compared
to the term provided under the Act [section6(b)]'
3. Application for licenses to produce and publish a translation of literary or
dramatic work in any language [section 32];
4. Complaints that certain copyright works are unreasonably withheld from
public [section 31];
5. Objections of tariff of fees, charges and royalties announced by performing
rights societies [section 33-36].
6. Rectification of the register of copyrights [section 50],
The Board is required to circuit in zones in various parts of India; and
individuals may file proceedings in the appropriate zones where they voluntarily
reside or carry on business or work for personal gain. An empirical investigation of
the work load and characteristics of its decision - making process, is over due,
because both institutions have been specifically created with a view to assisting
authors; it is important in any design of revision of the law to ascertain to what extent
this objective has been specifically created with a view to assisting authors; it is
important in any design of revision of the law to ascertain to what extent this
objective has been actually attained in practice.14
AMENDMENTS TO THE ACT
The basic features of the Copyright Act, 1957 conform to the provisions of
the two International Conventions on copyrights, namely (i) Berne Convention
and (ii) The Universal Copyright Convention. India is a member of both the
14 Copyright Law and justice in India (1986), J.I.L.I, 498-504, No.4, Vol.28.
24
Conventions, which were revised at Paris in 1971. It provides certain special
concessions in favour of developing countries to enable them to grant compulsory
licenses for translation and reproduction of foreign works required for educational
purposes in accordance with the prescribed procedure. India played an important
role in the discussions leading to the concession.15
a. 1983 Amendment In August 1983, the parliament of India enacted the
Copyright (Amendment) Act, 1983 with the specific purposes of (a) incorporating
the provisions of compulsory licenses for translations and reproduction.
1. Kala Thairani, copyright The Indian experience, Allied publishers,
1987 pp.41-43 foreign works required for instructional purposes.
Providing adequate protection of author's rights; and
Removing administrative drawbacks and other lacunae experienced in the
administration of the Copyright Act, 1957.
The bill provides, among other things, for the following amendments the Act
to give effect to the above proposals, namely
1. To provide compulsory licensing for the translation of a foreign work after
the expiry of three years from the publication of the work and if the
translation of the work is in a language not in general use in any developed
country, after the expiry of a period of one year from such publication if such
work is required for the purposes of teaching, scholarship or research.
2. To provide for the compulsory licensing of the reproduction of any edition of
a foreign literacy, scientific or artistic works for the purposes of systematic
instructional activities if, after the expiry of certain periods (which will vary
depending on the subject-matter of the works) from the date of the first
publication of that edition, the copies are not available in India for the same or
similar work.
15 Kala Thairani, Copyright The Indian Experience, Allied Publishers, 1987, P.41-43.
25
3. It is proposed to provided that in the case of unpublished works where the
author is either dead or unknown or the owners of the copyright cannot be
traced, any person wishing to publish the material or a translation thereof may
advertise his proposal and thereafter apply to the copyright Board for
permission which, while granting such permission, would fix and appropriate
royally. The royally could be deposited in the public account of India.
4. It is proposed to provide assignments of copyright from authors to publishers
and to empower the Copyright Board to decide disputes arising out of such
assignments which may extend to permitting the author to withdraw from the
assignment.
5. It is proposed to prescribe the term of copyright in works owned by bodies
corporate as fifty years from the beginning of the calendar year next
following the year in which the work is first following the year in which the
work is first published as in the case of government works.
6. Broadcasting authorities are also being permitted to translate foreign works
for broadcasting for the purpose of systematic instructional activities.
7. To provide for copyright in lectures, addresses etc, delivered in public and for
the publication of the entries made in copyright register.
b. 1984 Amendment As the piracy has become a global problem due to the rapid
advances in technology and has assured alarming proportions all over the world, all
the countries started to make efforts to meet the challenge by taking stringent
legislative and enforcement measures. This problem of piracy and necessity for
taking sufficient anti-piracy measures were also voiced by members of parliament at
the time of the consideration of the Bill to bring in the 1982 amendment.
In the contemporary world, mainly there are three types of piracy, namely
(i). piracy of the printed word; (ii) piracy of sound recordings (iii) piracy of
cinematograph films. The object of the pirate in all such cases is to make quick
money and avoid payments of legitimate royalties and taxes. The emergence of new
techniques of recordings, fixation and reproduction of audio programs, combined
26
with the advent of video technology have greatly helped the pirates. The loss to
government in terms of tax evasion also amounts to cores of rupees.
In view of those circumstances, it was proposed to amend the Copyright Act,
1957 to combat effectively the piracy that is prevalent in the country.
The Bill of the proposed 1984 amendment contained the following objects
1. To increase the punishment provided for the infringement of the copyright,
namely, imprisonment of 3 years, with a minimum punishment of imprisonment
of 6 months, and a fine upto Rs. 2 lakhs, with a minimum of Rs. 50,000/-
2. To provide for enhanced punishment in case of second and subsequent
convictions.
3. To provide for the declaration of the offence of infringement of copyright as an
economic offence so that the period of limitation provided in the code of
criminal procedure, 1973, for offences will not be applicable to this offences;
4. To specifically make the provisions of the Act, applicable to video-films and
computer programs;
5. To require the producers of records and video films to display certain
information in the record, video films and containers, thereof.
This 1984 Amendment came into force on 08-10-1984 immediately
thereafter; several writ petitions seeking a stay of amending law were filed in a
number of high courts across the country and in the supreme court of India.
On an appeal filed by the aggrieved applicant in film Federation of India Vs
Union of India,16 a Division Bench of the High Court dismissed the appeal and
observed
"A legislative enactment is intended to give effect to some policy and
implement it private litigants or persons who happen to be beneficiaries of such a
policy enacted in the form of legislation can really have no say in a matter which is
16 AIR 1986 Mad.43 at P.65-67.
27
exclusively within the domain of the government activity. It is primarily and wholly
for the government to support its own legislation though in case the court wants
some assistance the court can permit a party to intervene but that is for the limited
purpose, of assistant to the court for deciding the dispute before it "
Where the validity of a statute ............... is challenged a private litigant who
happened to be the beneficiary of the policy envisaged under the Act cannot be
allowed to be joined as a party because what is sought to be done is not to put the law
in motion but to make an attempt to defend a legislation, to which government alone
was necessary party to support its own legislation."
The Court refused to accept as a principle that a beneficiary of a statute is
entitled to be heard in addition to the state or Union government as the case may be
in support of a statutory enactment.
c. 1994 Amendment It was observed that the anti piracy provisions incorporated in
the 1984 amendment had not worked effectively, a working group was set up in
1987 by the government to study the provisions of the Act and to recommend
suitable amendments, taking into consideration the advances made in
communication technology such as video, satellite and other means of simultaneous
communication and to fulfill India's obligations as a signatory to the Berne
convention and the Universal Copyright Convention. In July 992, the copyright Bill
was introduced in the parliament. The purposes of the proposed legislation were
explained as under.
"Effective copyright protection promotes and rewards human creativity and,
in modern society, an indispensable support for intellectual, cultural and economic
activity copyright law promotes the creation of literacy, artistic, dramatic and
musical works, cinematograph films and sound recordings by providing certain
exclusive rights to their authors and creators. The law relating to copyright and
related rights has been under comprehensive review of the government for some
time, taking into account the difficulties expressed by different groups of copyright
owners and others, the experience gained from the administration of the existing law
28
and the situation created by various technological developments that have taken
place".
Salient features of 1994 Amendment
The amending act provided for (i) performers rights protection covering any
visual or artistic presentation made live by one or more performers, (ii) copyright
societies, seeking to promote collective administration of the rights of authors,
composes and other creative artists, (iii) Assignment of copyright by an author or
artistic to protect the interests of both assignor and assignee; and (iv) Computer
programs, cinematograph films and sound recordings; protection. A large number of
the provisions in the amending legislation are self-explanatory and clarificatory in
nature.
d. 1999 Amendment The Copyright Act was again amended in 1999 which
amended definition of 'literacy work', meaning of copyright in respect of a computer
program, increased the term of copyright of performers from 25 to 50 years, inserted
certain Government to apply the provisions relating to Broadcasting organizations
and performs to broadcasting organizations and performers in certain other countries,
and power to restrict rights of foreign broadcasting organizations and performers.
CHAPTER-3
COPYRIGHT - ANALYSIS OF THE LAW
Section 14 of the 1957 Act defines copyright as an "exclusive right by virtue
of and subject to the provisions of this Act" to do and authorize doing of any number
of prescribed acts in relation to literary, artistic, dramatic works and to the
cinematograph films and records".
In general, copyright protection can be secured for all binds of creative works
(literary, artistic, musical and dramatic works and so on). However, the U.S.
29
copyright code, title 17, section 5, lists the following classes of works that can be
copyrighted 17
1)Books, including composite and cyclopedic works, dictionaries, gazettes and
other compilations.
2)Books including composite newspapers.
3)Dramatic or dramatic-musical compositions.
4) Lectures, sermons, addresses (prepared for oral delivery)
5)Musical compositions
6)Maps
7)Works of art; models or designs for works of art
8)Reproduction of a work of art
9) Drawings for plastic works of scientific or technical
10) Character
11) Photographs
12) Prints or pictorial illusions, including prints or labels
13) Used for articles or merchandise
14) Motion picture photoplays
15) Motion pictures other than photoplays
16) Sound recording
17) Sculptures
18) Audio-visual works
17 William Z. Nasri “Crisis in Copyright” Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York.
30
19) Web pages and computer programs.
Almost all works created after 1978, even those with no mention of copyright,
have copyright protection.
3.1 MEANING OF COPYRIGHT
Copyright is defined in the concise oxford dictionary as "the exclusive right
given by law, for a certain term of years, to an author, composer etc. (or his
assignee) to print, publish and sell copies of his original works".
The moral justification for providing legal protection is based as on the
principle that a man is entitled to the fruits of his brain as much as he is entitled to
the fruits of his mechanical labour. The universal declaration of human rights says
"Everyone has the right to the protection of the moral and material interests
resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic production of which he is the
author".
The unabridged Webster's third international dictionary defines a photocopy
as "a negative or positive photographic reproduction of graphic matter (as drawing
or printing)".
The oxford English dictionary defines "copying" as "the action of the verb
copy". It also defines "copy" as "an imitation of anything; a reproduction of an
original and in a sense, copy reflects plenty and abundance (copious quantity)".18
Black's law dictionary defines "copy" as a transcript or a double of an original
writing.19
Copying can be done by hand or by a machine. The first mechanical
duplicator of documents was invented late in the 19 th century by Thomas Alva
Edison. Mr.Dick of A.B. Dick Company of Chicago a former lumberman, who
became bored with copying his price list by hand, obtained the rights to produce and
market Edison's mimeograph.20
18 Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford Clarendon press, 1933, Vol.11, P. 978-979. 19 Black’s Law Dictionary, 6th ed. St. Paul West 1951, P. 405.20 John Brooks, “Profiles “Xerox Xerox Xerox Xerox” The New York 63 46 (April 1, 1967).
31
The Oxford English Dictionary21 provides several definitions for the work
"copy" (to imitate, without reference to an original, and so forth). It also defines
"copy" as "plenty", abundance. The same dictionary makes it clear that during the
middle ages there was an area of deceit associated with the work "copy". From the
late 16th century until Victorian times "copy" and "counterfeit" were almost
synonymous. It was also a favorite Victorian habit to call a person a "pale copy" of
another.
On the other hand, Black's Dictionary defines copy as "a transcript or a
double of an original writing.22" And as it related to the law of copyright, a copy is "a
reproduction or duplication of a thing or that which comes so near to the original as
to give to every person seeing it the idea created by the original."23
The commercial interest of book publishers had called for a "copyright"24 and
much the same applied to artistic works. But in the arts of drama and music,
exploitation occurred as much through performance as through the sale of copies.
Play wrights, composers and their commercial associated sought a "use" right upon
each public performance of the work. In 1833 this distinct performing right was
given in dramatic works 25 and in 1842 extended to musical works. The 1911 Act
gave the producers of sound recordings their own exclusive right to prevent the
reproduction of their recordings (and as the courts later held, also to prevent public
performances of them).26 Copyright protection gradually expanded to cover other
domains of intellectual creation like sculpture, architecture, choreography and
broadcasting.
Section 14 of the 1957 Act defines copyright as an "exclusive right, by virtue
of and subject to, the provisions of this Act "To do and authorize doing of any
number of prescribed acts in relation to literary, artistic and dramatic works and to
cinematograph films and records. Despite this clear formulation, judges and jurists
often speak of copyright as a kind of "negative right", which is both in accurate and
21 Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford Clarendon press, 1933, Vol.11, P. 978-979.22 Black’s Law Dictionary, 4th ed. St. Paul, Minn; West 1951, P. 405.23 Mc Connor V. Kaufman, 49, F. Supp, (S.D. New York, 1943), P. 738-744.24 Back V. Longman(1777), COW, P. 623.25 Copyright The development and exercise of the performing right (1980), Chap.3-5.26 CA 1911, S. 19(1); Gramphone Co. V. Cawardine (1934), Ch.450.
32
misleading. It bears reiteration that the set of rights subsumed under the rubric
"copyright" is primarily defined in affirmative and positive sense; copyright
constitutes property rights in personam and in rem, violation of which can be
redressed under the provisions of the Act. It is also important to stress at the outset
that copyright is defined as a statutory right, owing its existence and stature within
the four corners of the Act.
The rights of authors of literary, artistic, dramatic and musical works, cinema
films and records are in some respects similar; The meaning of copyright, for each
category of work, is quite extensive especially when we note that the definitions of
most genres of work is inclusive rather than exhaustive and that copyright protection
extends to all kinds of work including those which represent "originality at vanishing
point".27 Even so the Act be section 15 specifically excludes designs which is
capable of being registered under the Indian patents and designs act 1911.28 This
exclusion is understandable. What is not so readily understandable is the fact that by
necessary implication it is legally permissible to register or claim a copyright in a
trademark, which is also capable of registration as a trademark, receiving thus dual
protection. Since the registration of copyright is relatively simple and expeditious
process as compared with trademarks, the office of the registrar of copyright is
inundated with registration application for copyright in marks as "literary" or
"artistic" works.
Besides-concurrent registration of both trademark and copyright in relation to
the same matter often causes understandable, but avoidable, judicial confusion
where, for example, standards apt for judging passing-off action for marks tend to
rub off to the determination of copyright infringement in the same proceedings.29
Time is certainly ripe for Indian Parliament to provide for exclusion of trademarks
from the scope of Sec.15 of the Act.
Definition of Copyright
27 Govindan V. Gopalakrishnan, AIR 1955 Mad. 391 to 393.28 Copyright in a design capable of being registered under the patents and designs act shall cease as soon as the article to which the design is applied has been reproduced by an industrial process (Sec.15(2)).29 Khemraj V. Garg 7 Co., AIR 1975 Delhi 135.
33
Section 14 of the Act gives a comprehensive definition of term "copyright".
Sec.14 "Copyright" means the exclusive right subject to the provisions of this
Act, to do or authorize the doing of any of the following acts in respect of a work
or any substantial part there of namely -
a) In the case of a literary, dramatic or musical work, not being a
computer program,
i) to reproduce the work in any material form including the storing of
it in any medium by electronic means;
ii) to issue copies of the work to the public not being copies already in
circulation.
iii) to perform the work in public, or communicate it to the public;
iv) to make any cinematograph film or sound recording in respect of
the work;
v) to make any translation of the work
vi) to make any adaptation of the work
vii) to do, in relation to a translation or adaptation of the work, any of the
acts specified in relation to the work in sub clauses (i) to (vi);
b) in the case of a computer program
i) to do any of the acts specified in clause (a),
ii) to sell or give on commercial rental or offer for sale or for commercial
rental any copy of the computer program.
Provided that such commercial rental does not apply in respect of computer
programs where the program itself is not the essential object of the rental;
c) in the case of an artistic work,
34
i) to produce the work in any material form including depiction in three
dimensions of a two dimensional work or in two dimensions of a three
dimensional work;
ii) to sell or give on hire, or offer for sale or hire, any copy of the computer
program, regardless of whether such copy has been sold or given on hire
on earlier occasions";
iii) to communicate the work to the public;
iv) to is copies of the work to the public not being copies already in
circulation;
v) to include the work in any cinematograph film;
vi) to make any adaptation of the work;
vii)to do in relation to an adaptation of the works - any of the acts specified in
relation of the work in sub-clauses (i) to (iv);
d) in the case of a cinematograph film
i) to make a copy of the film, including a photograph of any image forming
part thereof;
ii) to sell or give on hire, or offer for sale or hire, any copy of the film,
regardless of whether such copy has been sold or given on hire on earlier
occasions.
iii) to communicate the film to the public;
e) in the case of a sound recording
i) to make any other sound recording embodying it;
ii) to sell or give on hire, or offer for sale or hire, any copy of the sound
recording regardless of whether such coy has been sold or given on hire on
earlier occasions.
iii) to communicate the sound recording to the public;
35
Analysis of Statutory Meaning
The definition and meaning of copyright given under section 14 can be
analysed as follows
i) It means an exclusive right.
ii) It authorizes doing of different acts in different categories of works.
iii) It means, in the case of literary, dramatic or musical work not being a
computer program The exclusive right -
• to reproduce the work in any material form including its storing.
• to issue copies of work to the public, if they are already not in
circulation.
• to perform the work in public; or communicate it to the public.
• to make cinematograph film or sound-recording in respect of the
work;
• to make any translation of the work
• to make any adaptation of the work; and
• to do, in relation to a translation or an adaptation of the work, any of
the acts mention here in above.
3.2 SUBJECT MATTER OF COPYRIGHT
36
37
Copyright in Literary, Dramatic, Musical and Artistic works
Copyright subsists, under section 13, in three classes of works (a) original
literary, dramatic, musical and artistic works; (b) cinematograph film; and (c) sound
recording. The requirement of 'originality' mentioned in the section does not refer to
ideas but to the manner and material forms of their expression. The word original
does not mean that the work must be the expression of original or invented thoughts,
but not copied from other work.30 Any thing written by an author by his own skill,
labour and judgment, may have a copyright unless it is directly copied or evasively
initiated from another's work.31 Rajasthan High Court had held that the 'original
work' does not mean that the work must be the expression of original or invested
thought. The requirement of 'originality' in Indian law, as elsewhere does not refer to
ideas but rather to the manner and material forms of their expression.32
The objective of copyright, in India is stressed, not to 'create monopoly in
ideas', rather, the protection aims at prevention of unlawful reproduction of dealing
with the manner and material form in which ideas are expressed.33
Originality for the purpose of copyright law relates to the expression of
thought but such expression need not be novel. What is protected is expression of
thought the form, formulation, order, plan or arrangement of presentation as
testifying to the investment by the author of mental faculties, skills, competence,
craftsmanship, knowledge, labour and capital in the production of any work. In other
works, the requirement of originality is an elliptical way of expressing the idea that
the work should not be a substantial copy of another work; or more colorfully (but
less precisely) it should not amount piracy (or to vary the usual metaphor a little,
hijacking) of another's skill, competence, craftsmanship, labour and capital. In a
sense, copyright law protects the author against dishonest and willful
misappropriation or theft of the author's efforts.
Obviously, then the notion of 'originality' does not even entail a modicum of
novelty or creativity. The extent or amount of 'originality' in expression or material
30 Macmillan Company Ltd. Vs. K&J Co-Op, AIR 1924 PC 75 at P.8331 Ibid at P.81.32 N.T. Raghunathan V. AIR 1971, Bom 48; R.G. Ananda Vs. Delux Films, AIR 1978 SC 1613 at 162733 Ibid.
38
form may be very small but that small amount is protected by law.34 The law of
copyright it has been well said protects originality even at "its vanishing point".35
Literary Works
Literary work has been defined under section 2(o) of the act, as including the
computer programs, tables and compilations including computer data bases. The
judiciary interpreted the literary works as which is expressed in print or writing
irrespective of the question whether the quality or style is high. In the case of
University of London press Vs. University Tutorial press36 and also in an Indian
case of Agarwal Publishing House Vs. Board of High School and Intermediate
Education.37 The courts have held that even examination papers would fit in the
definition of literary work, taking into account the expression of the idea in that
work.
To determine whether a literary work is capable of protection, the test is that
of originality. Some illustrations of original literary works.
i. Dissertations.
ii. Writings, sermons and sayings of religious preachers.38 News paper
telegrams, rules of games, rules of foot ball compilation and tallies for
bridge parties.39
iii. Dictionary involving considerable amount of labour, skill and
judgment.40
iv. Examination question papers
v. Head notes of law reports and other case reports.
vi. The analysis and presentation of facts in historical books etc.
34 Govindan V. Gopalakrishnan, AIR 1955 Mad 391 at 39335 Ibid.36 University of London Press Vs. University Tutorial Press, 1916 2ch.601.37 AIR 1967 All 191.38 Mavens Crafts S. Herbert (1980) RPC 193.39 Under Sec.2(h) of the Act. Sec.2(ffc) of the Act for definition.40 Satsang Vs. Kiran Chandra Mukhopathyay, 1990 Raj. S. Mohan lal Gupta Vs. Board of Education (1978)1 PLR 83.
39
Dramatic Works
The "dramatic work" includes any piece for recitation, choreographic work or
entertainment in dumb show, the scenic arrangement or acting form of which is
fixed in writing or otherwise but does not include a cinematograph film.
The definition of 'dramatic work' a motion picture cannot be regarded as a
piece of recitation or a choreographic work or entertainment in dumb show.
The Bombay High Court has recently held that in Fortune films V. Dev
Anand,41 in view of the specific exclusion of the cinema films ran the definition of a
dramatic work, that an actor in a cinema film may not claim any copyright in his
acting. Moreover such acting, the court held, does not fall within the categories
"pieces of recitation", "choreographic work" or "scenic arrangement in a dumb
show..."
Performance of a film actor would not qualify as a dramatic work, it was held
by Supreme Court's decision in Indian Performing Rights Society (IPRS) vs. Eastern
India Motion Picture (EIMP)42
Musical Work
Copyright protection in musical work, means a work consisting of music and
includes any graphical notation of such work. Delhi High Court held that Musical
work is not merely a combination of melody and harmony or either of them, it must
be printed, reduced to writing or otherwise graphically produced or reproduced.43
Copyright in Computer Program
In case of computer programs, copyright extends to
i) Doing any of the acts like reproduction, storage and translation etc, which
can be done in respect of the literary, dramatic or musical works; and
ii) Selling or giving on hire, or offering for sale.
Artistic Works
41 AIR 1979 Bom.17.42 AIR 1977 SC 1443.43 Gramaphone Co. Vs. Super Cassette Industries, 1996 PTC 252(Del)
40
Any colour, scheme or get up or layout or arrangement of any alphabets or
features is undoubtedly an artistic work. The distinctive features including the style
of the letters or alphabets are also capable of protection under copyright.44 When
once copyright is claimed under designs act then it cannot be claimed protection
under copyright for artistic work.
Artistic works cover a wide range of works i.e. painting, sculpture, drawing,
an engraving or a photograph. The drawings and brochures prepared by a scientist or
any other technical expert, all these works come under artistic works to claim
protection they must be original of hire any computer program whether in circulation
or not. Indian copyright act legislation is advanced in protecting the computer
programs from piracy and it is possible through the Amendment in 1994.
Computer program means a set of instructions, expressed in words, codes,
schemes or in any other form including a machine readable medium, capable of
causing a computer to perform a particular task or to achieve a particular result. It
was defined under see 2(ffc) of copyright Act, Delhi High Court held in a recent case
that list of clients and addresses designed by an advocate or law firm amounts to a
computer data base, and it is protected under literary work under section 2(o) of copy
right Act, 1957.45 Amendment of 1994 included the works of the film artist is
protected under the head "performer's right".
Copyright in Cinematograph Film
A cinematograph film includes sound track of a film and the sounds embodied
in a sound track which is associated with the film.46 Video tapes come within the
44 Glaxo India Ltd. Vs. Akay Pharma Pvt. Ltd., 2002(2) Ray 275. Microfibres Inc. vs. Giridhar and Co., 2006(1) Raj 301(Del).45 Dilject Titus Vs. Alfred A. Adebare, 2006(3) Raj 112 (Del).46 Indian Performing Rights Society Vs. Eastern Indian motion picture Association AIR 1977 SC 1443 at P.1450, See also Fortune Films International Vs. Dev. Anand, AIR 1979 Bom.17.
41
expression cinematograph film in view of the extended definition in the Act.47 Video
films are deemed to be works analogous to cinematograph.48 Video and T.V. are
cinematograph and both are instruments of representation of movie pictures or series
of pictures and that are capable of use for the reception of signs, signals, images and
sounds. Copyright protection extends to making a copy of the film, taking a
photograph of any image forming part of the film. Selling, giving in hire or offering
for sale or hire any copy of the film, irrespective of its earlier sale or hire, and
communicating the film to the public.
Copyright in Sound Recordings
Sound recording means a recording of sound from which such sounds may be
produced regardless of medium on which such recording is made or the method by
which the sounds are produced.49
Singers, music composers and manufacturers and producers of audio and
video cassettes normally become the victims of piracy in case of sound recordings.
There are also sound recordings of musical, literary and dramatic works available in
the form of "pre-recorded" phonograms, which are produced by the recording
industry. Any "record" such as a tape, vinyl disc, compact disc, compact cassette, or
other devices embodying sounds which are capable of being reproduced there from
are protected copyright works.
3.3 OWNERSHIP OF COPYRIGHT
The author of a work shall be the first owner of the copyright, ownership of
copyright exists in literary, dramatic or artistic works, photographs, address or
speech delivered in public, government work and work made or first published by or
under the direction or control of any public undertaking.
Ownership Of Copyright
Author has been defined under sec. 2(d) of the Act, as
i) In relation to a literary or dramatic works, the author of the work.
47 Entertaining Enterprises, Mad. Vs. State of Tamil Nadu, AIR 1984 Mad 278.48 Indian Performing Rights Society Ltd. AIR 1977 SC 1443.49 Under Sec.2(xx) of the Copyright Act, 1957 as submitted by the Copyright Act, 1994 Sec.2, w.e.f. 10.05.1995.
42
ii) In relation to a musical work, the composer.
iii) In relation to an artistic work other than a photograph, the artist.
iv) In relation to a photograph, the person taking the photograph.
v) In relation to a cinematograph film or sound recording, the producer; and
vi) In relation to any literary, dramatic, musical or artistic work which is
computer generated, the person who causes the work to be created. In all
these works author is entitled to the firs owner of the work.
When the work is to be created. In all these works author is entitled to the
first owner of the work.
When the work is created by joint authors then both authors are entitled to
the ownership if there is intellectual contribution by two or more persons.
When the work is produced by the member of an undivided joint Hindu
family, though he is a member of joint family copyright is vested only to that
member who had produced it.
Ownership in Government works, the government will be the first
owner, unless there is an agreement to the contrary.50
Ownership of Copyright and rights of the owner
Column Genre Rights
A a. Literary works 1. Right to / reproduce the work in any
material form S.14 (a)(i); (b)(i).
2. Right to publish the work S.14 (a)(ii); (b)
(ii).
50 Under Sec.17(d) of the Act.
43
3. Right to make any adaptation of the work
S.14 (a)(vii); b(iv).
4. Right to translate the work.
5. Right to convert into music / record.
b. Artistic works i. Right to perform in public
ii. Right to broadcast the work
iii. Right to adapt or copy the work.
iv. Right to make a cinematograph film.
v. Right to create sound track / recordings.
c. Dramatic works i. Right to reproduce the work
ii. Right to publish the work in the material
form.
iii. Right to make a cine film.
iv. Right to adapt the work.
d. Musical works i. Right to broadcast the work.
ii. Right to perform the work in public
iii. Right to make sound track or recording
iv. Right to copy the work.
e. Computer Programs i. Right to use in literary work, drama artistic
work, music, engineering design. Sports /
games and others.
f. Cinematograph film i. Right to make a copy of the film. [S14(c) (i)]
ii. Right to cause the film, in so far as it consists
of sounds to be heard in public (S.14(c)(ii).
iii. Right to cause the film, in so far as it consists
of visual images, to be seen in public.
iv. Right to communicate the film by radio
diffusion S.14(c)(iv).
v. Right to make any record "embodying the
recording in any part of the sound track
associated with the film by utilizing such
sound track" S.14(c)(iii).
44
b. Sound recording i. Right to make any other record embodying
the same recording S.14(d)(i)
ii. Right to "cause the recording embodied in
the record to the heard in public". S.14(d)(ii).
iii. Right to "communicate the recording
embodied in the record by radio diffusion"
S.14(d)(iii).
h. In respect of all
works
i. Right to total or partial assignment (S.18);
testamentary disposition (S.20) and right to
relinquishment (S.21).
ii. Right "paternity" (that is, "right to claim
authorship of the work" despite assignment,
total or partial)
iii. Right to "integrity" in works (that is, right to
object to distortions, mutilations of work,
which prejudice authors’ honour or
reputation) (S.57).
iv. Right to make sound track or recording
3.4 REGISTRATION OF COPYRIGHT
In general, copyright registration is a legal formality intended to make a public
record of the basic facts of a particular copyright. However, registration is not a
condition of copyright protection. Even though registration is no a requirement for
protection, the copyright law provides several inducements or advantages to
encourage copyright owners to make registration. Among these advantages are the
following
Registration establishes a public record of the copyright claim.
Before an infringement suit may be filed in Court, registration is necessary for
works of U.S. origin.
45
If made before or within 5 years of publication, registration will establish
prima facie evidence in Court of the validity of the copyright and of the facts
stated in the certificate.
If registration is made within 3 months after publication of the work or prior to
an infringement of the work, statutory damages and attorney’s fees will be
available to the copyright owner in Court actions. Otherwise, only an award
of actual damages and profits is available to the copyright owner.
Registration allows the owner of the copyright to record the registration with
the U.S. Customs Service for protection against the importation of infringing
copies.
Registration may be made at any time within the life of the copyright. Unlike
the law before 1978, when a work has been registered in unpublished form, it is not
necessary to make another registration when the work becomes published, although
the copyright owner may register the published edition, if desired.
Registration Procedures
Original Registration
To register a work, send the following three elements in the same envelope or
package to
Library of Congress
Copyright Office
101 Independence Avenue
SE Washington, DC 20559-6000
1. A properly completed application form.
2. A nonrefundable filing fee”’ for each application.
3. A no returnable deposit of the work being registered. The deposit requirements
vary in particular situations. The general requirements follow. Also note the
information under “Special Deposit Requirements”
46
If the work was first published in the United States on or after
January 1, 1978, two complete copies or phonorecords of the best edition,
If the work was first published in the United States before January
1, 1978, two complete copies or phonorecords of the work as first published.
If the work was first published outside the United States; one
complete copy or phonorecord of the work as first published.
If sending multiple works, all applications, deposits, and fees
should be sent in the same package. If possible, applications should be
attached to the appropriate deposit. Whenever possible, number each package
(e.g. 1 of 3, 2 of 4) to facilitate processing.
Renewal Registration
To register a renewal, send
1. A properly completed application Form RE and, if necessary Form RE
Addendum, and
2. A nonrefundable filing fee for each application. (See Note above). Each
Addendum form must be accompanied by a deposit representing the work
being reviewed. See Circular is, Renewal of Copyright.
Complete the application form using black ink pen or type. You may
photocopy blank application forms. However, photocopied forms submitted to the
Copyright Office must be clear, legible, on a good grade of 8V * 11” white paper
suitable for automatic feeding through a Photocopier. The forms should be printed,
preferably in black ink, head-to-head so that when you turn the sheet over, the top of
page 2 is directly behind the top of page 1. Forms not meeting these requirements
may be returned resulting in delayed registration.
Pre-registration
Preregistration is a service intended for works that have had a history of
prerelease infringement. To be eligible for preregistration, a work must be
unpublished and must be in the process of being prepared for commercial distribution.
47
It must also fall within a class of works determined by Register of Copyrights to have
had a history of infringement prior to authorize commercial distribution.
Preregistration is not a substitute for registration. The preregistration application is
only available online.
Special Deposit Requirements
A special deposit requirement exists for many types of works. The following
are prominent examples of exceptions to the general deposit requirements
If the work is a motion picture, the deposit requirement is one complete copy
of the unpublished or published motion picture and a separate written
description of its contents, such as continuity, press book, or synopsis.
If the work is a literary, dramatic, or musical work published only in a
phonorecord, the deposit requirement is one completed phonorecord.
If the work is an unpublished or published computer program, the deposit
requirement is one visually perceptible copy in source code of the fist 25 and
last 25 pages of the program.
For a program of fewer than 50 pages, the deposit is a copy of the entire
program. For more information on computer program registration, including
deposits for revised programs and provisions for trade secrets, request Circular
6L Copyright Registration for Computer Program.
If the work is in the CD-ROM format, the deposit requirement is one complete
copy of the material, that is, the CD-ROM, the operating software, and any
manuals (2) accompanying it. If registration is sought for the computer
program on the CD-ROM, the deposit should also include a printout of the
first 25 and last 25 pages of source code for the program.
In the case of works reproduced in three-dimensional copies, identifying
material such as photographs or drawings is ordinarily required. Other examples of
special deposit requirements (but by no means an exhaustive list) include many works
of the visual arts such as greeting cards, toys, fabrics, and oversized materials (request
48
Circular 40a, Deposit Requirements for Registration of Claims to Copyright in Visual
Arts Material); automated databases (request Circular 65, Copyright Registration for
Automated Databases); and contributions to collective works. For information about
deposit requirements for group registration of serials, request Circular 62, Copyright
Registration for Serials.
If you are unsure of the deposit requirement for your work, write or call the
Copyright Office and describe the work you wish to register.
Unpublished Collections
Under the following conditions, a work may be registered in unpublished form
as a “collection/with one application form and one fee
The elements of the collection are assembled in an orderly form;
The combined elements bear a single title identifying the collection as a
whole;
The copyright claimant in all the elements and in the collection as a whole is
the same; and
All the elements are by the same author, or if they are by different authors, at
least one of the authors has contributed copyrightable authorship to each
element.
An unpublished collection is not indexed under the individual titles of the
contents but under the title of the collection.
Effective Date of Registration
A copyright registration is effective on the date the Copyright Office receives
all the required elements in acceptable form, regardless of how long it then takes the
process the application and mails the certificate of registration. The time the
Copyright Office requires to process an application varies, depending on the amount
of material the Office is receiving. If you apply for copyright registration, you will not
49
receive an acknowledgement that your application has been received (the Office
receives more than 600,000 applications annually), but you can expect
A letter or a telephone call from a Copyright Office staff member if further
information is needed or
A certificate of registration indicating that the work has been registered, or if
the application cannot be accepted, a letter explaining why it has been
rejected.
Requests to have certificates available for pickup in the Public Information
Office or to have certificate sent by Federal Express or another mail service cannot be
honored.
If you want to know the date that the Copyright Office receives your material,
send it by registered of certified mail and request a return receipt.
Corrections and Amplifications of Existing Registrations
To correct an error in a copyright registration or to amplify the information
given in a registration, file with the Copyright Office a supplementary registration
Form CA together with the filing. The information in a supplementary registration
augments but does not supersede that contained in the earlier registration. Note also
that a supplementary registration is not a substitute for an original registration, for a
renewal registration, or for recording a transfer of ownership. For further information
about supplementary registration, request Circular 8, Supplementary Copyright
Registration.
Who may file an Application Form?
The following persons are legally entitled to submit an application form
The author. This is the person who actually created the work or, if the work
was made for hire, the employer or other person for whom the work was
prepared.
50
The copyright claimant. The copyright claimant is defined in Copyright
Office regulations as either the author of the work or a person or organization
that has obtained ownership of all the rights under the copyright initially
belonging to the author. This category includes a person or organization who
has obtained by contract the right to claim legal title to the copyright in an
application for copyright registration.
The owner of exclusive right(s). Under the law, any of the exclusive rights
that make up a copyright and any subdivision of them can be transferred and
owned separately, even though the transfer may be limited in time or place of
effect. The term “copyright owners” with respect to anyone of the exclusive
rights contained in a copyright refers to the owner of that particular right. Any
owner of an exclusive right may apply for registration of a claim in the work.
The duly authorized agent of such author, other copyright claimant, or
owner of exclusive right (s). Any person authorized to act on behalf of the
author, other copyright claimant, or owner of exclusive rights may apply for
registration.
There is no requirement that applications be prepared or filed by an attorney.
APPLICATION FORMS
For Original Registration
Form PA for published and unpublished works of the performing arts
(musical and dramatic works, pantomimes and
choreographic works, motion pictures and other audiovisual
works)
Form SE for serials, works issued or intended to be issued in
successive parts bearing numerical or chronological
designations and intended to be continued indefinitely
Form SR For published and unpublished sound recordings
Form TX For published and unpublished non dramatic literary works
Form VA For published and unpublished works of the visual arts
(pictorials, graphic, and sculptural works, including
architectural works)
Form G/DN A specialized form to register a complete month’s issues of
a daily newspaper when certain conditions are met
Short Form/ SE and
Form SE/GROUP
Specialized SE forms for use when certain requirements are
met
Short Forms TX, PA
and VA
Short version of applications for original registration. For
further information about using the short forms, request
publication SL-7.
Form GATT Specialized form to register a claim in a work in which U.S.
copyright was restored under the 1994 Uruguay Round
Agreements Act (URAA). For further information, request
Circular 38b
For Renewal Registration
Form RE For claims to renew copyright in works copyrighted
under the law in effect through December 31, 1977
(1909) Copyright Act) and registered during the initial
28-year copyright term.
Form RE Accompanies Form RE for claims to renew copyright in
works copyrighted.
Addendum Under the 1909 Copyright Act but never registered
during their initial 28- year copyright term
For Corrections and Amplifications
52
Form CA for supplementary registration to correct or amplify
information given in the Copyright Office record of an
earlier registration.
For Group of Contributions to Periodicals
Form GR/CP an adjunct application to be used for registration of a
group of contributions to periodicals in addition to an
application Form TX, PA, or VA.
How to Obtain Application Forms?
See “For Further Information”
You must have Adobe-Acrobat Reader @ installed on your computer to view
and print the forms accessed on the Internet. Adobe Acrobat Reader may be
downloaded free from Adobe Systems Incorporated through links from the same
website from which the forms are available. Print forms head to head (top of page 2
is directly behind the top of page 1) on a single piece of good quality, 8V2 x 11”
white paper. To achieve the best quality copies of the application forms, use a laser
printer.
Fill-In Forms Available
Most Copyright Office forms are available on the Copyright Office website in
fill in version. Go to www.copyright.gov/forms and follow the instructions. The fill-
in forms allow you to enter information while the form is displayed on the screen by
an Adobe Acrobat Reader product. You may then print the completed form and mail
it to the Copyright Office. Fill-in forms provide a clean, sharp printout for your
records and for filing with the Copyright Office.
Certifications and Documents Section
These fees may be charged in person in the office or by phone addition
certificates; copies of documents and deposits; searching, locating and retrieving
deposits; certifications; and expedited processing.
53
Public Information Office
These fees may only be charged in person in the office, not by phone standard
registration request forms; special handling requests for all standard registration
requests; request for services provided by the Certifications and Documents Section
when the request is accompanied by a request for special handling; search requests for
which a fee estimate has been provided; additional fee for each claim using the same
deposit; full term retention fees; appeal fees; Secure Test processing fee; short fee
payments when accompanied by a Remittance Due Notice; in process retrieval fees;
and online service providers fees.
Reference and Bibliography Section
Requests for searches on a regular or expedited basis can be charged to a
credit card by phone.
Records Maintenance Unit
Computer time on COINS, printing from the Optical Disk, and photocopying
can be charged in person in the office.
Fiscal Control Section
Deposit Accounts maintained by the Fiscal Control Section may be
replenished by credit card. See Circular 5, How to Open and Maintain a Deposit
Account in the Copyright Office. NIE recordations and claims filed on Form GATT
may be paid by credit card if the cart number is included in a separate letter that
accompanies the form.
Search of Copyright Office Records
The records of the Copyright Office are open for inspection and searching by
the public. Moreover, on request and payment of a fee,* the Copyright Office will
search its records for you. For information on searching the Office records
concerning the copyright status or ownership of a work, request Circular 22-1 How to
Investigate the Copyright Status of a Work, and Circular 23, The Copyright Card
Catalog and the Online Files of the Copyright Office. Copyright Office records in
54
machine-readable form cataloged from January 1, 1978 to the present, including
registration and renewal information and recorded documents, are now available for
searching from the Copyright Office.
The Copyright Office is not permitted to give legal advice. If information or
guidance is needed on matters such as disputes over the ownership of a copyright,
suits against possible infringers, the procedure for getting a work published, or the
method of obtaining royalty payments, it may be necessary to consult an attorney.
3.5 RIGHTS OF OWNER OF COPYRIGHT
The owners of the copyright enjoy many rights in respect of the artistic,
dramatic and literary works and other subject matters of copyright. The owner of
the copyright has a right to Assignment, Right to relinquish his copyright, right to
grant licenses, Broadcast reproduction right, performers rights, special rights of
authors and right to enter names in register of copyright and other incidental rights.
Moral rights, Resale share right in original copies, Right to sue for infringement.
Right of Assignment
The owner of the copyright in an existing work or the prospective owner of
the copyright in a future work has the right to assign copyright to any person. The
copyright may be assigned either wholly or partially and either generally or subject
to limitations and either for the whole term of the copyright or any part of the term. 51
There is an absolute freedom given to the owner of the copyright to enter into a
contract of assignment. However in the case of assignment of copyright in any future
work, the assignment will take effect only when the work comes into existence.
The person who assigns the copyright is called assignor and the person to
whom it is assigned is called assignee. After assignment the assignee becomes
entitled to any right comprised in the copyright and will be treated as the owner of
the copyright, in case of assignment of future works, the "assignee" includes the
legal representatives, if the assignee dies before the work comes into existence. In
case of joint ownership, rights are owned by different persons, assignment may be
done by one person.52
51 Under Sec.18 of the Act.52 Susaiah Vs. Munaswamy, AIR 1996 Mad. 175 (1976).
55
Right of an author to relinquish copyright
The author of a work has a right to relinquish all or any of the rights in the
copyright in the work, by giving notice to the registrar of copyrights. The effect of
such notice is that from the date of notice, all his rights cease to exist. However such
relinquishment of all or any rights comprised in the copyright in a work, does not
affect any rights subsisting in favour of any person on the date of notice. In other
words, a copyright owner can relinquish only those rights which he can, on his own
without affecting the rights of other persons like assignees.53
Rights to grant licenses
The owner of the copyright in any existing work may grant his interest in the
right by license in writing signed by him. Even a prospective owner of the copyright
in any future work may also grant license in respect of such work. Provided that
license will take effect only when the work comes into existence. If the licensee of a
future work dies before the work comes into existence, his legal representatives, in
the absence of any contrary agreement will be entitled to the benefit of such
license.54
A joint owner of a copyright can grant license or interest only with the
consent of the other joint owner, if the consent was not given by one of the joint
owners the he can sue the licensee for infringement of his right.55
The copyright Act, 1957 also provides compulsory licensing in works
withheld from the public. Under section 31 of the Act, if the owner of copyright
(a) has refused to republish work or has refused to allow the performance in
public of the work, and by reason of such refusal the work is withheld from the
public.
(b) The owner of the copyright has refused to allow communication to the
public by broadcast, of such work or the work recorded in such sound recordings. On
terms which the complainant considers reasonable.
53 Sec.21 of the Act.54 Under Sec.30 of the Act.55 Na. Sahitya Prabhas Vs. Anand Kumar, AIR 1981 All 2000.
56
Copyright Board, after giving reasonable opportunity to the owner of being
heard and after holding such inquiry as it deems fit, may, if it is satisfied that the
grounds of such refusal are not reasonable, compulsory license may be granted. This
provision is invoked in the larger interest of the society. Similarly there is a
provision for granting compulsory licensing in unpublished Indian works.56
Collective Right to control administration of owner's rights by copyright society
Copyright society will control the rights of owners whose rights administers.
The owner's approval would be necessary with regard to collection and distribution
of fear and, utilization of amounts collected. Further the owners would be entitled to
regular, full and detailed information concerning all the activities of copyright
societies in relation to administration of their rights.57
Broadcast Reproduction Right
Every broadcasting organization has a special right under the act, known as
"broadcast reproduction right" in respect of its broadcasts, which subsists until 25
years from the beginning of the calendar year next, following the year in which the
broadcast is made. If any person does any of the acts below, without the license of
the owner, it would amount to infringement of broadcast reproduction right.58
a) re-broadcasting of the broadcast; or
b) causing the broadcast to be heard or seen by the public on payment of
any changes; or
c) making any sound recording or visual recording of the broadcast; or
d) making any reproduction of such sound recording or visual recording,
where the same was done without any license; or
e) selling or hiring to the public, or offering to do it, any sound recording or
visual recording.56 See Sec. 31-32 of the Act.57 Under Sec.35 of the Act.58 Under Sec.37 of the Act.
57
Performer's Rights
Where any performer appears or engages in any performance, he will be
entitled to a special right known as the 'performer's right' in relation to such
performance, which subsists for 50 years from the beginning of the calendar ear
next, following the year in which the performance is made. Similarly the performer's
right will not be deemed to be infringed if its use is made for private use, bonafide
teaching or research, or for reporting of Current events etc.,59 If the performance is
recorded and thereafter exploited without the permission of the performer than the
performer's right is infringed.60
Right to enter names in the register of copyright and other incidental rights
The author or publisher of, or the owner, or any other interested person in the
copyright was a right to make an application for entering the particular of the work
in the register of copyrights.61 It is important to note that a person has an inherent
copyright in an original composition or compilation without the requirement of
registration.62
It is because the provisions contained in sections 44 and 45 of the Act are
enabling provisions and they do not affect the common law right to see for
infringement of the copyright.63 Now it is well established that registration of
copyright is not necessary and it is not a condition precedent for maintaining a suit
for damages for infringement of copyright.64
Special Rights of Authors
Even after the assignment of the said copyright either wholly or partly, the
author of a work will have a special right a) to claim authorship of the work; b) to
restrain or claim damages in respect of any distortion, mutilation, modification done
to his work before the expiration of his copyright, if such above mentioned acts
would be prejudicial to his honour or reputation.65 The author's special rights are also
59 Sec.39 of the Act.60 Neha Bhasin Vs. Anand Raj Anand; 2006(1) Raj 607 (Del).61 Under Sec.45 of the Act.62 Satsang Vs. Kiran Chandra Mukhopadhyay, AIR 1972 Cal.53363 R. Madhuvan Vs. S.K. Nayar, AIR 1988 Ker.39.64 AIR 1972 Cal 533, AIR 1981 All 200 and Manojah Cine Productions Vs. Sundarasan AIR 1976, Mad.22.65 Under Sec.57 of the Act.
58
called moral rights or droid moral. These are parallel to an independent of the
author's economic rights.
The Berne Convention in Article 6 directs the member states to protect the
moral rights of authors. Which are (i) the paternity right i.e. the right to claim
authorship of work and (ii) the integrity rights i.e.; the right to protect the honour and
reputation.
Right to sue for infringement
Where copyright in any work has been infringed, the owners of the
copyright will be entitled to all such remedies by way of
i) Injunction
ii) Damages
iii) Accounts.66
CHAPTER – 4
INFRINGEMENT OF COPYRIGHT
Under section 51 of the Copyright Act, 1957 infringement of copyright has
been explained.
4.1 WHAT IS INFRINGEMENT?
Copyright in any work is deemed to be infringed in the following cases -
[Definition of infringement].
i. When any person without a license from th4e owner of the copyright, or the
Registrar of copyright or in contravention of the terms and conditions of a
66 Under Sec.55 of the Act.
59
license so granted or of any condition imposed by a competent authority under
the act;
a. does anything, the exclusive right to do which is conferred upon the
owner of the copyright; or
b. permits for profit, any place to be used for the communication of the
work to the public where such communication constitutes an
infringement of the copyright in the work, unless he was not aware
and had no reasonable ground for behaving that such communication
to the public would be an infringement of copyright; or
ii. When any person
a. makes for sale or hire, or sells or lets for hire, or by way of trade,
displays or offers for sale or hire; or
b. distributes either for the purpose of trade or to such an extent as to
prejudicially affect the owner of the copyright; or
c. by way of trade, exhibits in public, or
d. imports into India any infringing copy of the work.
4.2 WHAT CONSTITUTES INFRINGEMENT OF COPYRIGHT
In order to constitute infringement of copyright two elements are essential
1. There must be sufficient objective similarity between the infringing work
and the copyright work.
2. Work must be the source from which the infringing work is derived, but it
need not be the direct source.
4.3 COMMON FORMS OF INFRINGEMENT
60
Infringement of copyright in a work occurs when one or more of the
following acts take place -
i. Reproduction of the work in a material form;
ii. Publication of the work to the public
iii. Communication of the work to the public
iv. Performance of the work in public
v. Making of adaptations and translations of the work and doing any of the above
acts in relation to a substantive part of the work.
4.4 INFRINGING COPY
Section 2(m) of the Copyright Act defines infringing copy. This section
further explains that, the reproduction of a literary, dramatic, musical or artistic work
in the form of a cinematograph film will be deemed to be an "infringing copy".
i. In relation to a literary, dramatic, musical or artistic, a reproduction of 1, except
in the form of a cinematograph film;
ii. In relation to a cinematograph film, making a copy of the film on any medium by
any means;
iii. In relation to a sound recording, making any other recording embodying
iv. In relation to a program in which a broadcast reproduction right subsists under
section 37, the sound recording or a cinematographic film of such program or
performance.
If such copy, or sound recording, or reproduction as the case may be, is made
or imported in contravention if the provisions of the Act. The copyright legislation in
India follows the principle "what is worth copying is worth protecting".67 For some
products with a view to deceive the purchasers and exploit and encash their good
will in order to pass off their products as that of the plaintiffs. In such a case the
plaintiffs are entitled to the grant of injunction prayed for.68
67 Panacea Biotec Ltd. Vs. ELprags Pharma, 2002(2) Raj.160.68 Anil Gupta Vs. Kunal Das Gupta 2002(2) Raj.347.
61
The main object for giving protection is to prevent the adoption of the colour
scheme, get up lay out or other features either wholly or partly in such a manner that
may create an impression or confusion or deception in the minds of the purchasing
public as to source and origin of the products.69
4.5 PRINCIPLES FOR DECIDING INFRINGEMENT OF COPYRIGHT
The Supreme Court (Anand V Delux films AIR, 1978; SC.1613) after
considering a number of English Indian and American authorities had laid down the
following principles in determing the copyright infringement.
a. There can be no copyright in an idea, subject-matter, themes, plots or
historical or legendary facts and violation of the copyright in such cases is
confined to the form, manner and arrangement and expression of the idea by
the author of the copyright work.
b. Where the same idea is being developed in a different manner, it is manifest
that the source being common, similarities are bound to occur. In such a
case the courts should determine whether or not the similarities are on
fundamental or substantial aspects of the made of expression adopted in the
copyright work. If the defendants work is nothing but a literal imitation of
the copyright work with some variations here and there it would amount to
violation of the copyright, in other words, in order to be actionable the copy
must be a substantial and material one which at once leads to the conclusion
that the defendant is guilty of an act of piracy.
c. One of the surest and safest tests to determine whether or not there has been
a violation of copyright is to see if the reader, spectator or the viewer after
having read or seen both the works is clearly of the opinion and gets an
unmistakable impression that the subsequent work appears to be a copy of
the original.
d. Where the theme is the same but is presented and treated differently so that
the subsequent work becomes a completely new work, no question of
violation of copyright arises.69 Glaxo India Ltd Vs. Akay Pharma Put Ltd., 2002(2) Raj 275.
62
e. Where however apart from the similarities appearing in the two works
there are also material and broad dissimilarities which negative the intention
to copy the original and the co-incidences appearing in the two works are
clearly incidental no infringement of the copyright comes into existence.
f. As a violation of copyright amounts to an act of piracy it must be proved by
clear and cogent evidence after applying the various tests laid down.
g. Where, however, the question is of the violation of the copyright of stage
played by a film producer or a director the task of the plaintiff becomes
more difficult to prove piracy. It is manifest that unlike a stage play a film
has a much broader perspective, wider field and a bigger background where
the defendants ca by introducing a variety of incidents give a colour and
complexion different from the manner in which the copyrighted work had
expressed the idea. Even so, if the viewer after seeing the film gets a totality
of impression that the film is by and large a copy of the original play,
violation of the copyright may be said to be proved.
To establish infringement it must be shown that the alleged infringing work
closely resembles the original work and that use has been made directly or indirectly
of the original work.
The question of infringement may be resolved by comparing the two works as a
whole and determining whether there is not merely an identity or a similarity or
resemblance in some of the leading features or in certain of the details, but whether,
keeping in view the idea and general effect created by the original, there is such a
degree of identity or similarity as would lead one to say that the alleged infringement
is a copy or reproduction of the original. Additions, omissions and modifications do
not avoid infringement of copyright. Reproduction for the purpose of copyright
includes colourable imitation.
It is not an essential ingredient of infringement that the infringer had an
intention to infringe. But some form of copying is required, direct, indirect or even
subconscious. Subconscious copying generally occurs in music and perhaps poetry.
63
Plagiarism is not considered infringement of copyright, thus if a film producer makes
use of ideas, themes and incidents copied from other films he cannot be sued for
infringement.
4.6 IMPORTATION OF INFRINGING COPIES
Importation, of infringing copies into India is an act of infringement. But
importing two copies of the work for the private and domestic use of the importer is
allowed. If imported into India, there may be a chance of violation of copyright
therein. If the owner of a copyright in any work feels that infringing copies of his
work are being imported or likely to be imported into India he may request the
registrar of copyright for an order not to import such copies of the work should not be
imported into India. He may also authorize any person to enter any ship, dock or
premises where any such copies may be found and examine them in collaboration
with the customs authorities. If such copies are confiscated, they are to be delivered to
the owner of the copyright.
The word "import" in sections 51 and 53 of the Copyright Act means
"bringing into India from outside India". It is not limited to importation for commerce
only but also includes importation for transit across the country.70
In a notable judgment in penguin books Ltd, England Vs India Book
distributors and others the Delhi high court dealt with the validity of issuing copies of
titles of foreign books imported into India, by Indian distributors.
The court held that even though the Indian distributors are not guilty of piracy
or primary infringement, by importing the foreign books, when they issue copies of
these titles for public distribution, they would be guilty of secondary infringement. In
case of conflict between international law and municipal law, the municipal law
prevails. Software piracy in India 68, 69, 70.
4.7 WHAT IS NOT INFRINGEMENT OF COPYRIGHT?
70 Under Sec.53 of the Act.
64
A close imitation of an existing recording using alternate performs is not a copyright
infringement. In case of musical record, it is only such record which embodies sound
recording which amounts to infringement, but if another signal is created such.
Software piracy
In India, the copyright of computer software is protected under the Indian
Copyright Act of 1957. Copyright protection for software with an individual author
lasts for the duration of the author's life and continues for 60 years after the authors’
death. Government agencies such as the ministry of information Technology and the
Ministry of Human Resource Development have played an active role in aiding the
Indian law enforcement authorities in protecting software copyright holders.
Software piracy in India
According to Nascom, Software piracy involves the use, reproduction or
distribution without having received the expressed permission of the software author.
Software piracy comes in four common forms.
• The first is end user piracy, and it occurs when users of software install the
software on more machines than they are entitled to under their license
agreements.
• The second is hard disk loading, and it occurs when computer dealers install
illegal copies of software onto computers prior to their sale.
• The third is software counterfeiting, and it involves the illegal reproduction,
and subsequent sale of software in a form that nearly identical to the original
product.
• The fourth is internet piracy, and it occurs when individuals place
unauthorized copies of software on the internet for download.
Protection of software
An original software work does not have to be published in order to receive
copyright protection. As soon as the piece of software is committed to a tangible
medium, it automatically receives protection under Indian copyright law. However,
65
authors of software have the option of registering their original work with the
copyright office. Registration of software with the copyright office is not a
requirement for receiving copyright protection, but it can be helpful in an
infringement suit where proof of original authorship may be required.
Remedies
Indian Courts can take a variety of measures designed to grant relief to
copyright holders whose rights have been infringed. One of these measures is
ordering that all infringing copies - including master copies - be impounded and
destroyed Another way that courts grant relief to copyright holders is through
monetary compensation, which can consist of monetary damages, statutory damages,
courts costs and attorney fees.
Punishment
Under Indian copyright act, a software pirate can be tried under both civil and
criminal law. The minimum jail term for software copyright infringement is seven
days; and the maximum jail term is three years. Statutory fines range from a
minimum of 50,000 to a maximum of 200,000 rupees in case of version recording, it
is not an infringement. The use of the word "records embodying the record" or the
"record embodying the same record" clearly mean that it is only when the same
signal has been kept, would there be a violation.
Similarly frame or image which forms part of a film is not included in the
Term 'photograph'. Thus using a theme/image similar to the popular T.V. Serial
'Kyanki Saas Bhi Khabi Balu Thi' produced by a telecast on star T.V. by the
manufacturers of 'Tide' detergent powder for advertisement of a T.V. commercial
with the title 'Kyun Ki Balu Bhi Kabhi Saas Banegi' was held not to be an
infringement of copyright of star T.V.71
4.8 STATUTORY EXCEPTIONS
The protection of copyright given to an owner or licensee is not absolute. It
is subject to certain exceptions and restrictions. Section 52 of the Act gives a lengthy
list of acts under the heading "certain acts not to, be infringement of copyright",
71 In Star India Put Ltd. Vs. Leo Burnett India Put Ltd, 2003(2) Raj 518.
66
which can be called as statutory exceptions to copyright infringement. For the
purpose of easy understanding they have been discussed briefly as follows
1. Fair dealing Under section 52 of the copyright Act, 1957, a fair dealing with
a literary, dramatic, musical or artistic work but not being a computer
program for the following purposes, does not amount to infringement of
copyright.
- Private use, including research; and
- Criticism or review, whether of that work of any other work. The court
has determined that a substantial part of a literary, artistic, dramatic or
musical work has been taken that any question of fair dealing arises. Once
the question arises, the degree of substantiality is to say, the quantity and
value of the matter taken, is an important factor in considering whether or
not, there has been a "fair dealing". Further, in considering whether
dealing with a particular work was fair, it would have to be considered,
whether any competition was likely to exist between the two works. A fair
criticism of the ideas and evens described in the books or documents
would constitute "fair dealing" publication confidential information
leaked by third party cannot constitute fair dealing for the purpose of
criticism or review.72
For example in USA, copy right law has its 'fair use' provisions. In UK, 'fair
dealing' is allowed in relation to a copyright work. It must be noted at once that has
nothing to do with 'dealing' in a trade sense. It can be roughly equated to 'use'. Thus,
fair dealing covers research or private study, criticism, review and reporting current
events. The fair dealing provisions allow the copying or other use of the work which
would otherwise be an infringement and in many circumstances the amount of the
original work used is very relevant. It may be fair dealing to include 5 percent of
another work for the purpose of criticism or review. It is not fair dealing to
incorporate the whole of the other work. Because the proportion of work taken can be
relevant to whether the second author can successfully plead the fair dealing
72 Civil Chandran Vs. Ammim Amma 1996 PTC 670(Ker) Beloff Vs Pressdram (1973) All. E.R.24.
67
provisions, if the part taken is not substantial, then there is no infringement of
copyright and no need to rely on the permitted acts as illusory.73
2. Making of copies / adaptation of computer programs for specific
purposes The making of copies or adaptation of a computer program by
the lawful possessor of a copy of such program from such copy for the
purposes of utilizing the computer program for the agreed purpose, or for
the purpose of making back-up copies purely as a temporary protection
against loss, destruction or damage, in order to utilize the program for
agreed purpose, would not amount to infringement of copyright in such
computer program.74 Similarly the doing of any act necessary for obtaining
information essential for operating inter- operatability of an independently
created computer of an independently created computer program, with
other programs, if such information is not readily available, would not
amount to infringement.
3. Reporting of current events A fair dealing with a literary, dramatic, musical
or artistic work for the purpose of reporting current events, in newspaper,
magazine, or similar periodical, or by broadcast or in a cinematograph film or
by means of photography would not constitutes infringement.
4. Reproduction in connection with judicial proceedings The reproduction of
a literary, dramatic, musical or artistic work for the purpose of judicial
proceedings or for the purpose of a report of judicial proceedings would not
come within the purview of infringement.
5. Reproduction for legislative purposes The reproduction of a literary,
dramatic, musical or artistic work in any work prepared by the secretariat of
Legislatures, exclusively for the purpose of use of members, does not amount
to infringement.
6. Reproduction to make certified copies In accordance with any law and
their supply is not infringement.
73 David Bainbridge, Intellectual Property 5th Ed.2002 P.166.74 This provision was inserted by the copyright (Amendment) Act, 1994.
68
7. Reading / Recitation of extracts from the literary works in public.
8. Publication for use of educational institutions
9. Reproduction by teacher or pupil in the course of instruction to the students.
10. Performance in the course of activities in educational institutions of a literary,
dramatic or musical work by the staff and the students of the institution or of
a cinematograph film or a record is not infringement of copyright in such
works.
11. Making and using of sound recordings under certain circumstance and in
enclosed rooms, or clubs not run for profit do not amount to infringement.
12. Performance of literary works etc by an amateur club or society for the
benefit of paying audience or for the benefit of a religious institution is not
infringed.
13. Reproduction of an article or current economic, political, social or religious
topics in newspaper and magazines etc.,
14. Publication of a public lecture delivered in public in a magazine, newspaper
or other periodical is not a copyright violation.
15. Making a maximum of 3 copies of books including pamphlets, sheet of
music, map, chart or plan for use of a public library, museum or other
institution, for the purpose of research or private study.
16. Reproduction or publication of any matter published in official Gazette or
reports of government commission or other bodies appointed by government.
17. Reproduction of any judgment, or order of a court, tribunal or other judicial
authority, not prohibited from publication. In terms of section 522(1) (0) of
the Act reproduction of a judgment of the court is an exception to the
infringement of the copyright.75
75 Eastern Books Company Vs. Navin J. Desai, 2001(1) Raj 20%.
69
18. Production or publication of translation of Acts of legislature or Rules.
19. Making or publishing of a painting, drawing, engraving or photograph of a
work of architecture or its display.
20. Making or publishing of a painting, drawings or photograph or engravings
of sculpture or other artistic works permanently situated in a public place.
21. Inclusion in a cinematographic film of any artistic work permanently
situated in a public place.
Eg documentaries on well known statutes, painting etc.
All these acts do not constitute infringement of copyright; these exceptions
to infringements listed in section 52(1) apply also to the doing of any act in
relation to the translation of a literary, dramatic, or musical work or the adaptation
of such work as they apply in relation to the work itself.
4.9 SPECIAL PROVISIONS RELATING TO SOUND RECORDINGS AND
VIDEO-FILMS
The 1984 Amendment to the Copyright Act, inserted a new
provision in the form of Section 52-A, in relation to the sound recordings
and video films.76 This provision deals with the particulars to be included
in sound recordings and video films. The object behind making such
provision appears to be the fragile nature of the copyright in video films
and audio-cassettes.
As a result of this provision, no person should publish a sound recording in
respect of any work unless the following particulars are given.
a. The name and address of the person making the sound recording.
b. The name and address of the owner of the copyright in such work; and
76 The Copyright (Amendment) Act, 1984, Sec.4, W.e.f. 9.10.1984.
70
c. The year of its first publication;
Similarly, no person can publish validly a video film in respect of any work
unless the following particulars are displayed in the video film, when exhibited and
on the video-cassette or other container there o f , viz
a. If such work is cinema, certified for exhibition under the provisions of the
cinematograph Act, 1952, a certificate granted by the Board of film
certification.
b. The name and address of the producer of the video film and the details of the
necessary license and consent; and
c. The name and address of the owner of the copyright in such work
These particulars included in sound recordings and video films help the
prevention of video-piracy and piracy and audio-cassettes.
4.10 DETERMINATION OF QUESTION OF COPYRIGHT INFRINGEMENT
If there in no reservation to claim copyright in a work, no copyright can be
claimed on the basis of mere fact that there is some printed matter but, has no claim
of copyright, therefore for the better protection of copyright, the owner should claim
reservation of copyright by a mark (c) or the expression 'copyright reserved' or
'copyright'.77
Infringement of copyright is a question of fact and it is a matter which can be
established by evidence adduced before the trial courts. Therefore, unless there is
evidence on the aspect of infringement of the copyright of the complainant, it would
not be possible to decide whether there is infringement of copyright.78
4.11 LAY OBSERVER TEST
Generally Courts of India follow the 'Lay observer test' to determine
infringement of copyright'. According to this test, "whether or not there has been
77 Lamba Brother Pvt. Ltd. Vs. Lamba Brothers, AIR 1993 Del.347.78 Garapati Prasad Rao Vs Parnandi Saroja, AIR 1992 AP 230 at P.233.
71
violation of copyright is to see if the reader, spectator or the viewer after having read
or seen both the works should be clearly of the opinion and get an unmistakable
impression that the subsequent work appears to be a copy of the first if to the "lay
observer" it would not appear to be reproduction, there is no infringement of
copyright in the works. Earlier this view was upheld by the Kerela Hightcourt in R.
Madhavan Vs S.K. Nayar,79 which held that dissimilar novels do not involve
infringement of copyright.
The Delhi high court laid down that the infringement of copyright has to be
tested on the visual appearance of the drawing and the object in question. The
purpose of functional utility, efficacy of different parts and components of the object
or the material of which they be made are relevant for the purpose of copyright.80
Enlargement of Law books from student edition to lawyers edition does not
amount to infringement of copyright.81 Similarly play, drama or movie produced
based on the true life incidents reported in newspapers, but in a quite different
manner does not lead to the infringement of copyright.82 Publishing notes from the
syllabus prescribed by University is not infringement of copyright.83 Making of
replica of original picture84? Colourable imitation of work85 and unauthorized
broadcasting to general public" amount to infringement of copyright.
79 AIR 1988 Ker.39.80 John Richard Bardy Vs. Chemical process equipment Pvt. Ltd., AIR 1987 Del.272 at P.382. 81 Bharat Law House Vs. Wadhwa and Co. Pvt. Ltd., AIR 1988 Del.68.82 Indian Express Newspapers Pvt. Ltd. Vs. Dr. Jaymohan Mundhra, AIR 1985 Bom.229 popularly known as Kamala Case.83 Ramesh Chowdhury Vs. Ali Mohd. Nowsheri, AIR 1965 J&K 101.84 C. Cunnaih & Co. Cs. Balraj & Co. AIR 1961 Mad.111.85 Fateh Singh Mahta Vs. O.P. Singhal AIR 1990 Raj 8.
72
CHAPTER - 5
LEGAL PROTECTION OF COPYRIGHT IN INDIA AND JUDICIAL
PERSPECTIVE
Copyright protection is available for all unpublished works, regardless of the
nationality or domicile of the author, however published works are eligible for
copyright protection in the United States if anyone of the following conditions is met;
On the date of first publication, one or more of the authors is a national or
domiciliary of the United States, or is a national. Domiciliary, or sovereign
authority of a treaty party, or is a stateless person wherever that person may be
domiciled; or
A treaty party is a country or intergovernmental organization other than the
United States that is a party to an international agreement.
The work is first published in the United States or in a foreign nation that, on
the date of first publication, is a treaty party. For purposes of this condition, a
work that is published in the United States or a treaty party within 30 days
after publication in a foreign nation that is not a treaty party shall be
73
considered to be first published in the United States or such treaty party, as the
case may be; or
The work is a sound recording that was first fixed in a treaty party; or
The work is a pictorial, graphic, or sculptural work that is incorporated in a
building or other structure, or an architectural work that is embodied in a
building and the building or structure is located in the United States or a treaty
party; or
The work is first published by the United Nations or any of its specialized
agencies, or by the Organization of American States; or
The work is a foreign work that was in the public domain in the United States
prior to 1996 and its copyright was restored under the Uruguay Round
Agreement Act (URAA). Request Circular 38b, Highlights of Copyright
Amendments contained in the (URAA-GATT), for further information.
The work comes within the scope of a Presidential proclamation.
5.1 PROTECTION OF COPY RIGHT
Copyright protects “original works of authorship” that are fixed in a tangible
form of expression. The fixation need not be directly perceptible so long as it may be
communicated with the aid of a machine or device. Copyrightable works include the
following categories
1. literary works;
2. musical works, including any accompanying words
3. dramatic works, including any accompanying music
4. pantomimes and choreographic works
5. pictorial, graphic, and sculptural works’
6. motion pictures and other audiovisual works
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7. sound recording
8. architectural works
These categories should be viewed broadly. For example, computer programs
and most “compilations” may be registered as “literary works”, maps and
architectural plans may be registered as “pictorial, graphic, and sculptural works”.
5.2 SOME WORKS ARE NOT PROTECTED BY COPYRIGHT
Several categories of material are generally not eligible for federal copyright
protection. These include among others
Works that have not been fixed in a tangible form of expression (for example,
choreographic works that have not been notated or recorded, or
improvisational speeches or performances that have not been written or
recorded)
Titles, names, short phrases, and slogans; familiar symbols or designs; mere
variations of typographic ornamentation, lettering, or coloring; mere listings of
discoveries, or devices, as distinguished from a description, explanation. Or
illustration
Works consisting entirely of information that is common property and
containing no original authorship (for example standard calendars, height and
weight charts, tape measures and rulers, and lists or tables taken from public
documents or other common sources).
5.3 SECURES OF COPYRIGHT
Copyright Secured Automatically upon Creation
The way in which copyright protection is secured is frequently misunderstood.
No publication or registration or other action in the Copyright Office is required to
secure copyright. There are, however, certain definite advantages to registration. See
“Copyright Registration”.
75
Copyright is secured automatically when the work is created, and a work is
“created” when it is fixed in a copy or phonorecord for the first time. “Copies” are
material objects from which a work can be read or visually perceived either directly or
with the aid of a machine or device, such as books, manuscripts, sheet music, film,
videotape, or microfilm. “Phonorecords” are material objects embodying fixations of
sounds (excluding, by statutory definition, motion picture sound tracks), such as
cassette tapes, CDs, or LPs. Thus, for example, a song (the “work”) can be fixed in
sheet music (“copies”) or in phonograph disks (“phonorecords”), or both. If a work is
prepared over a period of time, the part of the work that is fixed on a particular date
constitutes the created work as of that date.
5.4 COPYRIGHT PROTECTION ENDURES
Works Originally Created on or after January1, 1978
A work that was created (fixed in tangible form for the first time) on or after
January 1, 1978, is automatically protected from the moment of its creation and is
ordinarily given a term enduring for the author’s life plus and additional 70 years after
the author’s death. In the case of “a joint work prepared by two or more authors who
did not work for hire”. The term lasts for 70 years after the last surviving author’s
death. For works made for hire, and for anonymous and pseudonymous works (unless
the author’s identity is revealed in Copyright Office records), the duration of
copyright will be 95 years from publication or 120 years from creating, whichever is
shorter.
Works Originally Created before January 1, 1978, but not published or
Registered by that date
These works have been automatically brought under the statute and are now
given federal copyright protection. The duration of copyright in these works is
generally computed in the same way as for works created on or after January 1, 1978;
the life-plus-70 or 95/120 years terms apply to them as well. The law provides that in
no case would the term of copyright for works in this category expire before
December 31, 2002, and for works published on or before December, 31, 2002, the
term of copyright will not expire before December 31, 2047.
Works Originally Created and Published or Registered before January 1, 1978
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Under the law in effect before 1978, copyright was secured either on the date a
work was published with a copyright notice or on the date of registration if the work
was registered in unpublished form. In either case, the copyright endured for a first
term of 28 years from the date it was secured. During the last (28 th) year of the first
term, the copyright was eligible for renewal. The Copyright Act of 1976 extended the
renewal term from 28 to 47 years for copyrights that were subsisting on January 1,
1978, or for pre-1978 copyrights restored under the Uruguay Round Agreements Act
(URAA), making these works eligible for a total term of protection of 75 years.
Public Law 105, 298, enacted on October 27, 1998, further extended the renewal
terms of copyrights still subsisting on that date by an additional 20 years, providing
for a renewal term of 67 years and a total term of protection of 95 years. Public Law
102-307, enacted on June 26, 1992, amended the 1976 Copyright Act to provide for
automatic renewal of the term of copyrights secured between January 1, 1964, and
December 31, 1977. Although the renewal term is automatically provided, the
Copyright Office does not issue a renewal certificate for these works unless a renewal
application and fee are received and registered in the Copyright Office. Public Law
102-307 makes renewal registration optional. Thus, filing for renewal registration is
no longer required to extent the original 28-year copyright term to the full 95 years.
However, some benefits accrue to renewal registrations that were made during the 28 th
year. For more detailed information on renewal of copyright and the copyright term,
request Circular 15, Renewal of Copyright; Circular 15a, Duration of Copyright; and
Circular 15t, and Circular, Extension of Copyright Terms. Any or all of the copyright
owner’s exclusive rights or any subdivision of those rights may be transferred, but the
transfer of exclusive rights is not valid unless that transfer is in writing and signed.
5.5 COPYRIGHT PROTECTION FOR PERFORMANCE RIGHTS
Introduction
Copyright is a form of intellectual property protection granted under the law to
the creators of the original works of authorship. It is an exclusive right given by law
for a certain term of years to an author, composer, etc., (or his assignee) to print,
publish and sell copies of his original work. In India the first Copyright Act was
passed in 1914. It was a replica of English Copyright Act of 1911 suitably modified
to make it applicable to the then British India. The Act, presently in force was
77
legislated in the year 1957 and is known as Copyright Act, 1957 as amended by
Copyright (Amendment) Act, 1999.
The Indian Copyright Act for a very long time did not recognize the rights of
performers like musicians, singers, actors, acrobats, etc. It was only recently when the
technological changes threatened the livelihood of performers that the law intervened
to protect performers. In the year 1994, the Copyright Act was amended. The
amendment introduced the recognition of the rights of the performer. These rights are
called performers rights. Section 38 of the Copyright Act confers rights to performers
like actors, dancers, jugglers, acrobats etc. Under Section 2 (qq) of the Act,
“Performer” includes an acrobat, musician, singer, actor, juggler, snake charmer, a
person delivering lecture, or any other person who makes a performance.
“Performance” in relation to performers’ right means any visual or acoustic
presentation made by one or more performers. For example, student performing in a
school play is a performer within the meaning of Section 2 (qq) and his rights are well
within the scope of protection accorded by Section 38.
Rights of a performer under the copyright protection Act
The performer has the exclusive right to do the following under the Copyright
Protection Act
1. Right to make Sound Recording or Visual Recording of the Performance
A performer has the right to make sound recording or visual recording of his
performance under Section 1 (xx) of the Copyright Protection Act. He also has the
right to authorize the recording of a live performance, and the exclusive right to make
sound recording from which such sounds may be produced regardless of the medium
on which such recording is made or method by which the sounds are reproduced.
Copyright will subsist in a sound recording only if it is lawfully made. If the
recording includes any material which is an infringement of any literary, dramatic or
musical work, copyright will not subsist in the sound recording. Musical works and
sound recordings embodying the music are considered separate subject-matter for
copyright. The copyright in the recording of music is separate from the copyright in
the music. Copyright in the music vests in the composer and the copyright in the
music recorded vests in the producer of the sound recording. Where the song has not
78
been written down and the composer who is also the performer records the song two
copyrights come into existence simultaneously, one for the music and one for the
sound recording.
2. Right to Produce a Sound Recording or Visual Recording of the Performance;
A performer has a right to produce sound recording or visual recording of his
performance. He has the right to make copies of the recording, the right to issue
copies of the recordings to the public, the right to rent or lend copies. However, the
recording must display following particulars.
(a) A copy of the certificate granted by the Board of Film Certification.
(b) The name and address of the person who has made the video film and a
declaration that he has obtained the necessary license or consent of the
owner of the copyright in the work for making the video film, and
(c) (C) The name and address of the owner of the copyright in such work.
Failure to comply with the above is a punishable offence. This is done with
a view to check and detect piracy.
3. Right to Broadcast the Performance
Performers also have the right to prevent their live performances being
broadcast.
‘Broadcast’ means communication to the public, (i) by any means of wireless
diffusion, whether in any one or more of the forms of signs, sounds, and visual image,
(ii) or by wire, and includes a rebroadcast. In case of program broadcast, which
includes literary, dramatic or musical works or records in which independent
copyright may subsist, broadcasting organization should obtain the consent or license
of the copyright owners in the work in question. To communicate the Work to the
Public otherwise than by Broadcast. Any other means to communicate the work to the
public other than the broadcast.
Infringement of performers’ rights;
79
The Copyright Protection Act strengthens the rights of the performers by
making certain provisions. Under this if any person without the consent of the
performer, does any of the following acts, he will be deemed to have infringed
performers’ rights. These acts include
(a) Sound recording or visual recording of the performance; or
(b) Reproduction of the sound recording or visual recording of reproduction for
the purpose different from those for which performer gave his consent,
(c) Broadcasts the performance, and
(d) Communicate the performance to the public otherwise than by broadcast.
However, the above Acts are said to be infringed by a person only when these
Acts are committed during the continuance of the performers’ rights.
When a performer has consented to the incorporation of his performance in a
cinematograph film the performer losses the right to complain of infringement of that
performance which means he assigned his entire rights and that performance to the
producer of the cinematograph film.
Acts not constituting infringement of a performers rights
The following acts do not constitute infringement of a performer’s right
(a) Making of any sound recording of or visual recording for private use of
the person making such recording or society for the purpose of
bonafide teaching or research.
(b) Fair dealing of experts of a performance in reporting of current events
or for bonafide review, teaching or research or
(c) Other act with any necessary adaptations and modifications which do
not constitute infringement of copyright under Section 52. These acts
are reproduction for the use of judicial proceedings – Section 52 (1)
(c), reproduction for the use of members of legislature – Section 52 (1)
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(d), and the use in a certified copy in accordance with any law in force
– Section 52 (1) (e).
(d) Use of sound recording or visual recording of the performance in the
course of the activities of an educational institution if the audience are
limited to the students, and parents and guardians of the students and
person directly connected with the activities of the institution – Section
52 (1) (ii).
The aforesaid can be done only with the sound recording or visual recording
of the performance. Accordingly the making of a sound recording or visual recording
for the aforesaid purposes cannot also be an infringement.
Where copyright or performer’s right subsists in respect of any work or
performance that has been broadcast, a license to reproduce such broadcast will
require the consent of the owner of rights or performer, as the case may be, or both of
them.
Remedies against infringement of performers rights
The following remedies may be availed in a suit against infringement of
performers rights under Sections 55 and 63 to 70 of the Copyright Protection Act.
(i) Civil remedies Under civil remedies, the owner of the copyright, or his
assignee or his exclusive licensee or a legatee may obtain (a) injunction or
(b) claim damages.
(ii) Criminal remedies in addition to civil remedy the Copyright Act enables
the owner of the copyright to take criminal proceedings against the
infringer. The offence of infringement of copyright is punishable with
imprisonment which may extent from a minimum period of six months to
a maximum period of three years or with a fine of the order of Rs.50,000/-
to Rs.2.00 lakhs.
(iii) Anton Pilar Order In appropriate cases the court may on an application by
the plaintiff pass an exporters order requiring the defendant to permit the
81
plaintiff accompanied by solicitor or attorney to enter his premises and
take inspection of relevant documents and articles and take copies thereof
or remove them for safe custody. The necessity of such an order arises
where there is a grave danger of relevant documents and Infringing articles
are being removed or destroyed so that ends of justice will not be defeated.
5.6 INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT PROTECTION
There is no such thing as an “International Copyright” that will automatically
protect an author’s writings throughout the entire world. Protection against
unauthorized use in a particular country depends, basically, on the national laws of
that country. However, most countries do offer protection to foreign works under
certain conditions, and these conditions have been greatly simplified by international
copyright treaties and conventions. For further information and a list of countries
that maintain copyright relations with the United States, request Circular 38a,
International Copyright Relations of the United States.
The above said discussion reveals that copyright is a form of intellectual
property protection granted under the law to the creators of the original works of
authorship. Copyright law confers exclusive right to performers like actors,
musicians, jugglers, snake charmers, etc. to do certain acts. These rights conferred on
the performers are a positive step in encouraging their creativity.
5.7 REMEDIES AGAINST INFRINGEMENT OF COPYRIGHT
General
When an author's copyright has been infringed, he can have recourse to all
remedies which would be available to him under the general law relating to the
infringement of a right. Copyright has been placed on par with an individuals other
rights. E.g. The right to property, the right to enforce a contract, the right to restrain
a person from doing anything to his determent, the right to damages based on tort or
breach of contract etc. So, the author may bring a suit for injunction and ask the
court to stop the printing, sale circulation etc., of his work.
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As the famous saying goes "Ubi jus, ibi remedium" which means, where there
is a right, there is remedy. No man is at liberty to take away the result of another
man's labour or his property.86
86 Macmilan and Co., Vs K&J Cooper Ldt., AIR 1924 PC 75 at P.83.
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Nature and kinds of Remedies
Therefore violation of copyright has different remedies. The Copyright Act,
1957 provides for three types of remedies for violation of copyright, namely.
1. Civil Remedies.
2. Criminal remedies
3. Administrative remedies.
Civil remedies include injunction, damages or account of profits, delivery up
of infringing copies and damages for conversion. In case of innocent infringement
some of these remedies are not available.
Criminal remedies impose punishment to the infringer. Administrative
remedies provides for the establishment of offices and institution like the Registrar of
copyrights. Copyright Board and copyright societies etc, they also have certain
powers to give certain remedies for violation of copyright.
A part from the remedies against infringement of copyright the copyright act
provides for the protection of certain special rights. An author of copyright work can
restrain or claim damages in respect of
a. any distortion or mutilation of the work, or
b. any other action in relation to the work which would be prejudicial to his
honour or reputation.
The author can also exercise even after the assignment of the copyright. They
can be enforced by an action for breach of contract or confidence, a suit for
defamation or passing off as the case may be.
In respect of architectural works, where the construction of a building or
other structure which would infringe the copyright in some other work has been
commenced the owner of the construction of such building or structure or to order
demolition. He can also claim damages for conversion. In appropriate cases
declaratory order may be obtained as to whether what the defendant is ding or
proposes to do is an infringement of the copyright in a work.
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Jurisdiction of courts
A suit or other civil proceedings relating to infringement of copyright should
be instituted in the District court having jurisdiction. A district court within the local
limits of whose jurisdiction the person (s) instituting the suit or other proceedings,
voluntarily resides or carries on the business or personally work for gain, at the time
of the institution of the suit and other proceedings. The question of jurisdiction of
court is a mixed question of fact and law. It cannot be decided at the time of interim
injunction stage.87 The period of limitation for filing the suit is three years from the
date of infringement.
Parties to the suit for infringement
Normally the owner of the copyright is the plaintiff. An exclusive licensee can
also file a suit in which case the owner of the copyright must be made a co-plaintiff
or defendant. Where the several rights conferred by a copyright in any work are
owned by different persons, the owner of any such right, to the extent of that right,
may enforce that right by civil or criminal proceedings. The following persons can
sue for infringement of copyright.
1. the owner of the copyright or a co-owner.
2. the assignee of the copyright
3. the legatee in case of testamentary disposition of the copyright.
4. an exclusive licensee if the owner of the copyright is made a joint plaintiff or
dependant.
5. in the case of anonymous or pseudonymous work the publisher of the work
6. a non-exclusive licensee provided he joins the owner of the copyright.
We have seen that the owner of copyright in a work has the exclusive right
to do a number of acts in respect of the work. These acts are enumerated in section
14 of the Copyright Act 1957. He can print, circulate and sell copies of the work if it
87 John Rchard Bardy Vs Chemical Process Pvt. Ltd. AIR 1987 Del.272-377. See also Tate Oil Mills Co. Ltd Vs. Reward Soap Works, AIR 1983 Del.286. Everest Picture Circuit, Salem Vs. S. Karuppannan, AIR 1982 Mad.244.
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is a book, an article, a musical composition, a play or a picture, if the work is a play,
he can arrange a public performance of it, and if the work be a cinematograph films,
he can exhibit it in public or have it screened by his employees or agents. He can
abridge, modify or translate the work into any language and publish the translation,
he can make a sound recording of it, and communicate it by radio diffusion, and so
an. He can also assign his rights wholly or in part to someone else; or grant a license
in respect of it, specifying the acts which the licensee is permitted to do.
But if anyone other than the owner of the copyright, his assignee or his
licensee does, without authority, any of these acts, he contravenes the fights of the
owner, the assignee or the licensee as the case may happen to be. He is then said to
infringe copyright in the work and the infringement renders him liable under civil as
well as criminal law. Infringement may be direct or indirect. However, in certain
special circumstances which constitute exceptions to the general law, infringement,
or the doing of an act which would ordinarily amount to infringement, is permitted
by law. These exceptions are set out in section 52 of the Act.
Direct infringement
Section 52 lays down the general rule with regard to infringement. It states
that when anyone, without a license, granted by the owner of the copyright or by the
Registrar of copyrights does any of the acts which only the owner of the copyright is
entitled to do, he infringes copyright. Also if a licensee does anything beyond the
terms of his licensee who is permitted to publish only the original work publishes a
translation of it into another language or exploits its film rights he will be infringing
the owner's copyright. It is also an infringement of copyright in a play, a musical
piece or a cinematograph film if any one allows it to be publicly performed in any
place for profit. So, the owner or tenant of an auditorium who lets out the premises
for such unauthorized performance or exhibition and makes a profit by the sale of
tickets to those who come to watch the performance, will be infringing copyright, if
however, he did not know that the performance was unauthorized and amounted to
infringement of some one's copyright and he had no reasonable grounds for
believing that to be the case, he will not be liable. The plea of ignorance will be a
good defense to a civil suit for damages or a criminal charge for such infringement.
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Indirect infringement
The section also specifics certain acts which amount to indirect infringement
of copyright, these are to make for sale or hire, to let out for hire, to display for
purposes of trade, to offer for sale or hire infringing copies of a work, to distribute
such an extent as to cause loss or injury to the owner of the copyright; or to import
infringing copies of a work, except for the private or domestic use for the importer.
A book seller who displays or sells unauthorized copies of a book, or the owner of a
private lending library who lends such copies to his patrons for a fee, a person who
exhibits a film which is an unauthorized reproduction of a novel or play, will all be
infringing copyright in the work.
Injunction
Injunction is an order by the court directing a person to do or abstain from
doing something. The dictionary meaning is a "Judicial process by which one who is
threatening to invade or has invaded the legal or equitable rights of another, is
restrained from commencing or continuing such act or is commanded to restore
matter to the position in which they stood, previous to his action."
The remedy of injunction which may be temporary or permanent is a matter
within the discretion of the court. It will be granted when monetary compensation
will not be adequate or when irreparable harm will result to the aggrieved person
(plaintiff) if the injunction is refused.
The discretion, of course, must be exercised in a judicial manner and must be
based on well established judicial principles and not arbitrarily. The court must first
be satisfied that the plaintiff does own the copyright in the work which has been
alleged to have been copied or he is the exclusive licensee in respect of it. It must
further be shown that he has been prompt and deli gent in seeking the remedy or
injunction. A long and unreasonable delay will be a good ground for refusing the
injunction prayed for as the delay may be interpreted as acquiescence. If, however it
is shown to the court that the respondent intends to publish and circulate for sale a
large number of copies of a work in which the copyright is owned by the plaintiff or
a film which infringes the plaintiffs copyright is about to be exhibited, the court will
grant an injunction. But if the court feels that the loss which will be occasioned by
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the publication, circulation or performance of a work will be small or if the plaintiff
can be adequately compensated by ordering the defendant to keep and submit
accounts of all money and he will receive by exploiting the work, and then paying to
the plaintiff what is legally due to him, the court will refuse to issue an injunction. A
permanent injunction will be granted only after the rights of the parties have been
adjudicated upon and finally settled by the court. A temporary injunction is granted,
during the pendency of suit to guard against avoidable loss to the plaintiff while the
suit drags out its long course. A plaintiff suing for damages, may at the same time,
ask the court for the issue of a temporary injunction. Such injunction will be granted
in appropriate cases.
The broad principle which the courts follow is the balance of convenience,
will the refusal of the injunction cause irreparable loss to the plaintiff or and the
other hand, will the injunction cause more loss to the defendant than gain to the
plaintiff.
The making an application for a temporary or interlocutory injunction, the
plaintiff must state that he is the owner of the copyright or the exclusive licenses in
respect of the work in question, that his right has been infringed and that he will
suffer irreparable loss if the continuance of the infringement is not stopped by means
of a temporary injunction.
It is not surprising that in the matter of injunction, as in all discretionary
matters, a completely just and objective decision is not always achieved. The
aggrieved party has, however, a right of appeal to a superior court, against the order
granting or refusing to grant an injunction.
In support of his application, the plaintiff can argue that the issue of a
temporary injunction does not prejudge the issues involved in the case and it is not
necessary for him to show that he must ultimately succeed in establishing his claim.
All he is asking for the maintenance of the status quo, upon a prime facie showing
that his right has been infringed and the infringement will continue unless stopped. If
the court is disinclined to rant the injunction, the plaintiff should press for an order
directing the defendant to keep accounts of sale of infringing copies and of money
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received by him and further give an undertaking that he will compensate the plaintiff
for the loss he will suffer by his acts of infringement, provided the plaintiff
ultimately succeeds in obtaining a decree in his favour.
Damages
A suit for damages for the infringement of copyright is ordinarily based on
the law of tort, though there may be instances in which the author- publisher contract
specifies the quantum of damages to be paid in case of breach of any of the terms of
the agreement. But this will be a rare occurrence.
Rendition of Accounts
In a suit for accounts; the plaintiff asks the court to order the defendant to
render accounts of all money received by him, expenses incurred and profits made
by the infringement of the plaintiff's copyright. A suit for accounts is a remedy
distinct from a suit for damages.
Author's Special Rights
This right can be enforced by the author's legal representatives also. If the
plaintiff feels that the act of the defendant is prejudicial to his honour or reputation.
It is obvious that damage to the reputation of an author is something apart from the
infringement of his copyright, the author may sold his copyright or assigned it
wholly or partially but the public will continue to associate him with the work and if
in printing or publishing it anyone mutilates it or alters it in such a way as to cast a
reflection on the authors reputation as a writer or on his honour and integrity, he
retains the right to vindicate himself.
Recovery of infringing Copies
One more remedy available to the owner of a copyright, in case of
infringement; He can bring a suit to recover all infringing copies of the work and all
plates used or intended to be used for the production of the infringing copies and he
may recover damages from the person who has used the infringing of plates.
Declaratory Suit
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Section 60 of the Act provides that when anyone wrong fully claiming to be
the owner of the copyright in a work threatens to take legal proceedings regarding
infringement of copyright against another on the ground that other has infringed the
copyright, the person so threatened may bring a declaratory suit. This means a suit in
which he asks the court to declare that the alleged infringement is not in fact
infringement at all, and that he has a perfect right to do what he is doing. In this suit
he may also ask the court to issue an injunction to the false claimant that he cease
uttering such threats and in addition pay damages.
Criminal Proceedings
Chapter XIII, in sections 63 to 70 deals with the offences in relation to
violation of copyright. Criminal courts have been empowered to entertain and
dispose of certain types of breaches of copyright and punish the wrong doer.
Punishment for infringement imposed to the wrong door is minimum 6 months of
imprisonment and maximum 3 years. Fine can also be imposed not less than
Rs.50,000/- and upto Rs.2 lakhs.
The nature of offence and punishment prescribed can be understood by the table
below
S. No. Nature of Offence Provision
of the Act
Punishment Criminal Court
having jurisdiction
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to try the offence
1. Knowingly infringing or
abetting the infringement
of the copyright in a work,
or any other work
conferred by this Act
(except in case of resale
share right in original
copier-under section 53A)
Sec. 63 Minimum- 6
months
imprisonment
Maximurn-3 years
imprisonment +
fine not less than
Rs.50,000/- upto
Rs.2 lakhs
Not inferior to the
metropolitan
magistrate or a
judicial magistrate of
first class
2. For second and subsequent
conviction
Sec.63-A Imprisonment
Minimum - f year
Maximum - 3 years
Fine
Minimum- Rs.llakh
Maximum-Rs.2
lakhs
Not inferior to the
metropolitan
magistrate or a
judicial magistrate of
first class
3. Knowingly using of
infringing copies of
computer programme
Sec.63-B Imprisonment
Minimum - 7 years
Maximum - 3 years
Fine
Minimum-
Rs.50,000
Maximum-Rs.2
lakhs
Not inferior to the
metropolitan
magistrate or a
judicial magistrate of
first class
4. Making false entries in
register of copyrights etc,
for producing or tendering
false entries
Sec.64 Imprisonment upto
1 year, or fine or
both
Not inferior to the
metropolitan
magistrate or a
judicial magistrate of
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first class
5. Making false statements
for deceiving or
influencing any authority/
officer
Sec.68 Imprisonment upto
1 year, or fine or
both
Not inferior to the
metropolitan
magistrate or a
judicial magistrate of
first class
6. Publishign a sound
recording or a video film in
violation of sec,
52A(video& audio piracy)
Sec. 68-A Imprisonment
upto 3 years and
fine
7. Possession of plates/ other
material used for making
infringing copies
Sec.65 Imprisonment
upto 2 years and
fine
Offences by Companies
Where a company i.e. a body corporate and including a firm or other
association of persons, commits an offences under the copyright act, every person
responsible to such company etc. for the conduct of the business of the company, at
the time of commission of offence, will be liable for prosecution and punishment.88
The individuals who may become liable are directors of companies, managers,
secretaries and others.
Incidental powers of the Courts and Police
While acting on a complaint against any alleged infringement of copyright, the
police investigating, acting under the direction of the competent court have the
following powers
88 Under Sec.69 of the Act.
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i) to seize the infringing copies and other material.89
ii) to order restoration of such copies/ material to the interested persons90 and
iv) to order disposal of infringing copies or plates used therefore.91
Offences by Companies etc
Where a company i.e. a body corporate and including a firm or other
association of persons, commits an offence under the Copyright Act, every person
responsible to such company etc. for the conduct of the business of the company, at
the time of commission of offence, will be liable for prosecution and punishment.92
The individuals who may become liable are directors of companies, managers,
secretaries and others.
Administrative Remedies
Other remedy that is available is administrative remedy with other civil and
criminal remedies.
It is known that copyright act provides for the establishment of offices and
institutions like the registrar of copyright, copyright board and copyright societies etc,
they also have certain powers to give certain remedies for the violation of copyright.93
5.8 JUDICIAL PERSPECTIVE
The intellectual property law has been given official recognition by the
international community with the establishment of WIPO, a specialized agency of the
United Nations.
In general the owner may use his property as he wishes and that no body else
can lawfully use his property without his authorization. If any person interferes his
right to enjoyment then the person can move to court of law for relief. The courts
make a study of the case and interpret the provisions and give decisions in according
with law.
89 Under Sec.6490 Under Sec.6491 Under Sec.6692 Under Sec.69 of the Act.93 See the discussion on “Institutions under the Act” in the Proceedings pages.
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Courts gave different decisions in different cases according to the merits of the
cases; judiciary is protecting the interest of owner of the copyright.
Judiciary always protects individual rights of people and it in turn protects the
society. Judiciary follows the principles of natural justice.
As the law is not static it has to be changed according to the changes in the
society in order to suit the changing needs of society. Judiciary takes into
consideration of the changes into society and makes rules and decide the cases
accordingly.
Judiciary maintains the balance between society and individuals. Courts
always give importance to the individual interests and protect the individual’s rights.
Courts protects the individual rights of the persons in case of violation of his
rights he can seek the help of courts to protect his rights and court some time awards
damages to the infringer and some times it imposes punishment also.
SOME CASE LAWS DECIDED BY SUPREME COURT AND HIGH COURTS
Gramophone Company of India Ltd.
Vs.
Birendra Bahadur Pandey & others 1984 AIR 667 SC
In this case the Supreme Court held that copies made out of India of a work
which if made in India would infringe copyright shall not be imported.
Narration of Brief facts of the Case
The copies of records and cassettes were dispatched from Singapore to Nepal
and to Calcutta port. The appellant company suspected that those cassettes are
unauthorized reproductions of its records and cassettes, the import of which into India
was prohibited. The appellant company moved the registrar of copyrights for action
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under section 53 of copyright act, 1957, who enables the registrar after making such
enquiries as he deemed fit, to order that copies made out of India of a work which if
made in India would infringe copyright, shall not be imported.
Pleadings of the Respondents
The respondents counsel argued that the records were brought into the country
not for commerce, but for onward submission to another country, they can, in law be
no important, it was said that the object of the copyright act was to precious
authorized reproduction of the work or the unauthorized explosion of the reproduction
of a work in India, and the object would not be frustrated if infringing copies of a
work were allowed transit across the country. If the goods are brought in only to go
out, there is no import; it is difficult to agree with this submission thought it did find
favour with the section 53. We have already mentioned the imported attached by the
international opinion as manifested as manifested by the various international
conventions and treaties, to the protection of copyright. In interpreting the word
import in the copyright act, we must take note that while positive requirement of the
copyright conventions is to protect copyright, negatively also. If this much is borne in
mind, if becomes bear that the word import in Sec.53 of the copyright act cannot bear
the narrow interpretation sought to be placed upon it to limit it to import for
commerce. It is be interpreted in a sense which will fit the copyright act into the
setting of international conventions.
Judgment
In this case the court stood on the side of the petitioners and held that a close
intimation of an existing recording using alternate performance is not a copyright
infringement. The court clearly differentiated whether there was importation of copies
or not and in case of musical record, it is only such record which embodies sound
recording which amounts to infringement, but if another signal is created such as in
the case of version recording, it is not an infringement. Thus the use of the word
"records embodying the record" or the "record embodying the same record" clearly
means that it is only when the same signal has been kept, would there be a violation.
A. Susiah V. S. Muniswamy AIR 1966 Mad 175
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The court held that assignment of any work, to be valid, should be in writing
signed by the assignor or his authorized agent. Also that in case of infringement of
copyright in respect of literary work of two joint authors, one of them who are
aggrieved can maintain criminal action for the offence.
Lamba Brothers Pvt. Ltd V. Lamba Brothers AIR 1993 Del 347
Plaintiff and defendants were carrying on business together at one time using
trade mark ELBEE for the machinery manufactured by them. There was dissolution
of partnership on 1-4-1985. That the two brothers carried on independent business.
Infringement suit was based on a catalogue, which actually was only a
coloured brochure having descriptive words, tables and photographs. There was no
reservation claim of copyright in the brochure in any recognized method, i.e., by mark
(C) or expression “Copyright Reserved” or “copyright Lamba Brothers Pvt. Ltd.”
The Court observed that there must be compliance with the requirements of
the Statute and claim to copyright made upon the copyright table material before any
action in copyright can be sustained and perfected by statutory remedies.