LEVELS OF CONSTRAINT AND RESEARCH DESIGN

LEVELS OF CONSTRAINT AND LEVELS OF CONSTRAINT AND RESEARCH DESIGNRESEARCH DESIGN

1. The ideas of levels of constraint and 1. The ideas of levels of constraint and research designsresearch designs

and their relationship toand their relationship to

2. Research Objectives and Hypotheses2. Research Objectives and Hypotheses

The knowledge continuumThe knowledge continuum

TENACITYTENACITY INTUITIONINTUITION AUTHORITYAUTHORITY RATIONALISMRATIONALISM EMPIRICISMEMPIRICISMSCIENCESCIENCE

Adequacy of informationAdequacy of informationLOWLOW HIGHHIGH

EvidenceEvidenceLOWLOW HIGHHIGH

StructureStructureLOWLOW HIGHHIGH

etc., etc.etc., etc.LOWLOW HIGHHIGH

TENACITYTENACITY INTUITIONINTUITION AUTHORITYAUTHORITY RATIONALISMRATIONALISM EMPIRICISMEMPIRICISMSCIENCESCIENCE

Adequacy of informationAdequacy of informationLOWLOW HIGHHIGH

EvidenceEvidenceLOWLOW HIGHHIGH

StructureStructureLOWLOW HIGHHIGH

etc., etc.etc., etc.LOWLOW

The knowledge continuumThe knowledge continuum

BAD GOOD

The knowledge continuumThe knowledge continuum

TENACITYTENACITY INTUITIONINTUITION AUTHORITYAUTHORITY RATIONALISMRATIONALISM EMPIRICISMEMPIRICISMSCIENCESCIENCE

Adequacy of informationAdequacy of informationLOWLOW HIGHHIGH

EvidenceEvidenceLOWLOW HIGHHIGH

StructureStructureLOWLOW HIGHHIGH

etc., etc.etc., etc.LOWLOW HIGHHIGHSCIENCESCIENCE

We “concluded”We “concluded”

Science places a high demand on Science places a high demand on evidence.evidence.

What we will see today is What we will see today is HOW and WHY we collect that evidence HOW and WHY we collect that evidence

dictates WHAT we can say with it.dictates WHAT we can say with it.

Or, put another way:Or, put another way: Science is a “high demand” pursuit of Science is a “high demand” pursuit of

knowledge.knowledge. It is fueled by questions and facts.It is fueled by questions and facts. The type of questions you ask determines The type of questions you ask determines

the types of facts you can uncover.the types of facts you can uncover. What determines the type of questions you What determines the type of questions you

can ask?can ask?

QUESTION

CONCEPT

CONCEPT

CONCEPT

VARIABLES

VARIABLES

VARIABLES

RE

LA

TIO

NS

HIP

S

Earlier we entertained the Earlier we entertained the question:question:

““How do you know which variables or How do you know which variables or attributes to measure?” attributes to measure?”

Knowledge, experience, theory!Knowledge, experience, theory! For example, a person with training as a For example, a person with training as a

mountain climber, with access to mountain climber, with access to equipment will prefer to climb very equipment will prefer to climb very differently from a novice. differently from a novice.

Thus . . .Thus . . . Both climbers make it to the top of their Both climbers make it to the top of their

respective mountains, using different tools respective mountains, using different tools and methods. Both had quality and methods. Both had quality experiences. experiences. Both operated appropriate to Both operated appropriate to their contexts and abilitytheir contexts and ability. Both would be . Both would be out of place in the others’ environment.out of place in the others’ environment.

So it is with research!So it is with research!

So it is with research!So it is with research! You match what you already know about the You match what you already know about the

topic of study with what you would like to learn, topic of study with what you would like to learn, and decide on an appropriate course of action and decide on an appropriate course of action that you follow for all the steps of the research that you follow for all the steps of the research processprocess..

That course of action is defined by THE LEVEL That course of action is defined by THE LEVEL OF CONSTRAINT you are willing to accept.OF CONSTRAINT you are willing to accept.

LOTS

How much

FORGET ITHIGH

CONSTRAINT

you want toknow

LITTLE

LOWCONSTRAINT

WHYBOTHER?

LITTLEHow much

LOTSyou do know

CONSTRAINTCONSTRAINT LOW CONSTRAINT:LOW CONSTRAINT:

fairly general findings; unrefined decisions about fairly general findings; unrefined decisions about questions and procedures; context.questions and procedures; context.

HIGH CONSTRAINT:HIGH CONSTRAINT:

very specific findings; refined ideas; precise very specific findings; refined ideas; precise hypotheses; detailed procedures; complex hypotheses; detailed procedures; complex analyses; “causality.”analyses; “causality.”

CONSTRAINTCONSTRAINT Neither is inherently BETTER than the Neither is inherently BETTER than the

other, but one is more APPROPRIATE for other, but one is more APPROPRIATE for the conditions.the conditions.

If you haven’t asked it yet, you are If you haven’t asked it yet, you are probably wondering probably wondering “constraint on “constraint on whatwhat?”?”

CONSTRAINTCONSTRAINT As the research questions become more As the research questions become more

complex, demanding and precise the activities in complex, demanding and precise the activities in each phase become correspondingly complex, each phase become correspondingly complex, demanding and precise.demanding and precise.

To cope we impose constraints on To cope we impose constraints on ourour performance and we begin to loose flexibility but performance and we begin to loose flexibility but gain control over the situation.gain control over the situation.

NATURALISTIC

CASE-STUDY

CORRELATIONAL

DIFFERENTIAL

EXPERIMENTAL

INC

REA

SIN

GLY

CO

NS

TR

AIN

ED

LOW

HIGH

NaturalisticNaturalistic

Study of object behavior in natural settings.Study of object behavior in natural settings. No manipulation of objects or the settings.No manipulation of objects or the settings. Bound by objectives, not hypotheses.Bound by objectives, not hypotheses. Focus can shift as situation demands.Focus can shift as situation demands. Flexible; common in early stages of Flexible; common in early stages of

knowledge acquisition, but can be the final knowledge acquisition, but can be the final stage!stage!

NaturalisticNaturalistic

Case-studyCase-study Some researcher intervention (e.g., asking Some researcher intervention (e.g., asking

questions).questions). Some flexibility to shift focus.Some flexibility to shift focus. Typically each case in the study is subject Typically each case in the study is subject

to more-or-less the same “testing.”to more-or-less the same “testing.” Multiple sources of informationMultiple sources of information Many more variables than casesMany more variables than cases

Case-study #1Case-study #1

Case-study #2Case-study #2

CorrelationalCorrelational Setting can range from natural to artificial.Setting can range from natural to artificial. Focus is on quantifying the Focus is on quantifying the relationshiprelationship

between two or more pre-selected between two or more pre-selected variablesvariables..

Each variable is measured in a precise Each variable is measured in a precise and identical way for each case (person).and identical way for each case (person).

Caffeine consumption and grades

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000

caffeine consumption

Gra

des

CorrelationalCorrelational

DifferentialDifferential

A direct comparison between two or more A direct comparison between two or more groups of subjectsgroups of subjects..

Groups are categorized on the basis of one Groups are categorized on the basis of one or more subject variables (independent or more subject variables (independent variables) that are NOT under researcher variables) that are NOT under researcher control, and that control, and that pre-exist.pre-exist.

Dependent variable/s are measured exactly Dependent variable/s are measured exactly and precisely across all groups.and precisely across all groups.

DifferentialDifferential

ExperimentalExperimental Comparisons are made under different Comparisons are made under different

and and controlledcontrolled conditions. conditions. Subjects are Subjects are assignedassigned to each type of to each type of

condition in an unbiased manner, usually condition in an unbiased manner, usually matched or random.matched or random.

Although causality can sometimes be Although causality can sometimes be inferred, results may not be applicable inferred, results may not be applicable outside of the experimental setting.outside of the experimental setting.

CONTROL TREATMENT #1

TREATMENT #2 TREATMENT #3

TIME 0: PRE-TEST

ExperimentalExperimental

CONTROLdecaffinated JOLT

COKE COFFEE

TIME 1: TREATMENT GIVEN

ExperimentalExperimental

CONTROL JOLT

COKE COFFEE

TIME 3: POST-TEST (The “RESULTS”)

ExperimentalExperimental

Are there other plausible Are there other plausible explanations?explanations?

Maybe the presence/absence of sugar was Maybe the presence/absence of sugar was responsible; or the amount of citric acid.responsible; or the amount of citric acid.

We call these We call these RIVALRIVAL hypotheses. They help hypotheses. They help explain the effects of extraneous variables on explain the effects of extraneous variables on the dependent variable.the dependent variable.

Extraneous variables are independent variables Extraneous variables are independent variables that we did NOT control. They weaken our that we did NOT control. They weaken our conclusions.conclusions.

There’s more . . .There’s more . . .

Goal/ purposeGoal/ purpose Problem StatementProblem Statement Research objectiveResearch objective QuestionsQuestions HypothesesHypotheses Operationalization & MeasurementOperationalization & Measurement Data CaptureData Capture

Increasing refinement

Some thoughts about problem Some thoughts about problem statements, goals, objectives, statements, goals, objectives,

and research hypothesesand research hypotheses Focus in on Focus in on thethe problem. problem. Show real need.Show real need. Relate research to your Relate research to your

interest/ability.interest/ability. Show scope of the Show scope of the

problem.problem. Include evidence.Include evidence. Show impact and Show impact and

benefits.benefits.

Research Goals and ObjectivesResearch Goals and Objectives

Goals are outcomes, Goals are outcomes, or end-states; or end-states; something you want something you want to be able to attain.to be able to attain.

Objectives are Objectives are milestones (steps) milestones (steps) you pass (take) on you pass (take) on the way to goals the way to goals fulfillment.fulfillment.

Goal: Goal: Determine the effects of higher Determine the effects of higher user fees on visitation rates at Hog user fees on visitation rates at Hog Heaven National Park.Heaven National Park.

Objectives:Objectives: Measure visitation under current fee structure.Measure visitation under current fee structure. Identify the user markets represented by Identify the user markets represented by

current visitors.current visitors.

and . . and . .

Objectives Objectives (continued)(continued):: Use contingent-valuation to assess potential Use contingent-valuation to assess potential

change in visitation.change in visitation. Predict which market segments are most Predict which market segments are most

likely to change under new fee regimes.likely to change under new fee regimes. Identify strategies to prevent loss of market Identify strategies to prevent loss of market

share.share.

Research questions and Research questions and hypotheseshypotheses

A A questionquestion is a is a problem or a problem or a statement that is in statement that is in need of a solution or need of a solution or answer.answer.

A A hypothesishypothesis is a is a proposed proposed answeranswer to to the research the research question.question.

Break the question down into its Break the question down into its sub-componentssub-components

Do families with young Do families with young children make more use children make more use of city parks than of city parks than families with college-families with college-aged children?aged children?

SpecificitySpecificitySimplificationSimplificationDirectionDirection

Who uses Who uses parks?parks?

VagueVague A research A research

IDEAIDEA

The sub-components of a The sub-components of a questionquestion

Do Do families with families with young childrenyoung children

make make more usemore use of of

city parkscity parks

than than families with families with college-agedcollege-aged children?children?

Who, #1Who, #1= = SUBJECTSUBJECT

What =What =CONCEPTCONCEPT

Where= Where= CONTEXTCONTEXT

Who, #2 = Who, #2 = SUBJECTSUBJECT

This gives us an idea of what we can observe or measure (what DATA we will

be collecting)

ResearchResearch Hypotheses Hypotheses

Are in declarative form.Are in declarative form. Unambiguously identify and describe a Unambiguously identify and describe a

relationship between two or more variables.relationship between two or more variables. Are empirically testable.Are empirically testable. Are NOT the same as statistical hypotheses.Are NOT the same as statistical hypotheses. Derive from literature and/or empiricism.Derive from literature and/or empiricism.

For exampleFor example

Fee increases greater than $5 per visit will Fee increases greater than $5 per visit will result in a greater than 10 percent result in a greater than 10 percent reduction in use by visitors with family reduction in use by visitors with family incomes below $25,000.incomes below $25,000.

Null Hypothesis (HNull Hypothesis (H00): There is no ): There is no

difference in impact of fees . . . .difference in impact of fees . . . .

Each goal can have one or more objective.Each goal can have one or more objective. Each objective can have one or more Each objective can have one or more

research question and hypothesis.research question and hypothesis. Each research question can have one or Each research question can have one or

more statistical hypothesis.more statistical hypothesis.

Research questions and Research questions and hypotheses are design-hypotheses are design-

specificspecific WhatWhat do people do when it snows a lot in do people do when it snows a lot in

Moscow?Moscow? WhyWhy do some people not know how to do some people not know how to

drive in the snow?drive in the snow? Is the amount of previous experience Is the amount of previous experience

driving in snow driving in snow relatedrelated to a persons to a persons enjoyment of winter conditions? enjoyment of winter conditions?

and . . and . . CSS students are more skilled snow CSS students are more skilled snow

drivers than ECB students.drivers than ECB students. A Ford Taurus with an automatic A Ford Taurus with an automatic

transmission will handle worse in snow transmission will handle worse in snow than will an identical car with a manual than will an identical car with a manual transmission (regardless of driver transmission (regardless of driver characteristics, skill level and experience). characteristics, skill level and experience).